Liquefaction Resistance of Undisturbed and Reconstituted

Samples of a Natural Coarse Sand from Undrained Cyclic

Triaxial Tests
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Vito Nicola Ghionna1 and Daniela Porcino2

Abstract: The paper deals with an experimental study of the undrained cyclic behavior of a natural coarse sand and gravel deposit
located in Gioia Tauro, a town situated on the continental side of the Messina Strait in Italy. The study was conducted through cyclic
undrained triaxial tests carried out on both undisturbed and reconstituted samples. Undisturbed samples were recovered by an in situ
freezing technique and the sample quality was carefully assessed. Reconstituted samples were prepared by using two different reconsti-
tution methods, namely air pluviation 共AP兲 and water sedimentation 共WS兲, and tested under the same in situ initial relative density and
effective overburden stress. Tests were carried out on both isotropically and anisotropically consolidated specimens. The results obtained
from this study provide direct evidence that cyclic liquefaction resistance obtained from water sedimented samples closely approximates
that exhibited by undisturbed samples in both isotropically and anisotropically consolidated tests. Conversely, AP leads to a marked
underestimation. Since the investigated deposit is considered to have been formed by the marine water environment, these results can
be regarded as proof that WS closely replicates the in situ fabric of the investigated deposit allowing the substitution of the expensive
undisturbed samples with their reconstituted counterparts. Anisotropically consolidated specimens respectively exhibit “cyclic liquefac-
tion” or “cyclic mobility” depending on whether or not they are loaded under the shear stress reversal mode.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2006兲132:2共194兲
CE Database subject headings: Liquefaction; Sand; Triaxial tests; Soil sampling; Constitutive models; Italy.

Introduction
The undrained response of coarse grained soils to cyclic loading,
which may be induced by earthquake, has recently received in-
creased attention after several liquefaction-induced failures were
observed to occur with associated detrimental effects 共Andrus
et al. 1991; Evans and Zhou 1995兲.
Important ongoing advances in the understanding of undrained
cyclic shear strength of such materials from laboratory tests have
been spurred in no small part by the development of sophisticated
sampling techniques. An in situ ground freezing technique has
been employed successfully as a valuable tool for the collection
of undisturbed samples of coarse grained soils 共Hatanaka et al.
1989; Goto et al. 1992, 1994; Kokusho et al. 1995; Sego et al.
1999, etc.兲, provided several precautions are taken into account
共Hight and Leroueil 2003兲. As experience continues to grow with
this method, it may be implemented in practice more often.
1 Italy, and the quality of retrieved samples was subsequently
Full Professor, Dept. of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering,
Technical Univ. of Turin, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24-10128 Torino,
Italy.
2 reconstituted initial fabrics, specimens were reconstituted by two
Researcher, Dept. of Mechanics and Materials, Mediterranean Univ.
of Reggio Calabria, Via Graziella 共Feo diVito兲-89060 Reggio Calabria,
Italy.
Note. Discussion open until July 1, 2006. Separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible
publication on February 20, 2003; approved on July 8, 2005. This paper
is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ing, Vol. 132, No. 2, February 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/2006/
2-194–202/$25.00.
Today, however, due to the difficulty and especially the cost
associated with the utilization of this in situ sampling technique, it
is more practical and, indeed, often necessary to perform tests on
reconstituted specimens capable of reflecting, as closely as
possible, the different depositional methods and conditions of
natural soil deposits.
Even though cyclic simple shear testing more properly repre-
sents the loading conditions of principal interest for most seismic
problems 共Seed et al. 2003兲, cyclic triaxial testing is much more
popular and much easier to operate than the simple shear appara-
tus. Furthermore, the measured cyclic triaxial resistance can be
then corrected to obtain the equivalent simple shear or in situ
response 共Sivathayalan and Ha 2004兲.
The study reported herein presents comparative results of
cyclic undrained triaxial 共TX兲 tests on high-quality undisturbed
specimens and the corresponding reconstituted ones. Undisturbed
samples of natural coarse sand were recovered by an in situ
ground freezing technique in a high seismicity area in the south of
ascertained.
In order to seek similarities in the response of undisturbed and
preparation methods; namely, air pluviation 共AP兲 and water sedi-
mentation 共WS兲. The influence of a sample reconstituting tech-
nique and, hence, the ensuing fabric on the undrained behavior
was investigated on the basis of undrained TX tests on both
isotropically and anisotropically consolidated specimens.
Experimental evidence supports the idea that the WS method
is able to more properly reproduce the fabric of natural deposits,
such as beach, coastal dune, and river deposits, as reported by
other writers 共Tsukamoto et al. 1998; Vaid and Sivathayalan

