clanedson

. Pasdid S eaiiesloy
2. dai t n

065
AAS 0 O.425

Gs Ms Fs s Coll

A
S-2515.1. 3s
S -351. o. 3 551
51. list
S
2 . T e s n daniesin tm

S
Ses
So
S aas

ooc
3. U So Claiitin.

Divisioms
Coarua

Orgoi
Coarua r a a
GradCe)

Sad (S
1 w Wal qTadd elaan
2.

ndr
3.P: Poor dal,a kn
A. M: CRrg odrúsy
noroud l - 3 .

G Grad Poordenadd
S Sand, wJ radd

F dned
ino am S is M)
S M (a
oxgani 0J
1L oo emPradt (LL 351.)

2M Musn C3LL 561

CH , L op
 Mastiut ehad
e

CL
ST

MH
-ML
MI

AD

ML
Ox OL

A-

54
45

= 26"
3
classification of Soils
3.1 INTRODUCTION

Soils, in general, may be classified as cohesionless and cohesive or as coarse-grained and

fine-grained. These
terms, however, are too general and include a wide range of engineering properties. Hence, additional means
of categorisation are necessary to make the terms more meaningful in engineering practice. These terms are
compiled to form soil classification systems.
A soil classification system is meant essentially to
provide a language of communication between
engineers. It may, thus, be considered a system of 'labelling', soils, which would convey the same meaning
universally. Sorting of soils into groups each of which would show similar behaviour, is the object of soil
classification. Any soil classification system must provide us with information about the probable engineering
behaviour of a soil. This means that once a soil is classified, it should be possible to grade the soil for its
suitability for a specific engineering project. A classification system must be simple to use, and the number of
soil groups not too many in number. Most soil classification methods use simple index properties for placing
a soil in a certain group. The most commonly used properties are the grain-size distribution and plasticity.
However, a soil classification system does not eliminate the need for detailed soil investigations and for testing
for engineering properties. It can at best give some fair idea about its enginering behaviour.
Several classification systems were evolved by different organisations having a specific purpose as the
object. A. Casagrande (1948) describes the systems developed and used in highway engineering, airfield
construction, etc. The two classification systems, which are adopted by the US engineering agencies and the
State Departments, are the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State
Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO) system. Other countries, including India, have mostly the USCS
with minor modifications.
In the following sections, the salient features of the USCS, AASHTO and the Indian Standard Soil
CIlassification System (ISSCS) are
discussed
3.2 THE UNIFIED SOL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

developed by Casagrande (1948), was intended for

ne Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), originally
in 1952, it was slightly modified to make it applicable
Se in airfield construction during World War II. Later, USCS, the coarse-grained soils are classified
to the
1undations, dams and other constructions. According soils (whose behaviour is controlled by
tne basis of their grain-size distribution and the fine-grained
Plasticity) on the basis of their plasticity characteristics.
 Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics
78

classified into four major groups, namely.

Table 3.1 shows the salient features of USCS. AIl the soils are
consisting of a prefix and a suffix are used
fine grained, organic soils and peat. Group symbols
coarse grained,
for various groups (Table 3.2).
mm)
retained on the No. 200 (O.0/5 sieve. They
Coarse-Rrained having 50 per cent or more
soils are those
as gravel (G) if S0 per
are further subdivided into gravels and sands. The coarse-grained
soils are designated
cent or more of the fraction (+75 u) is retained on the No. 4 (4.75
coarse
mm) sieve; otherwise, they are
(Table 3.2), namely, GWand Sw
designated as sand (S). Both gravel and sand are divided into four subgroups and nature of fines in the
distribution soils.
GP and SP, GM and SM, GC and SC depending on the grain-size
whereas a poorly-graded (P) soil is
A well-graded (W) soil has a wide distribution of grain sizes present,
either unifom or gap graded. Whether a soil is well-graded or poorly-graded can be delermined by plotting
the grain size distribution curve and computing the cocfficient of uniformity, Cu and the coefficient of

