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MECHANICS
Part 1: FORCES AND RESULTANT FORCE

Forces
A force is a pull or push. It is measured in Newton (N) and it’s a vector meaning that it has both magnitude and
direction. We can represent the details of a force using an arrow as follows;

Important: Pull or push (force) doesn’t mean

come to words or go away. So, it is not
necessary that a moving object having forces or
non-moving object not having forces. Also, it is
not necessary that a non-moving object not
having any forces at all or a moving object
having forces. There is no such direct
relationship between forces and motion.

Depending on the objects involved and the

nature of the force there are various types of
forces. A force is always applied by an abject on another object. If the contact between the objects is not necessary
then it is called a non-contact force. Eg: Gravitational force (weight), magnetic force, electrostatic force. If the
contact between the two objects is necessary then they are contact forces. Eg: Most of other forces.

Following table shows details of some important types of forces.

Name of the force When is the force Who applies the Direction of the Contact? Non
acting on the force on the force? contact?
object? object?
Magnetic force When a magnet is One magnet on Can be attractive or Non contact
near another the other repulsive
magnet
Electrostatic force When a charge is One charge on Can be attractive or Non contact
near another the other repulsive
charge
Weight (W) When the object is Earth (planet) Vertically down Non contact
(a gravitational near the earth (attractive only)
force) (planet)
Normal reaction (R) When the object Solid surface Opposite to press Contact
(normal contact) presses a solid but perpendicular to
force (broad) surface surface
Upthrust (U) When the object is Fluid (mostly Vertically up Contact.
fully or partially liquid)
inside a fluid
(mostly liquid)
Tension (T) When object is Wire Towards the wire Contact
connected to a
(stretched) wire
Friction (f) When the object Solid Surface Opposite to the Contact
slides or tries to slide
slide along a solid
surface
Drag (D) (Drag by air When the object Fluid Opposite to the Contact
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is called air moves in a fluid moving direction

resistance) (liquid or gas)

(Both friction and

drag are called
resistive forces)
Any other… (Name Depends Depends Depends Depends (mostly
as you like) contact)
Now let’s take some of the above forces in detail. That is

a) Gravitational force (and weight) b) Electrostatic force c) Friction d) Drag e) up thrust

a) Gravitational force (and weight):

Any mass can attract any other mass by a gravitational force. Around any mass there is a gravitational field of its
own. The strength at a point in this field is called gravitational field strength (gravitational intensity) ‘g’. Value of ‘g’ in
a particular planet depends on the mass that planet and the distance from the center of that planet. Bigger the mass,
higher is the ‘g’. Bigger the distance, smaller is the ‘g’. That is why the value of ‘g’ near the surface of the moon is
smaller than that of earth and that is why ‘g’ decreases when you go away from earth to the outer space. So, value
of ‘g’ depends on the place in the universe.

Eg. Near the surface of the earth the value of gravitational intensity (gravitational field strength or gravitational
acceleration) is 10N/kg (another unit for g is ms-2).

When an object is near the earth (or for that matter, near another planet, moon etc.,)that object experiences a
gravitational force which we specifically refer to as weight.

Weight

Condition : when an object is near the earth (or planet, moon etc.,)

Direction: vertically down.. Centre of gravity is the point on which the weight of the object seems to be acting.

Equations: W=mg

W- weight of the object (N) m-mass of that object (kg)

g-gravitational field strength acceleration in that place (N/ kg) or (m/s 2)

Weight Mass

It is a force It is not a force (it is a measure of inertia. Inertia is

the unwillingness of objects to accelerate. Bigger the
mass more will be the inertia)

It is a vector It is not a vector

SI unit is N SI unit is kg

It varies depending on value of ‘g’ and m. (w=mg) No effect from ‘g’ or W

Eg: A boy has a mass of 50 kg on earth. If the ‘g’ on earth surface and moon surface are 10 N/ kg and 1.6N/kg
respectively;

a) what is the weight of the boy on earth ?

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b) what is the mass and weight of the boy on the moon?

b) Electrostatic force

Electrostatic forces occur between charges. Like charges repel (+ and+ repel , - and-repel) and unlike charges attract
(+ and- attract). This is also a non contact force like gravitational and magnetic forces. That means the contact
between, the two charges is not necessary.

c) Frictional force (friction)

This occurs between two (solid) rough surfaces when they slide or even try to slide against each other. It is a contact
force. This is called a resistive force because it tries to stop the relative motion between two surfaces.