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 1999; Vaid et al. 1999兲. The results presented in this paper pro- Table 1. Summary List of Tests on Intact and Reconstituted Specimens
vide a novel contribution with regard to this topic since they Test Test
apply to coarse sands. number type ␥d0 共kN/ m3兲 ⬘ / ␴1c
Kc = ␴3c ⬘ CSR
AP-1 CI 16.38 1.00 0.15
AP-2 CI 16.48 1.00 0.18
Site Description and Undisturbed Sampling
AP-3 CI 16.42 1.00 0.19
The sampling site is located in the town of Gioia Tauro, on the AP-4 CI 16.46 1.00 0.22
Calabrian side of the Messina Strait 共Italy兲. Figs. 1共a and b兲 show AP-5 CI 16.43 1.00 0.24
subsoil conditions at the site together with NSPT blow counts ob- AP-6 CK 16.30 0.59 0.11
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tained from the borehole nearest the freezer pipe. NSPT values AP-7 CK 16.20 0.59 0.15
refer to an energy ratio of about 60%, in agreement with italian AP-8 CK 16.30 0.59 0.20
practice.
The undisturbed sampling concerned the upper formation of WS-1 CI 16.45 1.00 0.18
the deposit consisting of clean coarse sand and gravel materials WS-2 CI 16.50 1.00 0.22
extending up to a depth of 6 m below the ground level 共GL兲.
WS-3 CI 16.48 1.00 0.28
Ground water level in the investigated site, undergoes daily oscil-
WS-4 CI 16.45 1.00 0.29
lations between the depths of 1.4 m and 1.6 m from GL. The
WS-5 CI 16.43 1.00 0.34
investigated deposit is of relatively recent age, thus it appears
WS-6 CI 16.54 1.00 0.45
probable that influencing factors, such as time effects, are less
relevant for the investigated site. Fig. 1共c兲 illustrates the shear WS-7 CK 16.39 0.59 0.27
wave velocity 共Vs兲 profile against the depth obtained from the WS-8 CK 16.38 0.59 0.29
seismic cone. WS-9 CK 16.39 0.59 0.41
The freezing system adopted in the present research for recov- WS-10 CK 16.38 0.59 0.44
ering undisturbed sand samples consisted of cooling the soil
radially by using liquid nitrogen 共LN2兲, and injecting it into a F-1 CI 16.30 1.00 0.19
single freezing pipe 共i.e., primary pipe兲 between 1.30 m and 4.20 F-2 CI 16.30 1.00 0.21
m below the ground surface. F-3 CI 16.40 1.00 0.24
The innovative use of a servocontrolled feeding system of the F-4 CI 16.30 1.00 0.34
LN2 has allowed significant cost reduction. Furthermore, a sec-
F-5 CK 16.30 0.59 0.44
ondary control pipe was inserted near the first one for monitoring
F-6 CK 16.35 0.59 0.31
the approach of the frost front at the prefixed radius. Both primary
F-7 CK 16.20 0.59 0.25
and secondary pipes were inserted into the ground by specially
Note: CSR⫽Cyclic stress ratio; AP⫽Air pluviation; WS⫽Water
Sedimentation; F⫽Frozen sample; CI⫽isotropic consolidation phase;
and CK⫽Anisotropic consolidation phase.

designed self-boring equipment that avoids, or significantly re-

duces, soil disturbance due to the insertion of the pipes in the
surrounding soil. Finally, the recovery of the block column
sample, 0.80 m in diameter, was accomplished using a dry rotary
coring method. A more detailed description of the freezing system
adopted in the present research was reported in Ghionna et al.
共2001兲 and Porcino 共2002兲.

