Liquefaction, Cyclic Mobility, and Failure of Silt

Adrian F. L. Hyde1; Toru Higuchi2; and Kazuya Yasuhara3

Abstract: It is known that the mechanical properties of low-plasticity silt are similar to those of sand, and yet silts are frequently used
as coastal reclamation materials in many cities and industrial areas and will thus be susceptible to liquefaction. Samples of a low-plasticity
silt have been tested under monotonic and cyclic loading under isotropic and anisotropic stress conditions to characterize liquefaction,
cyclic failure, and to develop an empirical model describing its cyclic strength. A sedimentation technique produced samples that had the
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highest susceptibility to liquefaction. Contractive behavior of monotonically loaded samples was triggered when the stress path reached
an initial phase transformation 共IPT兲 in both compression and extension tests. The samples became dilative after reaching a phase
transformation 共PT兲 point. The cyclic shear behavior of the silt samples prepared using the sedimentation method and consolidated at
various initial sustained deviator stress ratios was examined in terms of two different failure criteria: a double amplitude axial strain
␧a,DA = 5% for reversal conditions; or axial plastic strain ␧a,P = 5% for nonreversal. For isotropically consolidated samples the initial phase
transformation determined from undrained monotonic extension tests was the boundary between stable and contractive behavior. For
anisotropically consolidated samples failure was defined by a bounding surface formed by undrained monotonic compression tests. An
empirical model was developed relating the number of cycles to failure under conditions of both liquefaction and cyclic mobility to the
initial anisotropic sustained deviator stress and cyclic deviator stress ratio.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2006兲132:6共716兲
CE Database subject headings: Geotechnical engineering; Earthquake engineering; Liquefaction; Cyclic strength; Silts; Artificial
islands; Land reclamation; Foundations.

Introduction
Seismically induced liquefaction of sand has long been recog-
nized as a phenomenon causing serious damage to foundations
and structures, and the study of sand liquefaction has been devel-
oped as a field in geotechnical engineering mainly by researchers
from the United States and Japan. Their research work has in-
cluded field observations, laboratory experiments, model tests,
and theoretical studies. Silty materials are also known to liquefy.
Although high-plasticity silt is often treated as clay, it is known
that the mechanical properties of lower plasticity silts can be
similar to those of sand. For example, Soong et al. 共2004兲 tested
three materials: Keuper marl, a silty clay with sand 共plasticity
index I p = 19兲; Arakawa clay, a clayey and sandy silt 共I p = 17兲; and
DL clay, a clay silt 共I p = 0兲. These materials had silt contents of
between 65 and 95%. When subjected to cyclic simple shearing
all of the materials could be taken to cyclic failure defined as a
double amplitude shear strain of 10%, but only the nonplastic silt
1
Reader, Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering, Univ. of Sheffield,
Mappin St., Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K. E-mail: a.f.l.hyde@sheffield.ac.uk
2
Senior Research Associate, Dept. of Geography, Univ. of Durham,
South Rd., Durham DH1 3LE, U.K. E-mail: toru.higuchi@durham.ac.uk
3
Professor, Dept. of Urban and Civil Engineering, Ibaraki Univ.,
4-12-1 Nakanarusawa, Hitachi, Ibaraki 316 8511, Japan. E-mail:
yasuhara@civil.ibaraki.ac.jp
Note. Discussion open until November 1, 2006. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on October 5, 2004; approved on November 2, 2005.
This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 6, June 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/
2006/6-716–735/$25.00.
could be fully liquefied. They also found that the cyclic strength
of each material decreased with increasing initial drained shear
stress, which is similar to clay soils as observed by Hyodo et al.
共1994b兲, and is the reverse of the behavior observed in sands by
Vaid and Chern 共1983a,b兲. Silt behavior can therefore be seen to
be transitional between that of fine sands and clay. Little research
has been carried out on the liquefaction characteristics of these
materials, yet silts are frequently used for coastal reclamation in
many cities and industrial areas, particularly in Japan. In the large
earthquakes of Chibaken-Tohooki in 1987 and Loma Prieta in
1989 it was found that sand boils induced by liquefaction con-
tained a large proportion of silt particles 共Mori et al. 1988;
Morimoto et al. 1988; Mori and Numata 1990兲. Since then, it has
been recognized that silt as well as sand can be liquefied during
an earthquake. In the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake, the liq-
uefaction of silt was observed in reclaimed coastal areas such as
Kobe Port Island 共JSCE 1995兲. Studies on the liquefaction of silts
共Adachi 1996; Yamamuro and Lade 1997兲 suggested that sand
containing nonplastic silt particles tended to be more liquefiable
than clean sands.
The cyclic shear behavior of sands is greatly influenced by
their initial density and confining pressure. Sands can behave in
either a contractive or dilative manner depending on their initial
conditions. Castro 共1975兲 and Castro and Poulos 共1977兲 divided
the pattern of failure of saturated sands subjected to cyclic load-
ing into liquefaction for contractive and cyclic mobility for dila-
tive samples. Additionally, Vaid and Chern 共1985兲, Sladen et al.
共1985兲, and Mohamad and Dobry 共1986兲 found the initial sus-
tained shear stress due to anisotropic consolidation—or in other
words, the weight of overlying structures—to be an important
factor in differentiating the behavior of sands between contractive
and dilative. Vaid and Chern 共1983a兲 and Hyodo et al. 共1989,
1991, 1994a兲 suggested that the cyclic shear strength of loose