Friction depends on the surface nature (rougher the surface more will be the friction) and normal reaction (more the
normal reaction more will be the friction). But area has no effect on friction.

we can use the following apparatus to determine what factors affect friction.

Sometimes friction helps movement. So friction is favored here. Eg:

Some times friction is a hindrance for motion. So friction is not favored here. Eg:
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Friction sometimes can be a problem since it wears off moving parts such as engine parts and also generating lot of
heat. In such cases we can reduce friction by applying a lubricator so that smoothening the surface reduce the
friction. Eg:

d) Drag

Drag operates when an object is moving compared to a liquid or gas

medium. It acts opposite to the moving direction. Drug depends on
the speed. Faster the speed more will be the drag. Also larger surface
area gives greater drag. You can reduce the dray by having a stream
line shape. Eg:

Drag by air is also called air resistance.

e) Upthrust

Upthrust act on an object when it is fully or partially immersed in a liquid (or gas). (up thrust by gas/air is negligible
except for large light objects such as balloons). If is always acting vertically up wards. More you immerse the more
will be the upthrust. More the density of the liquid, more will be the upthrust.

Something will float if Upthrust is greater than weight and it will sink if Upthrust is Smaller than weight. Eg:

If weight is greater, then it starts to go down (sink) and if upthrust is greater it starts
to move up. If they are balanced it will stay there.
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How Forces Behave: Newton’s 3rd Law

Since now we know about some important forces, we’ll have a look at Newton’s third law to get a better idea about
behavior of forces.

‘Every action has an equal and opposite reaction”

What does this mean? All forces operate as pairs (Newton’s 3 rd law pairs – action and reaction forces). Any force is
applied by an object on another object.

That means if you push an object to one direction by a particular magnitude (action force), then that object will push
you to opposite direction by an equal magnitude (reaction force).

Eg: A box has a weight (gravitational force) of 50N on it.

a) Write down the pair forces associated (action and reaction) in the above case.

Answer:

Earth applies a gravitational force of 50 N vertically down on the box.

Box applies a gravitational force of 50 N vertically up on the Earth .

b) State four similarities and two differences between the Newton’s third law pair forces.

Answer: Similarities

*Have same magnitude

*Act at the same time

*Are same type of force

*Act on same line

Answer : Differences

*Act on opposite direction

*Act on two objects

Resultant force/total force/ unbalanced force /net force/ sum force [ΣF]
If forces act on same direction just add them, if they act in opposite direction then subtract them to get the
unbalanced/resultant/ total force
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What can the forces do?

Forces can

a) accelerate objects and change the momentum of objects (simply speaking they can speed up, slow down or
change the direction)

b) can provide a moment that can turn objects about a pivot

C) change the shape of object

d) do work

e) apply pressure on surfaces

We are going to learn about these in detail in various chapters that follow.

Part 2: FORCES AND ACCELERATION (FORCE AND MOTION)

Forces can accelerate object s. So, before we investigate this, we have to investigate about acceleration.
Acceleration is a quantity associated with motion. So, first we will learn about the motion and how acceleration is
related to motion. Then we can learn how force is related to acceleration, in other words, how force is related to
motion.

Motion and Acceleration

Quantities associated with motion: Suppose an object moves from A to B ;

* Vectors

Distance (d): It is length of the path. It is measured using metres (m). It’s a scalar (no direction but only a
magnitude). Distance can’t decrease during a journey. It can only increase (if moving) or remain constant (if not
moving).

Displacement (s): It is the straight-line distance from the starting position to final position. It is also the shortest
distance from start position to end position. It is also measured in metres. (m). It’s a vector. Direction is from starting
position to ending position.

Speed (w): Speed is the rate of change of distance (distance traveled per unit time).

Speed = d/ t

Its SI unit is metres per second (m/s) or (ms -1). Speed is a scalar.

Instantaneous speed is the speed at a given moment. Average speed is taken as below,

Avg. speed = total d/ total t

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Average speed and instantaneous speed are the same if the object moves with a constant speed. Otherwise they are
different.

