ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES

Density Index, ID
The most important index aggregate property of a cohesionless soil is its relative density. The
engineering properties of a mass of cohesionless soil depend to a large extent on its relative density
(Dr), also known as density index (ID). The relative density is defined as:

where emax = maximum void ratio of the soil in the loosest condition.
emin = minimum void ratio of the soil in the densest condition.
e = void ratio in the natural state.
This indicates the relative compactness of the soil mass. In a dense condition, the void ratio is low
(ID ≈ unity), whereas in loose condition, the void ratio is high (ID ≈ zero).
It can be understood that ID = f(e), and the relation may be expressed graphically as;

It may be seen that tan θ = 1/(emax – emin) therefore cot θ = (emax – emin)
For any intermediate value eo, (emax – eo) = [Link] θ
Solving for ID = (emax – eo)/(emax – emin)
Depending upon the texture, two sands with the same void ratio may display different abilities for
densification; hence ID gives a better idea of the unit weight than the void ratio itself.
The relative density of a soil indicates how it would behave under loads. If the deposit is dense, it
can take heavy loads with very little settlements. Depending upon the relative density, the soils are
generally divided into 5 categories:

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
Soil description includes the details of both material and mass characteristics. Soil classification
on the other hand is the allocation of a soil to a limited number of groups on the basis of material
characteristics only, viz: - particle size distribution and plasticity. Soil classification is therefore
independent of the in-situ mass condition of the soil mass. It is unlikely that any two soils will have
the same description, while they could have the same classification.
In some engineering processes the description and classification are useful. Such engineering
processes include foundations and seepage. However, in other cases the classification is by the far
the most important. Such processes include embankment construction where classification of
material is key factor in choice and construction process. It is essential that a standard language be
used in description and classification of soils. A comprehensive description should include the
characteristics of both soil material and in situ soil mass.
For a soil classification system to be useful to the geotechnical engineers, it should have the
following basic requirements:
 It should have a limited number of groups.
 It should be based on the engineering properties which are most relevant for the purpose
for which the classification has been made.
 It should be simple and should use the terms which arc easily understood.
Most of the classification systems developed satisfy the above requirements.
Material characteristics can be determined from disturbed samples of soil, i.e. samples having
the same particle size distribution as the in-situ soil but whose in situ structure has been altered.
The principal material characteristics are particle size distribution (or grading) and plasticity.
Secondary material characteristics are colour of the soil, shape, texture and composition of the
particles.
Mass characteristics are best determined in the field but can also be determined in the laboratory
when undisturbed samples are available. Mass characteristics include firmness, strength, details of
any bedding, discontinuities and weathering. The arrangement of minor geological details referred
to as macro-fabric should be carefully described as this can influence the engineering behaviour of
in situ soil considerably. Such macro-fabric features are thin layers of fine sand and silt in a clay
strata, silt filled fissures in clay, small lenses of clay in sand, organic intrusions and root holes etc.

SOIL DESCRIPTION
A detailed description of the method of describing soils is contained in BS 5930. The basic soils
are boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Often soils appear in mixtures and are referred
to composite types.
In accordance to BS 5930, a soil is of basic type sand or gravel (coarse soil), if after removal of
boulders and cobbles, over 65% of the material is in the sand and gravel range. A soil is of basic
type silt or clay (fine grained soil) when over 35% of the soil is in the silt and clay range. Composite
soils are named as described in Table 1.
Mixtures containing over 50% boulders and cobbles are referred to as very coarse soils. The
descriptions may be of the form COBBLES with finer material or gravelly SAND with occasional

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
cobbly BOULDERS. The firmness or strength of the soil in the field can be assessed by means of
tests shown on Table 2.
Table 1: Soil description terminology
Soil group Soil description Indicative particle size distribution
Slightly sandy GRAVEL Up to 5% sand
Sandy GRAVEL 5-20% sand
Very sandy GRAVEL Over 20% sand
GRAVEL/SAND About equal proportions
Very gravelly SAND Over 20% gravel
Gravelly SAND 5-20% gravel
COARSE
Slightly gravelly SAND Up to 5% gravel
SOILS
Slightly silty SAND (or GRAVEL) Up to 5% silt
Silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% silt
Very silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% silt
Slightly clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) Up to 5% clay
Clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% Clay
Very clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% Clay