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 sand tended to decrease with increasing initial sustained shear
stress, while that of denser sand showed the opposite tendency.
Thus, the behavior of isotropically and anisotropically consoli-
dated saturated sand during earthquakes has attracted the interest
of many researchers in recent years, particularly as serious dam-
age due to permanent deformation has been experienced under
such conditions 共Seed and Hon 1987; Castro et al. 1992兲. The
results from these studies are frequently incorporated in current
seismic design criteria for sand foundations.
There has not been sufficient study of the liquefaction charac-
teristics of low-plasticity silt nor even of the basic shear proper-
ties in comparison with those of nonplastic silt. While it is known
that the cyclic strength of a granular material is highly influenced
by its density and initial sustained shear stresses, these factors
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have not been investigated for silt. The soil fabric, or structure, is
characterized by the orientation and arrangement of the individual
soil grains and the contact planes between the grains 共Vaid et al. Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curve
1985兲. Mulilis et al. 共1977兲 found that the samples having the
highest distribution of normal to tangential contact planes in the
direction parallel to the major principal stress exhibited the high- material was creamy white and its calcium carbonate 共CaCO3兲
est dynamic strength. Since any reconstituted samples have a content was 98.5%. The material was stored in plastic bags to
structure different from the in-situ soil fabric, the effect of the avoid absorbing moisture until required.
sample preparation method should not be neglected. The method A particle-size analysis was performed on representative batch
by which reconstituted soil test samples are prepared can have a samples using a Malvern laser diffraction particle size analyzer.
significant effect on the cyclic strength of the samples 共Ladd The particle-size distribution curve for this material is shown in
1977; Mulilis et al. 1977; Seed 1979; Adachi 1996兲. In cyclic Fig. 1. This showed the material to contain 69.2% silt-sized par-
triaxial tests for three different sands, Ladd 共1977兲 found that soil ticles. The basic properties were as follows: specific gravity
samples prepared by wet tamping could have a cyclic strength as Gs = 2.71; wL = 24%; w P = 18%; PI = 6%. According to the Unified
much as 100% greater than those prepared by dry deposition. Soil Classification System 共BS 5930: 1981兲 the limestone was
Mulilis et al. 共1977兲 noted that samples prepared by pluviation classified as ML—that is, a silt of low compressibility and plas-
through water had a cyclic strength 10% greater than samples ticity. This material was very close to the A-line that provides an
prepared by pluviation through air. On the other hand, for arbitrary division between silts and clays. It will be shown later,
vibrated-moist samples the cyclic strength was 55⬃ 75% greater however, that its shearing and cyclic loading characteristics were
than vibrated-dry samples, and moist-rodded samples were found quite unlike those of clays.
to have the highest cyclic strength and were from 61⬃ 108% Consolidation and monotonic strain-controlled triaxial tests
stronger. They demonstrated that each different sample prepara- were carried out on 38⫻ 76 mm samples prepared by three dif-
tion method produced a sample with a slightly different soil fabric ferent methods: one-dimensional 共1D兲 preconsolidation; sedimen-
and, therefore, different cyclic strength. The material used in this tation 共Psed = 40 kPa兲; and light sedimentation 共Psed = 10 kPa兲.
work was the silt fraction of a limestone rock flour and attempts These different sample preparation methods were attempted in the
were made to develop an ideal sample preparation method for the process of seeking an ideal sample reconstitution technique to
study of its liquefaction characteristics. study the liquefaction of silt—that is a liquefiable deposition
Various researchers have related cyclic behavior of sands to
monotonic phase transformation points or critical stress ratios.
Early work by Ishihara et al. 共1975, 1976兲 and Tatsuoka and
Ishihara 共1974a,b兲 testing Fuji River sand compared un-
drained monotonic and cyclic behaviors. The tests performed in-
cluded both drained and undrained cyclic triaxial tests, with an
emphasis on testing loose samples. Liquefaction was triggered
where the stress ratio became equal to the angle of phase trans-
formation. Ishihara et al. 共1975兲 first defined a concept of phase
transformation as a threshold stress ratio at which the sand as a
solid was transformed into a liquefied state. Alarcon-Guzman et
al. 共1988兲 noted that a transition occurred on a critical stress ratio
共CSR兲 line that coincided with the initial peak point of the stress
path. They, along with Sladen et al. 共1985兲, Vaid and Chern
共1985兲, and Mohamad and Dobry 共1986兲, also proposed a linkage
between monotonic and cyclic behavior of granular materials
using this CSR line.