curvature, C These coefficients are defined in Chapter 2

Table 3.2 Prefix and Suffix of USCS

Soil type Prefix Subgroup Suffir

Gravel G Well graded W

Sand S Poorly graded P

Silt M Silty M

Clay C Clayey C

Organic wL> 50 per cent L

Peat Pt WL S0 per cent H

The gradation criteria for gravelly and sandy soils are shown in, Table 3.1. GW and SW groups are
well-graded gravels and sands with less than 5 per cent passing 75u sieve whereas the GP and SP groups are
poorly-graded gravels and sands with little or no fines.
Fine-grained soils having more than 50 per cent material passing the no 200 (0.075 mm sieve). These are
subdivided into silt (M) and clay (C), based on their
liquid limit and plasticity index. As shown in Table 3.1,
organic soils are also included in this fraction. The A-line on the Casagrande's (1948)
3.1) generally separates the more clay like materials from those that are plasticity chart (Table
silty and also the organic from the
inorganic. Silt, clay and organic fractions are further subdivided into soils
plasticity when the liquid limit is less than 50 per cent and more than 50 cent, possessing low (L) or high (H)
Highly organic soils, fibrous in nature, usually peat and swampy soilsper respectively.
subdivided. These are put into one having high compressibility are not
group only with group symbol, P,
Soils possessing the characteristics of more
than one group can be termed as
are assigned dual
group symbols, e.g., GW-GC, meaning a boundary soils and, hence,
has also the field identification well-graded gravel with some clay fines. The system
procedure incorporated into it.
3.3 AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The US Bureau of Public Roads
(now the Federal
classification system called the Public Roads Highway Administration) developed, in the late twenties, a
Administration classification system which was
specifically
 19
classificarion of Soils
ant for use in road construction. The original system has been revised several times. The present AASHTO
78) soil classification system is essentially the system revised in 1945. The system is based on both the
icle size and the plasticity characteristics. The applicability of the system has also been extended
considerably.

According to the AASHTO system, the soils are classified into cight groups; A-1 through A-7 with an
or muck. The system includes several sub-groups (Table 3.3). Soils within each
additional group A-8 for peat
oroup are evaluated according to the grup index calculated from the empirical formula,
Group index, Gl =0.2 a + 0.005 ac +0.01 bd
35)+o.oo5f-35 C - A0)+0.0F-15)"i
=that part of the percent passing the 75 4 sieve (-75 ) greater than 35 and not exceeding 75.
where a
expressed as a positive whole number (range 1 to 40)
=that part of the percent passing the 75 sieve greaterthan 15 and not exceeding 55. expressed
b
as a positive whole number (range 1 to 40)

e
C =that part of liquid limit greater than 40 and not greater than 60, expressed as a positive whole
number(range 1 to 20)
d = that part of the plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30 expressed as a positive
d
whole number (range I to 20)

The group index should

While calculating GI from Eq. 3.1, if any term becomes negative, it is dropped.
it is reported as zero.
be rounded off to the nearest whole number. If the computed value is negative,
determined. Once
To classify a soil, its grain-size distribution, liquid limit and plasticity index values are
chart of Table
these data are available, the classification is carried out by proceeding from left to right in the
in
3.3 and selecting the first group that fits the test data. A complete classification includes the group index
parentheses. Thus, A-2-6 (3) indicates a soil type A-2-6, having a group index of 3.
Ingeneral, the greaterthe groupindex value, the less desirable asoil is for highwayindex
construction
of 20
within
that subgroup. Agroup index of 0 indicates a good subgrade material, while a group
indicates a very poor subgrade material.
or more