Some other non SI units for speed include mm/ s (milimetres per second) for small speeds, km/ h (kilometers per
hour) or miles/ h (miles per hour ) usually for vehicle speeds etc.
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We can use the following relationship to interconvert the units m/s and km/ h

1 m/s = 3.6 km/ h

Eg: Convert 100 m/s to Km/ h

Eg: Convert 60 km/ h to m/ s

Eg: Convert 2 m/s to km/ h

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Velocity (v): It is the rate of change of displacement (displacement per unit time)

v = s/ t

It also has units m/ s or m s -1 like speed. Velocity is a vector and its direction is the same direction of the
displacement.

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a given moment. Average velocity is taken as below,

Avg. velocity = total s/ total t

Average velocity and instantaneous velocity are the same if the object moves with a constant velocity. Otherwise,
they are different.

We can consider velocity as speed and its direction taken together. So, velocity can change if speed changes (speed
up or slow down) or if the direction of motion changes. If the Speed or direction don’t change then velocity will not
change eg: stationary (not moving), or moving with same speed same direction (constant velocity.)

Actually there are five states of motion as below;

1) stationary

2) Constant velocity

3) speed up

4) slow down

5) changing the moving direction.

Notice that velocity doesn’t change in the first two states while velocity changes in the last three states.

Acceleration (a): It is the rate of change of velocity (change of velocity per unit time).

a = change of velocity/ t = (v-u)/ t

a-acceleration (m/ s2) v-final velocity (m/ s) u –initial velocity (m/s) t- time(s)

The SI unit of acceleration is metres per square second (m/ s2). Acceleration is also a vector and its direction is the
same as direction of velocity change. So, if an object is accelerating the velocity must be changing. We learnt earlier
that velocity change can occur in the last three states of motion.
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So, in simple acceleration is speeding up, slowing down or changing the moving direction . If an object
speeds up has a forward acceleration. If it slows down It has n backward acceleration (negative acceleration or
deceleration). If it charges the direction then acceleration is sideways (neither forward nor backward).

Acceleration direction is controlled by the resultant force (net force/ unbalanced force/total force). Both direction,
are always the same. Magnitude of acceleration is controlled by the resultant force and mass. This is clarified by
Newton in his 1st and second laws which we will learn later.[motion doesn’t affect acceleration in general but
acceleration affects motion].

Motion Graphs

A Maths note……
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Clue 1: If the graph is a distance. -time graph then when you describe the gradient, you are actually describing
about the speed and hence describing the motion. If you calculate the gradient then you are calculating the speed.

Eg: following is a distance time graph.

(a) Describe the motion

A-B : Zero gradient. Zero speed. (stationary)

B-C : constant positive gradient. Constant positive (forward) speed.

C- D: constant negative gradient. Constant negative (backwards) speed.

D-E: Decreasing negative gradient. Decreasing Speed to negative (backward) side.

E-F: Increasing positive gradient. Increasing speed to positive (forward) side.

F- G: Decreasing positive gradient. Decreasing speed to positive (forward) side.

(b) calculate the speed for the journey from 10s to 20s.

Gradient = speed = = (30-15)/ (20-10) = 15/10 = 1.5m/ s.

Clue 2: If the graph is a speed-time graph then when you describe the gradient, you are actually describing about
the acceleration and hence describing the motion. If calculate the gradient then you are calculating the
acceleration. Area under the graph is distance.

Eg: following is a speed- time graph.

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(a) Describe the motion

A-B : Zero gradient. Zero acceleration. Constant speed.

B-C : constant positive gradient. Constant positive (forward) acceleration. Speed increase.

C- D: constant negative gradient. Constant negative (backwards) acceleration. speed decreases (deceleration) .

D-E: Decreasing negative gradient. Decreasing acceleration to negative (backward) side. speed decreases
(deceleration)

E-F: Increasing positive gradient. Increasing acceleration to positive (forward) side. speed increases.

F- G: Decreasing positive gradient. Decreasing acceleration to positive (forward) side. Speed increases.

(b) calculate the acceleration for the journey from 10s to 20s.

Gradient = acceleration = = (30-15)/ (20-10) = 15/10 = 1.5m/ s2.

(c) calculate the distance traveled until 20s from the beginning of the journey

Area = distance.

A-B Part :

Area = distance = 15 x 10 = 150m

B-C part :

Area = distance = [(30+15) /2]x 10 = 22.5 x 10 = 225 m

Total distance until 20 s from start = 150+225 = 475 m.