Material and Sample Preparation

The silt used in this research was a limestone supplied in pow-

dered form from ARC Ltd. in Shap, Cumbria. The color of the Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of sedimentation technique

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Fig. 3. Isotropic consolidation tests for 1D consolidated and sedimented limestone with superposition of the critical state line 共from Moradi 1998兲

structure was required. All samples were tested undrained with
pore pressure measurement. To allow the pore pressure to reach
equilibrium during the monotonic loading tests the samples were
compressed or extended at an axial strain rate of 0.1%/min.
One-dimensional consolidation was carried out by consolidat-
ing a slurry mixed to twice the liquid limit under a vertical stress
of 80 kPa using a piston in a steel cylinder of a 105 mm internal
diameter. Samples with an average moisture content of 21% were
then extruded and sealed in three 38-mm diameter, 100-mm long
thin-walled sample tubes for later assembly in the triaxial cell.
The silt prepared using the 1D preconsolidation method had dila-
tive shear characteristics similar to dense sand with a high com-
pressive stiffness. This was due to the high 1D consolidation
pressure of 80 kPa required to produce a sample that could
be handled. The samples were also highly variable due to friction
in the consolidation tubes and sample disturbance during

Fig. 4. Deviator stress versus axial strain for sedimented samples 共Psed = 40 kPa兲

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Fig. 5. Monotonic stress paths for sedimented samples 共Psed = 40 kPa兲

preparation—that is, they were easily damaged while the top
platen, membrane, and O-rings were being assembled. It was felt
that this method of preparation did not produce samples that were
representative of silt placed as a coastal fill material, which would
often be pluviated under water and then consolidated by an over-
burden. A simple sedimentation technique was therefore devel-
oped for the preparation of looser liquefiable samples. In the
sedimentation technique a membrane was fitted to the triaxial cell
base and supported by a split former as shown in Fig. 2. A de-
aired slurry 共w = 48%兲 was poured into the mold and water was
drawn through a porous disc at the base of the sample using a
negative head of water of either 1 m 共10 kPa兲 or 4 m 共40 kPa兲.
The amount of slurry used depended on the negative head
of water used 共i.e., 210 g for Psed = 40 kPa, and 200 g for
Psed = 10 kPa兲. Thus, the height and initial void ratio of samples
were easily controlled. The average moisture content was found
to be about 24% for Psed = 40 kPa and 26% for Psed = 10 kPa, in-
dicating that this method produced much looser samples than the
1D preconsolidation water content of 21%.
The loose sedimented samples required very careful handling.
A hollowed aluminum top cap was placed on the sample and to
minimize disturbance a top drainage line was not used, and only a
single O-ring was placed over the membrane around the top cap.
The drainage valve was opened to hold the sample using 1 m