3.4 INDI N STANDARD SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS) for classification of soils for general engineering
purpose, first published in 1959, was revised in 1970. The revision is based on the USCS with the modification
that the fine-grained soils have been subdivided into threesubgroupsof low, medium and high compressibility
as against only two in the USCS. The plasticity chart as per ISSCS is shown in Fig. 3.1. The major soil groups
and subgroups, along with the corresponding prefix and suffix that are used in the ISSCS are shown in Table
3.4. The laboratory classification criteria for the c0arse-grained soils is the same as in the USCS and shown
n Table 3.1.
The basic soil components in the ISSCS are given in Table 3.5. According to Table 3.5, the division of
oil fractions purely on the basis of grain size (in mm) is as shown the Table below. The maximum
possible
ange of grain size in soils is indeed tremendous of the order of 10
Classification of Soils 81

S0

40 lp=0.73(W-20) AA-Line
CH

WL 50
30
35
CI
20
MH or OH
a 10 CL
agsMMI or O1
MLor OL
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit, wL

Fig. 3.1 Plasticity chart as per Indian Standard Soil Classification System

Table 3.4 Prefixes and Suffixes of ISSCS

Soil type Prefix Subgroup Suffix

Gravel G Well graded W

Sand S Poorly graded

Silt M Silty M

Clay C Clayey C

Organic wL<35 percent L

35wL <50
Peat Pt 50<WL
The classification of coarse-grained soils is done on the basis of their grain and gradation characteristics
as illustrated in Table 3.1 of USCS, when the fines (< 75 ) present in them are less than 5% by weight.
The fine-grained soils are classified on the basis of their plasticity characteristics using the I.S. Plasticity
chart shown in Fig. 3.1.
Coarse-grained soils which contuin more than 124% fines (< 75 p) are classified as GM or SM if the fines
aresilty in character (meaning, the limits plot below the A-line on the plasticity chart); they are classifñicdas
GCor SCif the fines are clayey in character (meaning the limits plot above the A-line on the plasticity chart).
Coarse-grained soils having 5% to 12% fines are borderline cases and given a dual symbol. The first part
of the dual symbol is indicative of the gradation, while the second part indicates the nature of fines. For
example,
a soil with the dual symbol SW-SC is a well-graded sand with 'clayey' fines that plot above A-line.
 minerae
Exchange capacity of some clay 100 g)
capacity (meq per
Mineral group Exchange

Kaolinites 3.8

llites 40
80
Montmorillonites

TABLE 2.8
of clay
shear strength
Ons arTanged In the order of decreasing

Na"> Ll
NH> H' >K*> Fet+ > Alt+* > Met > Bat> Cat*>

or a clay,
in the adsorption complex
H, Ca, or Na prevails
overthe other tnickness
C Clement, such as H-clay or Ca-clay. 1he
for example
given the name of this element,
a
sometimes a given particle, large
depena tO case
surrounding of
physical properties of the adsorhed film thick in the
e These films are relatively
films of other
character of the adsorption complez. for H*. The
St ne Na* cations but very thin
er-adsorbent cations like Li* and relatively more plastic
i with adsorbed Li* and Na* cations are
la ermediate values. Soils because the particles
are separated by
at water contents and possess smaller shear strength shear
W are arranged in the order of decreasing
viscous film. Sóme of the cations in Table 2.8
Cker
strength of clay.

in sea water or of their

SOdium clays product either of the deposition of clays
in nature are a
fresh
are formed essentially by
sauration by or capillary action. Calcium clays
saltwater flooding
or acidic water,
water sediments. Hydrogen clays are a result of prolonged leaching of a clay by pure
with the resulting removal of all other exchangeable bases.