Practically Determining Speed and Acceleration

Eg:: Investigating the motion of every day objects such as a toy car or tennis ball.

Keep the toy car (or tennis ball ) on a ramp with a particular height h as above. Measure the time taken t for the car
to more from A to B using a stopwatch. Measure the distance d between A and B using meter rule (or measuring
tape). Calculate average speed V using

V=d/ t

Repeat and get an average value.

Repeat the same for different h values. Plat a graph of V against h.

In the above manual method of measuring the time has a drawback. That is the reaction time error (it is a human
error) by the person who measures the time. Specially if the measured time is too small the reaction time error is
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significant and it gives a high percentage error. We can eliminate reaction time error by using an electronic timer
connected to a motion sensor such a timing gate/light gate as below;

If you use one timing gate (light gate) as above you can find out the instantaneous speed. You can in two light gates
connected to electronic timer as below so that we can deter mine average speed or even acceleration. If it is
connected to a computer then it calculates these values automatically and even the graphs are generated
automatically.

Force and Motion Relationship: Newton’s 1st and 2nd Laws

What is the relationship between force and motion? An initial explanation is that if there is a force, then there is a
motion and if there is no force, then there is no motion. There are some examples to show that this seems to be
true. Eg. if you push a book on a table it moves, but if you stop pushing it then it stops. But there are examples that
do not agree to this. Eg. if you push a heavy table with a little force then it does not move. Furthermore, a football
moves in the air without any force. So, this simple relationship seems to be not correct.

The real relationship is between resultant force and acceleration. This relationship between force and motion was
given by Newton in his 1st and 2nd laws. In his first law he gave a qualitative clarification and a more complete and
quantitative clarification was given in his second law. So, let’s have a look at Newton’s first and second laws of
motion.

Newton’s 1st (law of inertia) Law:

“Unless there is a resultant force, an object would remain stationary or move with a constant speed in a straight line
(move with a constant velocity)

What does this mean? Moving with a constant speed in a straight line means it is moving with constant velocity. That
means it is zero acceleration. Stationary object also means zero acceleration. So, in simple this means if there is no
resultant force there will be no acceleration. On the other hand, if there is a resultant force then there will be an
acceleration (the direction of resultant force and acceleration both are always the same).

So, in simple, If forces give a resultant force (net force) only the object will accelerate to the direction of the
resultant force. If the forces don’t give a resultant force, it will not accelerate.
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Newton’s first law is a qualitative law since it does not give any quantitative expression (equation) between resultant
force and acceleration. Furthermore, this law indicates the unwillingness of masses to change their state of motion
or the unwillingness to accelerate. This unwillingness of masses to change their state of motion is called inertia.
Inertia indicates a property of mass. Bigger the mass more is its inertia. So, a better definition of mass is that mass is
a measure of inertia.

Newton’s first law is incomplete. It tells that if there is no resultant force then there is no acceleration and if there is
a resultant force then there is an acceleration. But it doesn’t tell us a way to find out the magnitude of that
acceleration. To fill this gap, Newton introduced the 2nd law. So, Newton’s second law is a more complete law.

Newton’s second law:

One way of expressing Newton’s Second law is as follows;

“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to
its mass. (The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the resultant force).”

a α ΣF

a α 1/m

ΣF=ma ΣF = resultant force on the object (N) m= mass of the object (kg)

a= acceleration of the object (ms-2)

So, in simple, forces control the resultant force. Resultant force controls the direction of acceleration. Resultant
force and mass control magnitude (amount) of the acieration. Acceleration controls the motion. (Eg: If there is no
acceleration then it can be either stationary or constant velocity. If there is an acceleration it may speed up, slow
down or change the moving direction). This is how forces control the motion!!

Eg: Following diagram shows the forces on a ball with a mass of 10 kg.

Find out the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration.

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Study of three example of a motion:

Example one: A slowing down motion - stopping a moving vehicle by applying brakes

Stopping distance: the distance franked by the vehicle from the moment the driver detects the danger and to the
moment the vehicle stops. Stopping distance consists of two parts;

a) Thinking distance: Distance moved by the vehicle from the moment the driver detects the danger to the moment
the driver applies brakes. In other words, it is the distance handled by the vehicle during driver’s reaction time.
Thinking distance depends on,

-speed of vehicle (faster the speed longer is the thinking distance)

-driver’s conditions such as whether he is drunken, sleepy, having less attention etc. (If he is drunken, sleepy, less
attentive then longer is the thinking distance).

b) braking distance: Distance traveled by the vehicle from the moment the driver applies brakes to the moment the
vehicle stops. It depends on,

- speed of vehicle (faster the speed longer is the braking distance)

-conditions of brakes and tires (eg: whether worn out. If worn out longer will be the braking distance)

-condition of the road (eg: whether slippery etc. If slippery longer will be the braking distance.)