Laboratory Testing

Tested Material and Procedures

Fig. 1. Site investigation results: 共a兲 soil profile at the sampling site;
共b兲 standard penetration test results; and 共c兲 seismic cone test results
Undrained cyclic TX tests were run with a TX cell apparatus
capable of housing a specimen 70 mm in diameter and 140 mm in
height. Cyclic axial loading, under stress-controlled mode, was
applied through uniform sinusoidal cycles of 0.2 Hz frequency.
A complete list of the tests performed in the present study is
reported in Table 1.
The grain size distribution curve of tested material is shown in
Fig. 2, while the index properties are briefly listed in Table 2. The
natural material consists of a coarse silica sand with a mean grain
size 共D50兲 equal to 2 mm. Fines content 共⬍0.074 mm兲 is quite
low 共⬵0.7% 兲 which favors the application of the freezing

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Fig. 2. Grain size distribution curve of tested material
technique. Minimum and maximum dry densities were deter-
mined according to ASTM D 4254-91 共ASTM 1991兲 and ASTM
D 4253-93 共ASTM 1993兲.
Frozen specimens for testing were obtained by coring the fro-
zen blocks with a specially designed cutting bit, allowing fairly
regular and smooth cylindrical surfaces to be obtained, which is
desirable for minimizing membrane penetration effects during
undrained cyclic tests 共Goto et al. 1994兲.
The test procedure of the frozen specimens was carried out
according to the Japanese standards JGS 0520-2000 共JGS 2000兲.
It essentially consisted of allowing thawing to proceed with ac-
cess to free water at both ends of the specimen, which in turn
allows for compensation of the volume deficiency caused by the
pore ice melting into water. Thawing was done multidirectionally
under a small confining pressure of about 15 kPa. Then, samples
were saturated first with carbonic dioxide and then by de-aired
water. After saturation, with a Skempton’s B value greater than
0.96, specimens were reconsolidated isotropically under an effec-
tive confining stress 共␴⬘c 兲 equal to the estimated in situ effective
overburden stress 共␴⬘v0 = 40 kPa兲. Anisotropically consolidated
samples, on the other hand, were obtained by applying static de-
viatoric stress 共␴ds = ␴1c − ␴3c兲, expressed as the difference be-
tween major 共␴⬘1c兲 and minor 共␴⬘3c兲 effective consolidation stresses
under drained conditions until the desired value of consolidation
stress ratio, Kc = ␴⬘3c / ␴⬘1c = 0.59 was reached.
Reconstituted specimens were prepared at the same relative
density of undisturbed ones 共Dr ⬵ 42% 兲 using two different meth-
ods; namely AP and WS. Preparation of specimens by AP was
carried out using a known weight of dry sand that was poured
from a prefixed height into the sampling former mold with the aid
of a funnel. The WS procedure was performed pouring a known
weight of sand from a funnel with a 16 mm diameter nozzle in a
sampling former mold, half-filled with water, from a minimal
drop height above water level 共h ⬵ 20 mm兲. In this case, loose
relative densities 共Dr ⬵ 15–20% 兲 were initially achieved, regard-
less of the drop height. Accordingly, higher densities can be ob-
tained by “tapping” on the lateral surface of the mold, while
maintaining a small seating load on the sample cap and keeping
drainage lines open. Both AP and WS reconstitution techniques
allow homogeneous and replicable sand samples of a desired den-
sity to be obtained 共Vaid et al. 1999兲. The typical profile of rela-
Table 2. Index Properties for Tested Material
Type Gs D50 共mm兲
Gioia Tauro sand 2.69 2.00
Note: FC⫽Fines content.
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Fig. 3. Direct assessment of uniformity of water sedimentation and
air pluviation reconstituted specimens
tive density for WS and AP specimens is shown in Fig. 3. As can
be seen, the maximum local deviation in relative densities from
the overall average value 共Dr ⬵ 49% 兲 for WS and AP specimens
is +6.5% and +1.9%, respectively.
Sample Quality Evaluation
The quality of the recovered frozen samples was preliminarily
checked to ascertain possible disturbance effects induced by the
freezing-thawing-reconsolidation sequence. In agreement with
other writers 共Vaid and Sivathayalan, 1999兲, some useful infor-
mation can result from the measurements of volumetric changes
undergone by the frozen samples when subjected to the thawing-
reconsolidation sequence in a TX test. In the present study
共⌬e / e0兲 measurements, where ⌬e and e0 are, respectively, the
total void ratio decrease 共after thawing and consolidation phases兲
and the initial void ratio values of undisturbed specimens, rarely
exceeded 0.045. Such values can be considered acceptable and
comparable with those reported by other writers, for example,
Hofmann 共1997兲.
The relative density Dr at the end of the reconsolidation phase
was on average equal to 42%, which is consistent with the corre-
sponding one determined through the Cubrinovski and Ishihara
共1999兲 approach, based on standard penetration test 共SPT兲 blow
counts 共Dr ⬵ 53% 兲 共Porcino and Ghionna 2004兲.
Due to its sensitivity to soil disturbance effects, the small
strain shear modulus 共G0 = Gmax兲 provides a more accurate evalu-
ation of the frozen sample’s quality 共De Groot and Sandven
2004兲. Taking these findings into account, the small strain shear
modulus G0F ⬵ 52 MPa, determined from the seismic cone at a
depth of 2.80 m from GL 共Vs = 167 m / s兲, was compared with the
value of G0L ⬵ 40 MPa, gathered from resonant column tests car-
ried out on intact samples isotropically consolidated at an effec-
tive confining stress of 40 kPa. In the present research, the result-
ant ratio G0L / G0F is approximately 0.8, and it falls within the
variability range given by other writers 共Kokusho and Tanaka
1994兲 for recently formed deposits. In this study, the slightly
lower value of the laboratory shear modulus can be explained by
taking into account the lack of reliable information concerning in
situ stress conditions.
Cu = D60 / D10 emax emin FC 共%兲
2.10 0.69 0.45 0.66
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Fig. 4. Response of a high quality undisturbed sample 共Frozen-2兲 to undrained cyclic loading