SOIL MASS STRUCTURE

The orientation of particles in a mass depends on the size and shape of the grains as well as upon the
minerals of which the grains are formed. The structure of soils that is formed by natural deposition
could be altered due to external forces. Figures 2.9 to 2.11 give the various types of structures of
soil. Figure 2.9(a) is a singlegrained structure which is formed by the settlement of coarse grained
soils in suspension in water. Figure 2.9(6) is aflocculent structure formed by the deposition of fine
soilfractioninwater. Figure2.9(0)is ahoneycomb structure which is formed by the disintegration
offlocculent structure undersuperimposed load. The particles oriented in flocculent structure will
have edge to face contact as shown in Fig. 2.10(a) whereas in honeycomb structure, the particles will
haveface to face contact as shown in Fig. 2. 10(6). Natural clay sediments will have more or less
flocculated particle orientations. Marine Clays generally have more open structure than fresh water
clays. Figure 2.11 shows the schemalic view of salt water and fresh water deposits.
Formation and Structure of Soils
25

(a) Single grain structure (b) Flocculent structure (c) Honeycomb structure

Fig. 2.9

(a) Flocculated type structure (b) Dispersed structure Hona csed uwu
(edge to face contact) (face to face contact)

Fig. 2.10

(a) Undisturbed salt water deposit (b) Undisturbed fresh water deposit

Fig. 2.11 Schematic diagrams of salt water and fresh water deposits
CLa Mnetalo

5 minnall 3 *

A.agi
.Momo . o e
er

dna t O OH Si
2. Cem&AbralussOHT M Fe

OOH

Si

Si enitda

/ Stiea Sa
daka a l Ska

Octaana

ot

Sydoe od
SRa

Momayuoe

tO
S

7mHh0
S

RLL
Pansiut loys MaJ MoJnaTul o
ExBloek Cstton Soil

Sok S >

Gyim nlogy
Formation and Structure of Soils 19

The second building block is an octahedral unit with six hydroxyl ions at apices of an octahedral
enclosing an aluminum ion at the centre. Iron or magnesium ions may replace aluminium ions in
some units. These octahedral units are bound together in a sheet structure with each hydroxyl ion
common to three octahedral units. This sheet is sometimes termed as gibbsite sheet. The Alionhas
3 positive charges and each bydroxyl ion divides its -1 charge with two other neighboringunits. This
sharing of negative charge with other units leaves a total of 2 negative charges per unit (1/3) x 61
The net charge of a unit with an aluminium ion at the centre is +1. Figure 2.4 gives the structural
arrangements of the units.

Formation of Minerals
and conditions lead to
The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite.in different arrangements
the formation of different clay minerals as given in Table 2.4.

Kaolinite Mineral

mineral of the Kaolin group. The building blocks of gibbsite and silica
This is the most common
sheets are arranged as shown in Fig. 2.5 to give the structure of the kaolinite layer. The structure is
composed of a single tetrahedral sheet and a single alumina octahedral sheet combined in units so
a comraon
thelayers of the octahedral sheet formcentre
that the tips of the siica tetrahedrons and one of in the direction and towards the of the
All the tips of the silica tetrahedrons point same
layer.
unit made of the silica and octahedral sheets. This gives risetostrongionic bondsbetween the silica
angstrom 10 cm) thick. The
andgibbsite sheets. Thethickness of the layeris about 7 A (one above the other with the base of
=

kaolinite mineral is formed by stacking the layers of 7 Athick one

the silica sheet bondingto hydroxyls of thegibbsite sheetby hydrogenbond. Sincehydrogen bonds
sheet stackingsthat are diticult to
arecomparatively strong, the kaolinite crystals consist of many enter between the sheets to expand the
dislodge. The mineral is therefore, stable, and water cannotfrom 1000 to 20,000 Å and the thickness
unit cells. The lateral dimensions of kaolinite particles range
varies from 100 to 1000 Å.

lonic bond-

Hydrogen bond-

Gibbsite sheet-
7A
Silica sheet-

Fig. 2.5 Structure of kaolinite layer

 20

Halloysite Mineral as those

with the same structural
composition
of successive layers and may he
aoysite minerals are made up are randomiy packed
the successive units
however, the removal of
Composing kaolinite. In this case, the interlayersS by
of water. The dehydration of structural feature
Separated by a single molecular layerin the properties of the mineral. An important
leads changes to the platy shapeof
ne water molecules
to
tubular forms as opposed
is that the particles appear to take
of halloysite
kaolinite.