-mass of the vehicle (eg: heavier vehicles need a larger force to stop)

Longer the stopping distance lesser will be the chance of preventing the accident.

Example Two: A speeding Up Motion - An object falling down

First, let’s investigate an object falling down in a vacuum.

Only force on the object will be weight (gravitational force). There are no other forces such as air resistance in a
vacuum.

Something falling down under gravity (weight) is called freefall. Eg: something falling in a vacuum. Here it will
continue to speed up for ever with an acceleration equal to the value of ‘g’ (gravitational field strength) of that
planet. So we can also call ‘g’ as gravitational acceleration (free fall acceleration) . Value of ‘ g’ depends on the
planet. Eg: earth surface’s g = 10 m /s2. That means every second the speed will increase by 10m/s. If it goes up the
speed will decrease by 10m /s every second. What ever the object it doesn’t matter here. All of them will have the
same motion.
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We can show this in a velocity time graph as below,

If we throw the object up, it will slowdown and reach a maximum height and then come down and speed up. In both
cases a = g (down wards). On earth g =10m/ s2. Eg:

Now let’s investigate an object falling down in air.

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Here, at the start, weight is the only force, so resultant force is downwards equal to weight, so acceleration is
downwards equal to g. So, it will move down and speed up downwards.

When it moves down, air resistance acts up and air resistance increases with the speed until it becomes equal to
weight. At that moment, forces are balanced (weight = air resistance) So, resultant force and hence acceleration
decrease becomes zero. So, it will go down with a constant velocity from that point onwards. That final constant
velocity is called terminal velocity. Terminal velocity depends on the object. Eg:

Iron ball compared to a feather has a greater

density and weight. So it takes a longer time for
air resistance to cancel the weight compared to
the feather. Since it accelerates until then, iron
ball will reach a larger terminal velocity.

If a parachute jumps from the air-plane he

will reach a terminal velocity before opening
the parachute. Once he opens the parachute,
he will slow down due to large air resistance
and then he will reach a new small terminal
velocity which is safer to land.

Example Three: Changing the Direction - Circular Motion

Suppose a ball attached to a wire is rotated by a student in a horizontal circular path a s below;

Here, even though the ball is moving with the same speed, since its
direction is changing, the ball must be accelerating. The direction of
this acceleration is always acting towards the centre of the circular
path. So, we call it centripetal acceleration.

According to Newton’s 1st law this acceleration must be caused by a

resultant force that also acts towards the centre of the circular path.
So, we call it centripetal force. Since, the centripetal force is a
resultant force, it must be provided by one or more forces. In this
particular example, the tension in the wire provides the centripetal
force required.
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Following are some other examples where different forces provide the centripetal force required.

Eg 1: Moon (or satellite) going around the earth is caused by gravitational force that provides the centripetal force
required for circular motion.

Eg 2: A vehicle taking a bend is caused by frictional force that provides the centripetal force required for circular
motion.

Eg 3: An electron going around the nucleus is caused by electrostatic force that provides the centripetal force
required for circular motion.

The direction of the speed of the object at any given moment is acting along the tangent of the circular path. So, we
call it tangential speed. What will happen if the centripetal force vanishes suddenly when the object is undergoing
the circular motion? Then the object will go straight along the direction of the speed at that moment. For instance,

Summary of Equations: Force and Motion

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Part 3 : FORCE AND CHANGE OF SHAPE (DEFORMATION)

Another thing that the forces can do is change of shape (deformation) of objects.

Eg: when you hang a load (weight/force) on a spring the spring will stretch.

The load supplies a tensile force on the

spring which makes the spring to stretch.
The increased length is called extension
(x). It is the difference between the
stretching length (L2) and original
(unstretched) length (L1).

X = L2 –L 1

When you increase the load extension

will increase.