Fig. 6. Monotonic stress paths for samples prepared using 1D consolidation

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Fig. 7. Anisotropic consolidation stress paths

negative head of water, and the split mold was removed with
great care. In order to connect the top cap to the loading ram
approximately 2 mL of resin mixed with hardener was poured
into a hollow in the sample top cap. The proportions of the mix
were set to harden after 20 min. The cell lid was fastened in place
and the internal load cell with a threaded stub on its base was
lowered into the resin-filled hollow of the sample top cap, making
sure that the load cell did not register any load. The load cell was
maintained in this position for 20 min until the resin hardened.
Initially a bayonet push fit connection had been used for axial
loading, but this was found to result in slight play as the deviator
stress moved from compression to extension and was abandoned.
The sample preparation technique did not allow the use of lubri-
cated end platens.
All samples for monotonic and cyclic triaxial testing were con-
solidated in the triaxial cell under a back pressure of 200 kPa to
ensure full saturation and rapid pore pressure response. The aver-
age B value 共Skempton 1954兲 for all samples was 0.98, and any
samples that did not have a B value of at least 0.96 were
discarded.

Fig. 8. Deviator stress versus axial strain for various initial sustained deviator stresses

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Fig. 9. Anisotropically consolidated monotonic stress paths with various initial sustained deviator stresses
Isotropic Consolidation
In Fig. 3 the isotropic consolidation characteristics for the sedi-
mented samples are compared with those for samples prepared
using 1D consolidation. Two isotropic consolidation tests for
sedimented samples of Psed = 40 and 10 kPa were carried out in a
triaxial cell up to an effective confining pressure of 1.8 MPa
共1,800 kPa兲. Moradi 共1998兲 carried out a high-pressure isotropic
consolidation test for the same material using a wire-reinforced
triaxial cell up to an effective confining pressure of 4.8 MPa. The
sample for his test was initially 1D consolidated from a slurry at
an initial mean normal effective stress p⬘ = 80 kPa. The results
from this test are also included in Fig. 3, together with the pro-
jection of the critical state line.
The sedimentation technique produced much looser samples
with the specific volume increasing with decreasing initial effec-
tive consolidation stress Psed. The consolidation line for sedi-
mented samples did not appear to reach the normal consolidation
line 共NCL兲. The limestone silt had a small particle size and sand-
like characteristics; thus, the consolidation yield stress was likely
to be in excess of the maximum stress applied—in this case of
1.8 MPa.
The consolidation line for the 1D consolidated sample tested
by Moradi 共1998兲 lies parallel to the critical state line for a mean
normal effective stress greater than 4 MPa, indicating that the
consolidation curve may have reached the normal consolidation
line. Using Moradi’s 共1998兲 data the slope of the normal consoli-
dation line 共␭兲 was estimated to be 0.058 and the back projected
specific volume v at a mean normal effective stress of 1 kPa was
defined as N and had a value of 1.83. Comparison of the consoli-
dation curves over the range of effective consolidation pressures
up to 1,000 kPa reveals that samples prepared using the sedimen-
tation technique tended to lie on the wet/loose side of the critical
state while those initially prepared using the 1D consolidation
mold lay largely on the dry/dense side of critical 共Schofield and
Wroth 1968兲. The swelling and recompression lines were reason-
ably linear for each preparation method with slopes of 0.0037,
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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 2006.132:716-735.
0.0053, and 0.0049 for 1D, Psed = 40, and Psed = 10 kPa,
respectively.
Isotropically Consolidated Undrained Monotonic
Shear
A series of undrained monotonic triaxial tests was conducted
on samples prepared using the sedimentation method
共Psed = 40 kPa兲 in a hydraulic stress path cell with sample dimen-
sions of 38⫻ 76 mm 共Bishop and Wesley 1975兲. The samples
were consolidated under effective confining pressures of 100,
300, and 600 kPa, and sheared at an axial strain rate of
0.1% per minute. Test durations were therefore about 190 min,
which was regarded as sufficiently slow to ensure pore pressure
equilibrium in a silty material with a minimum B value of 0.96.
Mesri and Ali 共1999兲 tested a glacial clay under similar conditions
and showed that a test duration of 150 min was sufficient for pore
pressure equalization. Stress–strain curves from monotonic und-
rained compression and extension tests under various confining
pressures are presented in Fig. 4. There was a point of flexure in
compression and an initial peak in extension at very low strains
共0.2⬃ 0.5% 兲. This was followed by hardening after the point of
flexure in compression and strain softening followed by harden-
ing behavior after the initial peak in extension. Failure in exten-
sion and compression, defined as the peak deviator stress, oc-
curred at strains of 兩8.7⬃ 11.1% 兩 and there was then a decrease in
deviator stress after the failure with a tendency to approach a
constant critical state value at large strains.
The initial peak point seen in the stress–strain curves in Fig. 4
where strain softening was initiated is located close to the initia-
tion of contractive behavior on the corresponding stress paths in
Fig. 5. Vaid and Chern 共1985兲 who sheared sands cyclically and
monotonically termed such a state as the critical stress ratio