FINE Sandy SILT (or CLAY) 35-65% Sand

SOILS Gravelly SILT (or CLAY) 35-65% Gravel

Table 2: Field identification tests

Soil type Term Field test
Sands and Loose Can be excavated by spade. A 50-mm wooden peg can be easily
Gravels driven
Dense Requires a pick to excavate. 50 mm wooden peg difficult to drive
Slightly cemented Visual examination. Pick removes lumps
Silts Soft or loose Easily molded or crushed in the fingers
Firm or dense Can be molded or crushed by strong pressure in fingers
Clays Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in the hand
Soft Molded by light finger pressure
Firm Can be molded by strong finger pressure
Stiff Cannot be molded by fingers
Very stiff Cannot be indented by thumb nails
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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES

Organic & Firm Fibers already compressed together

Peat
Spongy plastic Very compressible and open structure. Can be molded by fingers
and smears fingers

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Purpose of Soil classification
A soil classification system is an arrangement of different soils into soil groups having the similar
properties. The purpose of soil classification is to make possible the estimation of soil properties
by association with soils of the same class whose properties are known. Thus with consistent soil
classification it is possible to;
1. Use data of others in predicting foundation performance.
2. Build the geotechnical engineers data base for application of design.
3. Maintain a permanent record which can be easily understood by others should problems
develop later.
There are several methods of soil classification. Two such methods in use by engineers in Kenya
are described below:
(A) BRITISH SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The British soil classification system is based on the particle size distribution and the plasticity as
plotted on a plasticity chart. The plasticity chart is a plot of the soil PI against LL.
In the British soil classification any cobbles and boulders retained on 63mm BS Sieve Size are
removed from the soil before the classification. The percentage of this very coarse portion is
determined and mentioned in the report. The soil groups in the classification are noted by the group
symbols composed of main and qualifying descriptive letters having the meaning shown on Table.

Table 3: Soils descriptive terms

Main terms Qualifying terms

GRAVEL G Well graded W

SAND S Poorly graded P
Uniform Pu
Gap graded Pg
FINE SOIL, F Of low plasticity (LL<35) L
FINES SILT (M M Of intermediate plasticity (LL 35-50) I
SOIL) CLAY C Of high plasticity (LL 50-70) H
Of very high plasticity (LL 70-90) V
Of extremely high plasticity E
Of upper plasticity range (LL<35) U

Organic (may be a suffix to any group O

Peat Pt

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
The letter describing the dominant group is placed first in the group symbol. When the group has
significant organic content the suffix O is added as the last letter. The above is illustrated below in
the description of sand, clay and silt samples.
SW – well graded SAND
SCL – very clayey SAND (the clay in the sample is of low plasticity)
CIS – sandy CLAY of intermediate plasticity
MHSO – organic sandy SILT of high plasticity

The fine-grained soils are represented by a point on the plasticity chart. The plasticity chart is
divided into a low plasticity (LL<35) and upper (U) plasticity zones (LL>35). The upper plasticity
zones are subdivided into Intermediate plasticity (LL 35-50), High plasticity (LL 50-70), very high
plasticity (LL 70-90) and extremely high plasticity (LL >90). Figure below shows the plasticity
chart as used in the British soil classification.

Figure 1: Plasticity Chart (BS 5930: 1981)

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System (Table
4), and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation.
Table 4: British soil classification system
Soil Group Group Subgroup Recommended name
Symbol Symbol
Coarse Soils Fines %
GRAVEL G GW 0-5 Well-graded GRAVEL
GPu/ GPg 0-5 Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL
G-F GWM/GWC 5-15 Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
GPM/GPC 5-15 Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
GF GML 15-35 Very silty GRAVEL
GCL 15-35 Very clayey GRAVEL
SAND S SW 0-5 Well-Graded SAND
SPu/ GPg 0-5 Uniform / poorly-graded SAND
S-F SWM/SWC 5-15 Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
SPM/SPC 5-15 Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND
SF SML 15-35 Very silty SAND
SCL 15-35 Very clayey SAND
Fine soils >35% Fines Liquid Limit %

SILT M MG Gravelly SILT

MS Sand SILT
CLAY C CG Gravelly SILT
CS Sandy SILT
CL <35 CLAY of low plasticity
CI 35 – 50 CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH 50 – 70 CLAY of high plasticity
CV 70 - 90 CLAY of very high plasticity
CE >90 CLAY of extremely high plasticity
Organic soils O [Add letter ‘O’ to group symbol when
organic matter is present]
Peat Pt [Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES

(B) UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

It is based on the particle size distribution and the plasticity as plotted on a plasticity chart. The
plasticity chart is a plot of the soil PI against LL. The main difference with the British soil
classification is that the detail in the unified classification is reduced. In effect the classification is
simplified. Thus, the separation of the coarse and the fine-grained soils is basically determined on
the 50% percentage fraction instead of the 35 and 65% used in the British classification system. In
addition, the division of the plasticity chart is limited to the 50% value for the lower and the higher
plasticity for the purposes of classifying the fine-grained soils. The system is based on both grain
size and plasticity characteristics of soils. In this system soils are broadly divided into three
divisions;
1. Course-grained soils – if more than 50% by weight is retained on No. 200 ASTM sieves
(American Society for Testing Materials)
2. Fine-grained soils – if more than 50% by weight passes through No. 200 ASTM sieve
3. Organic soils
The soil components are assigned major group symbols and modifiers as indicated below;
Major symbols:
Coarse-grained soils:
 Gravel: G
 Sand: S
Fine grained soils:
 Silt: M (Symbol M is derived from the Swedish word ‘Mo’ for Silt)
 Clay: C
 Organic soil: O
 Peat Pt
Modifiers:
 W - Well graded (for gravel and sand)
 P - Poorly graded (for gravel and sand)
 H - High plasticity (for silt, clay, and organic soils)
 L - Low plasticity (for silt, clay, and organic soils)

No. 200 sieve is of aperture size 0.075 mm

No. 4 sieve is of aperture size 4.75 mm

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES

Figure 2: Particle size distribution curve defining of F200, R200, F40, F4, and R4.
From figure 2, the coefficient of uniformity Cu (= D60/D10) and the coefficient of gradation Cg (=
(D30)2/ (D60 × D10)) are calculated. Based on these values, the classification procedure is
summarized in a flow chart (figure 3) or table 5 as shown below. The chart starts from F200
information as far left in the following steps.
For G or S
1. If F200 < 50% (or R200 ≥ 50%, i.e., gravel and sand content is more than 50%), then soil is
G or S.
2. Then, if R4 ≥ ½F200 (gravel content ≥ sand content), it is G, or if R4 < ½F200 (gravel content
< sand content), it is S.
3. In the next step, F200 (fine content) is checked for G and S. If F200 < 5%, naming fine content
is ignored and soils will be GW, GP, SW, or SP. If F200 > 12%, soils will be GM, GC, SM,
or SC. When 5% ≤ F200 ≤ 12%, double naming comes in as GW–GM, GW–GC, GP–GM,
and GP–GC for gravel or SW–SM, SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–SC for sand. In such double
naming cases, modifier M or C is determined based on a plasticity chart for F40 materials.
4. In the final step for gravel and sand, Cu and Cg values are evaluated for modifiers W or P.
For gravel, Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cg ≤ 3 are conditions for W and the other values of those are for
P. For sand, the condition for W is Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cg ≤ 3 and the other values are for P.
5. For GW and GP soils, if percentage of sand content is at or more than 15%, it is named as
GW (or GP) with sand.
6. Similarly, for SW and SP soils, if percentage of gravel content is at or more than 15%, it is
named as SW (or SP) with gravel.
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For C, M, O, or Pt
1. Going back to the F200 value in Figure 4.2, if F200 ≥ 50% (i.e., fine contents are at or more
than 50%), then soil is either M or C (or possibly O or Pt).
2. To classify M or C, plasticity chart is used. It utilizes LL and PI (= LL − PL) values. LL
and PL tests should be performed on the F40 specimen (soil passed No. 40 sieve—0.425
mm), and the LL and PI data point of the soil tested is plotted on the plasticity chart to
identify soil type (CH, CL, MH, ML, or CL-ML) by the zone on which the data point falls.
3. On the plasticity chart, most natural soils fall below the “U” line and around the “A” line
or CL–ML zone. It should be noted that LL = 50 is the boundary LL for high-plastic (LL >
50) or low-plastic (LL < 50) soils.
4. The M or C classification method by the plasticity chart is also used in subgroup names in
gravel and sand category soils with their fine contents between 5% and 12%. These are
GM, GC, SM, SC, and dual named soils GW–GM, GW–GC, GP–GM, and GP–GC for
gravel or SW–SM, SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–SC for sand. Note that, for those gravels and
sands, only the F40 specimen is used for LL and PL tests as mentioned before.
5. Pt (peat) should be identified by its color, odor, spongy feeling, and, frequently, by its
fibrous texture by testing engineers. O (organic soil) can be identified by observing the
change in LL values from natural soil to oven-dried (burns some organic) soil. If LL (oven
dried)/LL (natural) is <0.75, it is classified as O. If the ratio is ≥0.75, it is non-organic.