Using this apparatus, you can increase the

load and find the respective extension for
many values of loads and plot a load
extension graph as below,

Following are the points and regions in

the graph ;

A- proportionality limit (limit of

proportionality):

Up to this point only, the graph is a

straight line going through the origin.
That means up to that point the
extension is proportional to the force.

This is expressed as Hooke ‘s law as

below;
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“up to the limit of proportionality the extension is proportional to the tensile force”

FαX

F=kx (k is called spring constant /stiffness of the spring which is a constant for a particular spring)

So, the spring obeys the Hooke’s law only up to the limit of proportionality (if it obeys Hooke’s law). That region (0 –
A) is called proportionality region.

So, if it obeys the Hooke’s law, the force

extension graph should have a straight-line
going through the origin and if it is a force.
Length graph then it will be a straight the
not going through the origin as given
below;

But some material like rubber do not obey the Hooke ‘s law at all. That means
they don’t have a straight line going through the origin part.

Eg: Rubber

B- Elastic limit:

Up to this point only the shape change is elastic (elastic

deformation). That means shape change is temporary. That
means anytime you remove the force the spring returns to its
original shape. So, that region (0-B) is called elastic region.

Beyond elastic region, plastic deformation occurs. That means

shape change is permanent and when you remove the force it
will not return to original shape. So the region (B-C), is called
plastic region.

D- ultimate tensile strength

It is the maximum load (force) it can bear before it brakes. If a force more that that value is applied, then the Spring
will break.

C- Breaking Point:

At this maximum extension level the spring (wire) will break.

Elastic potential energy (elastic strain energy) is the energy stored in a material due to its shape change
(deformation). Area under the force extension graph gives the value of elastic potential energy involved.

Part 4 : FORCE AND MOMENT (FORCE AND TURNING EFFECT)

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Moment of a force about a pivot

Another thing that a force can do is they can turn an object about a pivot. A pivot is a point or axis around (about)
which the object might turn. It can be any point of concern for the object depending on the situation. So here we are
going to investigate the turning effect of forces.
M=Fd M-moment (torque) of force F about a selected pivot (Nm) F-force of concern
(N)
d – perpendicular distance between the line of action the force and the pivot (m)
Note : Remember that always the F and d are perpendicular to each other.

What is the usefulness of moment?

Using moment, we can evaluate the turning effect. How?
Moment of a force about (around) a pivot has a direction which can be either clockwise or anticlockwise. We can
calculate moments of each and every force about a particular selected pivot. Then we can calculate the net moment.
It is the difference between the total clockwise and anticlockwise moments.
Question : Look at the following rod and the forces acting on it.

a) Calculate the moment of each force about pivot P.

b) What is the net (total) moment of all the forces about pivot P?

c) Will the rod start to rotate about pivot P and if so, in which direction?

Answer:

a)Moment of 2N; M=Fd = 2x3 = 6Nm (Anticlockwise)

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Moment of 5N; M=Fd= 5x0 = 0Nm

Moment of 10N; M=Fd= 10x4= 40Nm (Clockwise)

Moment of 4N; M=Fd= 4cos90x14 = 0

b) Net Moment = clockwise moments – anticlockwise moments = 40 – 6 = 34Nm clockwise.

c) The rod will start to turn about pivot P clockwise since there is a net clockwise moment about pivot P

OBJECTS IN EQUILIBRIUM

When an object is in equilibrium;

a) There is no acceleration and hence forces are balanced. That means;

Total force on one direction = total force on opposite direction

b) Since it is not rotating (turning) about any pivot (rotational equilibrium) the net moment about any pivot is zero
according to ‘principle of moments’. That means about any selected pivot;

Total Clockwise Moments = Total Anticlockwise Moments

Important Clue for Moment Calculations: A Routine of Doing moment calculations:

1) Draw the free body diagram (force diagram)(if not given)
2) Mark distances in the diagram (if not marked)
3) Select the pivot (be wise in selecting a good pivot)
4) Find the moments of each force about that pivot and give direction as clockwise or anticlockwise
5) Either a) If the object is in equilibrium, then total CW = total ACW moments
Or b) check the net moment to predict whether it is going to rotate about the pivot (eg. If no net moment then no
rotation and vice versa)
6) If required repeat same thing to one or more other selected pivots
Eg: 1 ) If the rod below is in equilibrium, then;

a) mark the forces acting on the rod

b) find the value of X

c) find the value of normal reaction ( R)

on the rod

Answers:
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Eg 2) following diagram shows forces acting on a beam.