共CSR兲. The CSR points are plotted on the stress paths as initial
phase transformation 共IPT兲 points. It should be noted that, though
the definitions for CSR and IPT may be the same for contractive
 Table 1. Undrained Cyclic Triaxial Tests 共Psed = 10 kPa; pc⬘ = 100 kPa兲 pression and extension tests were found to be 0.63 and −0.54,
Normalized Cycles to failure respectively. The effective stress paths in Fig. 5 developed con-
cyclic stress 共␧a,DA or ␧a,P = 5%兲 tractive behavior after the IPT point with a decrease in the mean
Test number qcyc / pc⬘ Nf normal effective stress p⬘ until the contractive behavior changed
again to dilative behavior at a phase transformation 共PT兲 point.
⬘ = 100 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 0; cyclic reversal
␴3c
The dilative behavior continued until an ultimate peak deviator
CC0-217 0.217 78.1 stress was reached and the pore pressures increased again as par-
CC0-248 0.248 76.2 ticles rearranged and both p⬘ and q decreased. When the samples
CC0-268 0.268 36.6 reach the PT point, a transition in particle arrangement occurred
CC0-299 0.299 21.6 共Alarcon-Guzman et al. 1988兲 and the soil behavior became dila-
CC0-362 0.362 13.8 tive. The effective stress ratios at the PT, 共q / p⬘兲 PT, were also
CC0-393 0.393 9.8 independent of the effective confining stress and were 1.25 in
CC0-441 0.441 5.7 compression and −1.02 in extension.
⬘ = 91.7 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 0.25; cyclic nonreversal
␴3c Undrained monotonic triaxial tests were also conducted on
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CC25-178 0.178 106.2 samples prepared using the 1D preconsolidation method and then
CC25-217 0.217 78.1 isotropically consolidated to 150, 300, and 450 kPa. One exten-
CC25-227 0.227 50.0 sion test was carried out at an effective confining stress of
CC25-248 0.248 34.1 300 kPa; otherwise, the tests were all compressive. The results are
⬘ = 91.7 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 0.25; cyclic reversal
␴3c
presented for comparison purposes in Fig. 6. These samples were
very dense and were much further to the dry side of the critical
CC25-264 0.264 20.1
state compared with the sedimented samples. Thus the stress
CC25-308 0.308 14.1
paths show extremely dilative behavior after the PT point and
CC25-347 0.347 7.2
both the peak and critical state strengths are higher. Despite this
CC25-398 0.398 3.0
the slopes of the IPT 共0.63 and 0.58兲 and PT 共1.16 and 0.95兲 lines
⬘ = 83.3 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 0.5; cyclic nonreversal
␴3c were similar to those for the sedimented samples, and the stress
CC50-099 0.099 358.0 ratios in each case were independent of initial effective consoli-
CC50-147 0.147 52.2 dation pressure.
CC50-196 0.196 22.1
CC50-197 0.197 29.2
CC50-207 0.207 18.2
CC50-216 0.216 19.3 Anisotropically Consolidated Undrained Monotonic
CC50-247 0.247 8.3 Shear
CC50-295 0.295 3.3
CC50-341 0.341 3.2 It has been shown that the sample preparation method using the
⬘ = 75 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 0.75; cyclic nonreversal
␴3c sedimentation technique produced samples that were more con-
tractive than those from the 1D preconsolidation method. How-
CC75-118 0.118 115.2
ever, to increase the susceptibility to liquefaction for the purpose
CC75-147 0.147 78.3
of this study a further modification was made to the preparation
CC75-177 0.177 35.3
technique. The negative head of water Psed to be used for the
CC75-227 0.227 19.3 sedimentation of silt particles was reduced to 10 kPa from
CC75-247 0.247 12.2 40 kPa. It was thought that this technique would produce a par-
CC75-336 0.336 4.1 ticle structure that was initially similar to that at a depth of about
CC75-395 0.395 2.2 1 m below an inundated soil such as might be found in newly
⬘ = 66.7 kPa; qs / pc⬘ = 1.0; cyclic nonreversal
␴3c reclaimed land. Samples prepared by this method 共Psed = 10 kPa兲
CC100-100 0.100 1,135 were then consolidated both isotropically and with various initial
CC100-146 0.146 138.2 static shear stresses for the main testing program.
CC100-196 0.196 48.1 There are many cases of practical interest in which soil ele-
CC100-235 0.235 30.3 ments are subjected to an initial sustained shear stress such as that
CC100-246 0.246 27.2 imposed on the subsoil by an overlying structure. In the case of
CC100-296 0.296 17.3 earthquake shaking, these soil elements are then subjected to ad-
CC100-346 0.346 9.1 ditional 共cyclic兲 shear stress due to shear waves propagating ver-
CC100-395 0.395 5.3
tically upward from the bedrock. Therefore, the existence of an
initial sustained shear stress cannot be neglected for the undrained
CC100-491 0.491 2.4
behavior of soils, and its influence has been studied by a number
of researchers 共Lee and Seed 1967; Vaid and Chern 1983a; Hyodo
et al. 1994a; Yasuhara et al. 1997, 1998; Yasuhara and Toyota
soils 共e.g., loose and medium dense sands兲, the CSR cannot be 1997兲. It was thought therefore that an investigation of the und-
defined for a completely dilative material such as dense sand. rained monotonic shear behavior of anisotropically consolidated
However, the IPT defined as the initial turning point in the stress– silt would help in understanding its anisotropic cyclic loading
strain curve may be found even in dense sands. It is clear that the behavior. As shown in Fig. 7, prior to testing, samples were first
stress ratio at the IPT for the isotropically consolidated samples is subjected to various isotropic confining pressures ␴⬘3c 共100, 92,
identical irrespective of confining pressure as can be seen in 83, 75, and 67 kPa兲 and then the axial stress was increased in
Fig. 5. The effective stress ratios at the IPT, 共q / p⬘兲IPT, for com- increments of 5 kPa every 5 min, allowing drainage of the sample