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Figure 3: Flow chart for USCS.

Figure 4: Unified classification system plasticity chart

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
Table 5: Unified Soil Classification System
Major Divisions Typical names Group Fines
Symbol %
Coarse grained Gravels Well graded gravels, sandy gravels with GW 0-5
soils (more than 50% little or no fines
(more than 50% of coarse
Poorly graded gravels, sandy gravels with GP 0-5
larger than fraction of
little or no fines
63µBS or No gravel size)
200US sieve size) Silty gravels, silty sandy gravels GM >12
Clayey gravels, clayey sandy gravels GC >12
Sands Well graded sands, gravelly sands with SW 0-5
(more than 50% little or no fines
of coarse
Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands with SP 0-5
fraction of sand
little or no fines
size)
Silty sands, SM >12
Clayey sands SC >12
Fine grained soils Silts and clays Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands ML
(more than 50% (liquid limit less with slight plasticity
smaller than than 50%)
Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands CL
63µBS or No
of low plasticity
200US sieve size)
Organic silts, silty or clayey fine sands of OL
low plasticity
Silts and clays Inorganic silts of high plasticity MH
(liquid limit
Inorganic clays of high plasticity CH
greater than
50%) Organic clays of high plasticity OH

Highly organic soils Peat and highly organic soils Pt

C) AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The AASHTO classification system which is given in Table 5.1 is classify the soil into General
classification and Group classification which is consist of seven major groups: A-1 through A-
7 then the major groups divided in to subgroups. The AASHTO method uses Atterberg limits
(LL and PL), and information on grain size distribution curve (F10, F40, and F200), which are the
percentage passing on No. 10 sieve, No. 40 sieve, and No. 200 sieve, respectively.

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General classification:
Can be categorized according to the percentage passing the dominated sieve (No. 200)
 Granular Materials if (35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
 Silt-Clay Materials if (more than 35% of total sample passing No. 200)
Group classification:
 Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials
 Soils classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, & A-7 are Silt-Clay Materials
This classification system is based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size:
 Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve.
 Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200 (0.075-
mm) U.S. sieve.
 Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve.
2. Plasticity:
 The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10 or
less.
 The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from the
portion of the soil sample which classification is made.
According to the present form of this system, soils can be classified according to eight major groups
as shown in figure 5, A-1 through A-8, based on their grain size distribution, liquid limit, and
plasticity indices. Soils listed in groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are coarse-grained materials, and those
in groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 are fine-grained materials. Peat, muck, and other highly organic
soils are classified under A-8. They are identified by visual inspection.

Figure 6: Classification of Highway subgrade materials

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ECE 2303: SOIL MECHANICS I LECTURE NOTES
To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also incorporate a
number called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil. Group index of a
soil depends on amount of material passing 75 micron IS sieve, liquid limit, and plastic limit.
GI = (F200 − 35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)] + 0.01(F200 − 15) (PI − 10)....... (Equation 1).
There are some rules in Equation (1):
1. When GI is calculated as negative values, report GI = 0.
2. GI is reported in rounded integer numbers. For example, GI = 4.4 should be reported as 4
and GI = 4.5 should be reported as 5.
3. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always
0.
4. For A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, use only the second term of Equation (1) and assign the
first term always as zero, that is, GI = 0.01(F200 − 15)(PI − 10) .................. (Equation 2).
The standard says that under average conditions of good drainage and thorough compaction
processes, the supporting value of a material as subgrade may be assumed as an inverse ratio to the
group index; that is, a group index of 0 indicates a “good” subgrade material and a group index of
20 or greater indicates a “very poor” subgrade material.
Figure 6 shows a plot of the range of the liquid limit and the plasticity index for soils that fall into
groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.

Figure 6: Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and
A-7

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Figure 7: Typical road pavement systems

Example:
The sieve analysis and plasticity data for two soils are given in the table below. Classify soils
according to the AASHTO soil classification system.

Shortcomings of the classification systems

The classification systems are based on the properties of the grains and their remolded properties.
They do not consider the properties of the materials in situ. Yet it is the intact nature of soils in the
field that determine the behavior of the soil during and after construction. The foundation engineer
should therefore take recognition of the description of soil described above. It is also important to
have basic understanding of the geology of the soil to have a complete description and
understanding of the soil under study.

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