Find out the values of R1 and R 2

Answers ;
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Eg 3) Suppose there is a rock on the rod are as follows

Evaluate what will happen to R1and R 2 when the F1 weight is moved to the left side (towards R1)
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An experiment to demonstrate that the principle of moments is correct

The Metre rule with negligible weight is hung by two Newton meters as above and a weight, w is hung to it. For
different values of x and y find out the respective values of F1 and F 2 when the ruler is balanced.
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If principle of moments is correct, for the given pivot, p,

Total CW moments = total ACW moments

F1 X = F2Y

For each set of data check whether this relationship comes. If so, the principle of moments is obeyed.

Centre of Mass and Centre of Gravity

Centre of mass is the point where mass of the object Seems to be concentrated to. Centre of gravity is the point
where the weight of the object seems to be acting on. Both these points are the same in normal situations.

Centre of gravity of uniform symmetrical object is centre of symmetry of that object.

Eg:

Centre of gravity in asymmetrical objects will be mire towards the heavier side from the centre

We can find out the centre of gravity experimentally as follows;

(a) If it is a uniform object such as a ruler then we can balance it on a pivot. The balancing point is the centre of
gravity.
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(b) If it is an asymmetrical lamina (sheet) then we can flow the below method;

Stability of objects

A stable object is more difficult to topple. Stability increases if

a) the base is greater

b) the centre of gravity is closer to the base

Eg:

Part 5 : FORCE AND MOMENTUM

Part A: Momentum (p)

Another thing that the forces can do is that they can change the momentum of objects. So, before we do that lets
see what is momentum.
Following is the equation for momentum
p = mv
p– momentum of the object (kgm/s)*
m– mass of that object (kg)
v- velocity of that object (m/s)*
*Vectors (have magnitude and direction both)
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Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (that is momentum is mass into velocity). It’s a vector and direction
is the same as the direction of velocity. So, during momentum calculations, the directions must be taken into
account.

Eg: A ball has a mass of 2kg and it moves with a velocity of 10 m/s to the right side. After some time the ball gets a
velocity of 6 m/s to the left side.

(a) what is the initial momentum of the ball?

(b) what is the final momentum of the ball?

(c) What is the change in momentum of the ball ?

Part B: Momentum and Resultant Force

Relationship between Momentum and acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. So, if object accelerates then its velocity must change. If the velocity is
changing then mass x velocity produced must also be changing. Since mass x velocity is momentum then its
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momentum must be changing. So finally, we can tell that if an object is accelerating its momentum must be
changing.

In a previous chapter we learnt that a resultant force is the one that can cause an object to accelerate. Since
acceleration involves change in momentum then we can tell that a resultant force can cause the momentum of an
object to change. So telling that a resultant force causing an object to accelerate is the same as telling that a
resultant force causes the momentum of an object to change. This idea is given in Newton’s second law. So,
Newton’s second law is expressed in two ways. In one way as we did in a previous chapter it given the link between
resultant force and acceleration. In another way as we discuss in this chapter it can give the link between resultant
force and momentum.

Relationship between Momentum and Resultant Force – Newton’s Second Law (in another form)

Previously we learnt that Newton’s second states that acceleration is proportional to resultant force and inversely
proportional to mass. As a result of that law we get the following equation;

∑F = ma

Another way that we can introduce Newton’ s seconds law is as follows;

“Resultant force acting on an object is proportional to the rate of change of momentum of that object “From this
version of Newton’s second law we get the following equation.

∑F = change in p/ t = (p final- p initial)/ t

F – resultant force (N)* m – mass of object (kg) Pi - initial momentum (kgms-1)*

Pf – final momentum (kgms-1)* t – time taken for momentum (velocity) to change (s)
∆P – Change of momentum (impulse) (kgms-1)* ∆p /t- rate of Change of momentum (N) *
* Vectors
Condition to apply the above equation : Momentum (p) of a single object is changing with time (t) due to a resultant
force (∑F) on it.
Eg: A ball has a mass of 2kg and it moves with a velocity of 10 m/s to the right side. After 4 s the ball gets a velocity
of 6 m/s to the left side.

(a) what is the initial momentum of the ball?

(b) what is the final momentum of the ball?

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(c) What is the change in momentum of the ball?