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Fig. 10. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.217; qs / p⬘c = 0兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.217; qs / p⬘c = 0兲

until a prescribed stress state was reached under a constant ␴⬘3c.
Variation of the axial stress applied at this stage gave an initial
sustained deviator stress qs共=2 · ␶max兲 of 0, 25, 50, 75, and
100 kPa. The mean normal effective stress p⬘c was calculated as
共qs + 3␴⬘3c兲
p⬘c =
3 strain curves showed marked initial peaks in compression, which
and the combination of ␴⬘3c and qs for the five series of tests was
chosen to keep the p⬘c constant equal to 100 kPa. The mean nor-
mal effective stress of 100 kPa would be equivalent to the effec-
tive stress conditions for a soil element at about 10 m depth if the
soil were below the water table, or 5 – 10 m if any part of the soil
lay above the water table. The initial sustained deviator stress
ratio defined as qs / p⬘c was equal to 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1. It
should be noted that the stress condition qs / p⬘c = 0 was for isotro-
pic consolidation.
Fig. 8 shows the relationship between deviator stress and axial
strain for the anisotropically consolidated samples. The stress–
共1兲
became less clear in extension with increasing initial sustained
deviator stress qs. For samples that exhibited initial peak points
the zone between the initial phase transformation point and the
phase transformation point was characterized by the deviator
stress, reducing until for a brief period strains increased without a
change in stress. These zones were similar to a quasi-steady state

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Fig. 11. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.393; qs / p⬘c = 0兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.393; qs / p⬘c = 0兲