Test Results and Discussion
Fig. 4 presents the undrained cyclic response of a high-quality
undisturbed sample, isotropically consolidated at a confining
effective stress of ␴⬘c = 40 kPa and subjected to the cyclic stress
ratio 共CSR兲 = ␴dc / 2 · ␴⬘c = 0.21, in which ␴dc = q = ␴1 − ␴3 is the
maximum single amplitude of cyclic deviatoric stress.
Fig. 4共a兲 depicts a trend with a number of cycles 共Nc兲 of
cyclically induced pore pressures 共⌬u兲, normalized to
␴⬘c 共Ru = ⌬u / ␴⬘c 兲. Fig. 4共b兲 shows the corresponding trend of axial
strain 共␧a兲, and Fig. 4共c兲 is the plot of cyclic deviatoric stress
共q兲 versus axial strain 共␧a兲. Finally, Fig. 4共d兲 shows the effective
stress path followed during the test in terms of q and
Ⲑ
p⬘ = ␴1⬘ + 2 · ␴⬘3 3 . As shown in these figures, after about
16 cycles, the sample experiences a “cyclic liquefaction” condi-
tion 共Robertson and Wride 1997兲, characterized by transient ex-
cursions of the stress path through the origin. At the onset of
liquefaction 共Ru = 0.95兲, the axial strains reach a value approxi-
mately equal to 5% in double amplitude. Fig. 5 shows the com-
parative undrained cyclic TX response of two specimens prepared
by the AP and WS methods, consolidated at the same effective
confining pressure 共␴⬘c = 40 kPa兲 and subjected to the same CSR
共0.22兲. A quite different behavior is observed depending on the
method of reconstitution, which is linked to the featural aspects of
the samples’ fabric 共Ibrahim and Kagawa 1991; Frost et al. 1999兲.
In particular, the fabric induced by the AP method is weaker and
more compressible compared to the WS reconsitution method,
and this results in a more rapid attainment of the liquefaction
condition 共Nc ⬵ 6兲.
Conversely, a remarkable similarity between the undrained
cyclic behavior of the WS specimen and that of the intact one is
evident 共Fig. 4兲. However, from the q versus ␧a plots, it can be
perceived that the cyclic-induced axial strains of the intact sample
exhibit a more pronounced asymmetric trend with higher values
in extension than in compression. This is probably due to an
enhanced dilatancy of the sample fabric when it is stressed in
extension 共Luong, 1980; Alarcon-Guzman et al. 1988兲.
To provide a unified and consistent framework for the
comparison of undisturbed specimens versus reconstituted coun-
terparts, a complementary series of anisotropically consolidated
cyclic TX tests was also carried out. Previous studies 共Seligh and
Chang 1981; Vaid and Chern 1983, etc.兲 have clearly shown that,
for anisotropically consolidated reconstituted specimens, two
types of rheological soil behavior can be observed—depending on
whether or not the applied cyclic deviatoric stress 共␴dc兲 relative to
initial static deviatoric stress 共␴ds兲 yields a shear stress reversal