Montmorillonite Mineral
The structural arrangement of this
the most common mineral of the montmorillonite group.
1s sheets with a central
alumina octahedral
is composed of units made of two silica tetrahedral
mineral and toward the centre of
the unit. The
All the tips of the tetrahedron point in the same direction
Sneel. of the tetrahedrons of each silica
and gibbsite sheets are combined in such a way that the tips
Sihca sheet form a common layer.
The atoms common
SDeet and one of the hydroxyl layer, of the octahedral The thickness of the silica-
to both the silica and gibbsite layer become oxygen instead ofhydroxyls.
gibbsite-silica unit is about 10 Å (Fig. 2.6). In stacking these combined units one above the other,
units with a consequence that
AYEC ayers of each unit are adjacent to oxygen of neighbouring
the

nre IS a very weak bond and an excellent cleavage between them. Water can enter between the
structure break into 10 A thick structural
Sneets,causingthem to expandsignificantly and thus the can

units. Thusthesoilscontaining aconsiderable amount of montmorillonitemineralswillexibit high

Swelling and shmkagecharacteristics. The lateral dimensions of montmorilloníteparticles range
from 1000 to 5000 A with thickness varying from 10 to 50 Å. Bentonite clay and the black cotton
soil belong to the montmorillonite
group.

Illite
The basic structural unit of illite is similar to that of montmorillonite except that some of the silicons
are always replaced by aluminium atoms and the resultant charge deficiency is balanced by potassium
ions. The potassium ions occur between unit layers. The bonds with thenonexchangeable K* ions
are
weaker than the hydrogen bonds, but stronger than the water bond of montmorillonite. Ilite,

(mmmmmIm- -Véry poor bond

10 A -Gibbsite sheet
Silica sheet

10 A
Exchangeable
cations nH0

Fig. 2.6 Structure of

montmorillonite layer
Formation and Structure of Soils
21

UInum m-Potassium molecules

50 A

mmmninIIILT Fairly good bond

50 A Silica sheet

Gibbsite sheet

Fig. 2.7 Structure of ilite layer

therefore, does not swell as much in the presence of water as does montmorillonite. The lateral
dimensions of illite clay particles are about the same as of montmorillonite, 1000 to 5000 A, but the
thickness of ilite particles is greater than that of montmorillonite particles, 50 to 500 A. The
arrangement of silica and gibbsite sheets are as shown in Fig. 2.7.

2.16 CLAY PARTICLE-WATER RELATIONS

Introduction
The property of a soil mass depends upon the behaviour of the discrete particles composing the mass
and the pattern of particle arrangement. In all these cases water plays an important part. The behaviour
of the soil mass is profoundly influenced by the inter-particle-water relationships, the ability of the
soil particles to adsorb exchangeable cations and the amount of water present.

Adsorbed Water
The intensity of the
We have seen earlier the net charge on the surface of every particle is negative.
charge depends to a considerable extent on the mineralogical character of the particle. The physical
surface activity of the mineral.
and chemical manifestations of the surface charge constitute the
of the surface
Minerals are said to have high or low surface activity, depending on the intensity
surface but also
charge. As pointed out earlier, the surface activity depends not only on the specific
on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the solid particle. The surface activity of sand,
even if it is ground to a fine powder. The
therefore, shall not acquire all the properties of a true clay,
presence of water does not alter its properties of coarser fractions considerably excepting changing
its unit weight. However, the behaviour of a saturated soil mass consisting of fine sand might change
under dynamic loadings. This aspect of the problem is not considered here. This article deals only
with clay particle-water relations.

In nature every soil particle is surrounded by water. Since the centres of positive and negative
charges of water molecules do not coincide, the molecules behave like dipoles. The negative charge