(d) what is the rate of change of momentum of the ball?

(e) What is the resultant force on the ball?

Eg: A trolley of 10 kg is moving up with a velocity of 2m/ s. After 6 s the trolley is moving up with a velocity of 4 m/ s.
What is the resultant force acting on the trolley?
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Part C : Collisions and Explosions

Two or more objects collide (hit) each other during a collision. At least one of them should me moving before
collision.
Following are some examples of collisions……

Two or more objects are intact at the start and suddenly they go apart during an explosion.
Following are some of explosions…..
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Principle of Conservation of Momentum

“Provided there are no external forces, the total momentum of the system is not changed during collision (or
explosion)” . That means: If there are no external forces,
Total Momentum Before Collision (or Explosion) = Total Momentum After Collision (or Explosion)
Eg: A trolley of 2kg moving to the right with a velocity of 4 m/s collides with another trolley identical which is
stationary and after collision they both move together. What is their velocity and direction after collision.

Eg: A ball of 2k g moving to the right with a velocity of 10 m/s collides with a ball of 4 kg which is moving to the left
with 6 m/s.After collision the 2 kg ball stops and what is the velocity of 4 kg ball often collision?
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Elastic Collision
In an elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. That means two equations are valid as
below ;
Total P before collision =Total p after collision
Total KE before collision=total KE after collision
For an inelastic collision KE is not conserved but momentum may be conserved depending on the fact whether there
are external forces.

Part 6 : Force and Pressure

Another thing that the forces can do is that they can apply a pressure on an area.

Pressure (P)
Pressure is force per unit area.

P = F/A

P-Pressure (N/ m 2 ) or (Pa- Pascal)

F –force (N)

A – area (m2)

(a) Pressure under a solid object

If an object is on a surface (eg: floor) then the force is the weight of the object and area is the contact area between
the object and the surface (floor).

Eg: A man has a mass of 60 kg and is standing on the floor. His contact area of both the feet with the floor is 0.01 m 2.

(i) what is his weight?

(ii) what is the pressure applied by him on the floor.?

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(iii) If he stands in only one foot explain what will happen to the pressure by him on the floor.

(iv) If you put a heavy bag on him while standing with one foot explain what will happen to the pressure by him on
the floor.

If you want penetrate (sink into) a surface then it’s easy if you increase the pressure. This can be done by having a
small surface area.

Eg:

On the other hand to avoid penetration (sinking in) to the surface pressure is decreased by having a large surface
area.

Eg:
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(b) Pressure by a liquid

Following are some feature of pressure by a liquid.

(i) It acts in all directions

(ii) pressure increases with depth

(ii) pressure is the same at the Same depth

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(iv) Pressure by a liquid at a given place in the liquid-depends on;

- depth to that place (h): more the depth more will be the pressure

-density (ƿ) of the liquid : more the density, more will be the pressure

-gravitational field strength (g): g depends on the planet. More the g, more will be the pressure

So, we can use the below equation to calculate the pressure, p by a liquid at a depth, h.

P = hƿg

P-pressure by the liquid at h depth (Pa)

h- vertical depth (m)

ƿ- density of the liquid (kg/ m3)

We can prove this equation as follows;

We can thing that there is a liquid column over the area A and the weight, w of the liquid column gives the force, F
on the area, A to give the pressure, P.

(c) pressure by gases

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A gas occupies the full volume of the container. Due to the movement of gas particles and due to them colliding with
the wall of the container the gas applier a pressure on the wall of its container.

Following are some features of pressure by a gas.

(i) like in the case of liquids, gas pressure also acts on all directions.

(ii) Pressure through out the gas container is the same

(iii) Pressure by a gas depends on;

-type of gas (molar mass of the gas)

-mass, m of gas

-volume, V of gas

-temperature, T of gas

(How these factors affect the pressure will studied in the next chapter).

Atmospheric Pressure, Barometer and Manometer

Air in the atmosphere applies a pressure called atmospheric pressure. It will decrease when you go to higher altitude
(height). So highest atmospheric pressure is at sea level.

We can measure atmospheric pressure using a barometer as follows;

Atmospheric pressure, p can be given by

P= hƿg

P-atmospheric pressure (Pa)

h- height between the two levels (m)

g- gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Eg:
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A manometer is used to measure the pressure difference between its two ends as folows;
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