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Fig. 5. Response of two specimens reconstituted by water sedimentation 共WS兲 and air pluviation 共AP兲 methods 共WS-2, AP-4兲 to
undrained cyclic loading

condition. However, it is worthwhile mentioning that, to the writ-
er’s knowledge, no results have been published concerning the
behavior of high-quality undisturbed samples in anisotropic TX
tests. Figs. 6 and 7 report the results of two anisotropically con-
solidated tests on intact samples of Gioia Tauro sand. The tests
concern two opposite cyclic loading conditions, respectively “no
共or very limited兲 shear stress reversal” and “significant shear
stress reversal”.
In the first case 关Fig. 6共a兲兴, the sample undergoes cumulative
permanent axial strains on the compression side. The correspond-
ing stress path 关Fig. 6共b兲兴 moves gradually toward the origin with
cycles tending more and more to behave like closed loops. The
result is that, after about 190 cycles, the stress path seems to
remain more or less stable close to the phase transformation line
共Ishihara et al. 1975兲 determined from corresponding monotonic
tests in compression loading. This leads to the so called “cyclic
mobility” and stabilization phenomena.
Conversely, in the shear stress reversal test 共Fig. 7兲, the gen-
eral behavior is similar to that observed in previous isotropic
tests, in which a cyclic liquefaction type of response occurs.
When an initial liquefaction condition 共p⬘ ⬵ 0兲 is achieved
共Nc ⬵ 13兲, the stress path finally moves back and forth on the
failure strength envelope determined in corresponding undrained
monotonic tests 关Fig. 7共b兲兴. However, the q versus ␧a plot
关Fig. 7共a兲兴 exhibits a progressive accumulation of axial strains in
the same direction as the initial static deviatoric stress 共“cyclic
ratcheting”兲.
A better appraisal of the aforementioned differences can be
drawn from the cyclic liquefaction resistance curves reported in
Figs. 8 and 9. It is worthwhile mentioning that in accordance with
Vaid et al. 共2001兲, in the case of anisotropic tests, CSR has been
defined as cyclic deviatoric stress 共␴dc兲 normalized to the normal
effective consolidation stress, acting on the 45° plane of maxi-

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Fig. 6. Undrained cyclic triaxial test results on anisotropically consolidated intact sample 共Frozen-6兲 关“no 共or very limited兲 shear stress reversal”
condition兴

Ⲑ
mum shear stress兲 共␴m⬘ = ␴1⬘ + ␴3⬘ 2 兲. Furthermore, the occurrence
of a 2.5% maximum accumulated axial strain 共␧max兲 was assumed
to define the onset of liquefaction for the anisotropic tests 共NRC
1985兲.
If one compares the cyclic liquefaction resistance curves of
undisturbed specimens against that of WS specimens in isotropic
tests 共Fig. 8兲, it is apparent that they are in good agreement with
each other, while AP method leads to lower in situ liquefaction
resistance values.
As for the differences between AP and WS samples, they have
already been discussed in this paper. On the other hand, due to the
relatively recent age of the investigated deposit, the similarity
between intact and WS samples can be viewed as a consequence
of the formation process since the deposit is considered to have
been formed by marine water sedimentation.
Fig. 9 shows the cyclic liquefaction resistance curves for
anisotropically consolidated tests on both the undisturbed and
reconstituted samples. Once again, as in the case of isotropic
tests, WS specimens seem to capture quite well the curve of the
intact samples. This implies that the adopted WS reconstitution
method is able to duplicate not only the inherent anisotropy of the
undisturbed samples but also their stress-induced anisotropic
response 共Kc ⫽ 1兲.
Fig. 10 reports the cyclic liquefaction resistance curves of both

Fig. 7. Undrained cyclic triaxial test results on anisotropically consolidated intact sample 共Frozen-5兲 共“shear stress reversal” condition兲

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Fig. 10. Comparison between cyclic resistance curves gathered from

Fig. 8. Cyclic liquefaction resistance curves from undisturbed and isotropically and anisotropically consolidated tests on undisturbed
reconstituted specimens 共isotropically consolidated tests兲 specimens

CSRM
MSF = 共1兲
CSRM=7.5
isotropic and anisotropic tests for the intact samples. In both
Results concerning this approach were reported by Seed and
cases, the cyclic liquefaction resistance is expressed as CSR ver-
Idriss 共1982兲 for reconstituted samples of sands, and Idriss and
sus the number of loading cycles to develop 2.5% maximum axial
Boulanger 共2004兲 on undisturbed frozen samples. Fig. 12 shows
strain.
the MSF values obtained in the present study superimposed on
It may be seen that for the tested sand at a relative density
those derived by the aforementioned writers. As can be seen, the
Dr ⬵ 42% and for the prefixed level of ␶s = 共␴ds / 2兲, the cyclic
loading resistance of anisotropically consolidated samples
共Kc = 0.59兲 is far higher than that of isotropically consolidated
tests 共Kc = 1兲 共approximately 90% for an equivalent number of
cycles equal to 15兲.
Fig. 11 reports similar results gathered from AP and WS
samples. As expected, the curve of anisotropic tests for the WS
samples lies significantly above that of the isotropic tests, while
the difference observed for the AP samples is negligible.
Cyclic liquefaction resistance curves obtained from the labo-
ratory can be used as a basis for deriving magnitude scaling fac-
tors 共MSFs兲 for soil liquefaction evaluation under earthquakes of
different magnitudes 共M兲 共Liu et al. 2001; Idriss and Boulanger
2004兲.
MSF is defined as

Fig. 11. Comparison between cyclic resistance curves gathered from

Fig. 9. Cyclic liquefaction resistance curves from undisturbed and isotropically and anisotropically consolidated tests on water
reconstituted specimens 共anisotropically consolidated tests兲 sedimentation and air pluviation reconstituted specimens

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Fig. 12. Magnitude scaling factor values proposed by various
researchers
agreement is satisfactory for both undisturbed and reconstituted
samples.
Conclusions
Undrained cyclic stress-strain-strength behavior of a natural
coarse sand was investigated through laboratory TX tests per-
formed on undisturbed samples recovered by an in situ freezing
technique. The sample quality was evaluated by two different
methods: The comparison between in situ and laboratory mea-
sured initial shear modulus values; and the change in void ratio
after thawing and reconsolidation phases.
The results obtained were compared with those gathered from
specimens reconstituted to the same initial relative density and
effective overburden stress by two reconstitution techniques;
namely, AP and WS. Tests were carried out on both isotropically
and anisotropically consolidated specimens.
The main conclusions which can be drawn from the study may
be summarized as follows
1. The quality of the recovered frozen samples can be consid-
ered acceptable and consistent with the results of other
researchers.
2. Cyclic undrained TX strength is profoundly affected by
sample preparation method. In particular, liquefaction resis-
tance values assessed by AP appear to be overly conservative
both in isotropic and anisotropic tests. On the other hand,
WS is able to capture, in a satisfactory way, the behavior
exhibited by the undisturbed frozen samples. Since the inves-
tigated deposit is considered to have been formed by the
marine water environment, this can be regarded as proof that
WS closely replicates the in situ fabric of the investigated
deposit allowing the substitution of the expensive undis-
turbed samples with their reconstituted counterparts.
3. Undrained behavior observed in anisotropically consolidated
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tests is heavily dependent on whether or not the samples are
loaded under the shear stress reversal condition. Intact and
reconstituted samples loaded under the shear stress reversal
condition underwent cyclic liquefaction while the same
samples loaded under shear reversal exhibited cyclic mobil-
ity.
4. MSFs, derived from the cyclic liquefaction curves for both
undisturbed and reconstituted sand samples, are in good
agreement with those reported by other writers.
Notation
The following is a list of symbols used in this paper:
Cu ⫽ uniformity coefficient;
D50 ⫽ mean grain size;
Dr ⫽ relative density 共at the end of consolidation兲;
emax ⫽ maximum void ratio;
emin ⫽ minimum void ratio;
e0 ⫽ initial void ratio;
G0 ⫽ small strain shear modulus;
Gs ⫽ specific gravity of the soil grains;
Kc ⫽ consolidation stress ratio;
M ⫽ earthquake magnitude;
Nc ⫽ number of loading cycles;
NSPT ⫽ blow counts from standard penetration test;
p⬘ ⫽ 共␴⬘1 + 2 · ␴⬘3兲 / 3 mean effective stress;
Ru ⫽ excess pore pressure ratio⫽⌬u / ␴⬘c ;
Vs ⫽ shear wave velocity;
␥d0 ⫽ initial dry unit weight;
⌬e ⫽ total void ratio change 共at the end of
consolidation兲;
⌬u ⫽ excess pore water pressure;
␧a ⫽ axial strain;
␧max ⫽ maximum accumulated axial strain;
␴⬘c ⫽ effective confining stress;
␴⬘1c ⫽ major effective principal stress at the end of
consolidation;
␴⬘3c ⫽ minor effective principal stress at the end of
consolidation;
␴m⬘ ⫽ normal effective consolidation stress;
␴dc ⫽ q⫽cyclic deviatoric stress;
␴ds ⫽ static deviatoric stress;
␴⬘v0 ⫽ effective overburden stress; and
␶s ⫽ ␴ds / 2⫽initial static shear stress.
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