共QSS兲 defined for sands by Alarcon-Guzman et al. 共1988兲 and
Ishihara 共1993兲 and immediately preceded the PT points for the
anisotropically consolidated samples. After passing through the
QSS, samples exhibited strain hardening behavior and failed at
moderate strains of 10.5⬃ 15.6% in compression and −4.3⬃
−8% in extension. In the compression tests, the higher the qs, the
earlier the sample failed. The total axial strain at failure, consist-
ing of that developed under the initial drained shear stress
added to that from the peak under monotonic shearing was
approximately 15%, irrespective of the degree of anisotropic
consolidation.
The stress paths for the undrained monotonic shear tests in
both extension and compression commenced at the final consoli-
dation points shown in Fig. 7. In the compression tests, the effec-
tive stress paths shown in Fig. 9 initially rose vertically and
slightly to the right. Five diagonal lines rising from the initial
states at tan−13 drawn on the graph indicate the direction of the
total stress paths. Examining the stress paths it can be seen that
the less anisotropically the samples were consolidated, the greater
the positive excess pore pressure that was generated by the time
the paths reached the IPT point. In the case of the isotropically
consolidated sample 共qs = 0兲 the excess pore pressure was 25 kPa,
while that for qs = 100 kPa was as little as 3 kPa. It should be
noted that unlike the isotropically consolidated samples, the IPT
did not occur at a constant stress ratio 共q / p⬘兲IPT. After the initial
phase transformation point in compression, the samples became

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Fig. 12. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.178; qs / p⬘c = 0.25兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.178; qs / p⬘c = 0.25兲

more contractive with a drop in the deviator stress q. The values
of deviator stress ratio at the PT, 共q / p⬘兲 PT, were very similar
irrespective of the magnitude of qs. The average value for the five
samples was 1.39, which was close to the critical state value
q / p⬘ = 1.50. The constant value of PT stress ratio suggests that the
effects of the anisotropy have largely been removed by this stage.
After passing the PT the samples became dilative and reached a
peak. The peak values of the deviator stress ratio, 共q / p⬘兲 f , were
again similar to each other, and the average value was 1.52. The
stress paths in the compression tests dropped toward the critical
state 共q / p⬘ = 1.50兲 after failure.
In the extension tests the stress paths went downward devel-
oping slight negative excess pore pressures before reaching the
IPT. As for the compression side, the values of the deviator stress
ratio at the IPT, 共q / p⬘兲IPT, increased with increasing qs. After the
IPT the samples showed contractive behavior with positive excess
pore pressure until the PT was achieved at ␧a = −1.6% ⬃ −3.1%.
The extension tests for qs = 75 and 100 kPa were performed using
a bayonet push fit connecting device between the sample top cap
and the loading ram instead of the resin connection. Slight play in
this mechanism caused a short noncontact period when the paths
crossed the “q = 0” axis. As a result the values of 共q / p⬘兲 PT for
qs = 75 and 100 kPa in extension were slightly lower than those
for qs = 0, 25, and 50 kPa.

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Fig. 13. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.347; qs / p⬘c = 0.25兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.347; qs / p⬘c = 0.25兲

Cyclic Loading
The liquefaction strength of a saturated sand is commonly evalu-
ated by undrained cyclic triaxial tests with two-way loading in
compression and extension. It is accepted that the in situ strain
conditions in an earthquake are better represented by simple shear
tests; however, Hosono and Yoshimine 共2004兲, using a hollow
cylinder apparatus, compared cyclic tests with an initial static
shear stress under triaxial and simple shear conditions and con-
cluded that the change in liquefaction strength for simple shear
was 75–85% of that for triaxial tests. Thus cyclic triaxial testing
is capable of providing qualitative conclusions similar to those
obtained by cyclic simple shear tests. Using cyclic triaxial tests
the writers have therefore attempted to provide qualitative guid-
ance on the effects of anisotropic consolidation on the cyclic
strength of low-plasticity silty fills.
Cyclic Test Program
In order to simulate the stress conditions during earthquakes for
anisotropically consolidated soils, a number of undrained cyclic-
loading tests were performed using a modified computer-
controlled closed-loop cyclic triaxial system manufactured by

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Fig. 14. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.147; qs / p⬘c = 0.50兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.147; qs / p⬘c = 0.5兲

ELE International Ltd. The system consisted of a triaxial cell, a
loading frame fitted with a double acting actuator connected to a
pneumatic servovalve, and a computer control and data acquisi-
tion system 共CDAS兲. The triaxial cell was equipped with a pore
pressure transducer, immersible load cell, deformation transducer,
and two pneumatic servovalves for control of cell and back pres-
sure fitted with pressure transducers for each valve. All the pres-
sure transducers and load cells were calibrated monthly using a
hydraulic dead weight tester. The three pneumatic servovalves
had clean air pressure supplied from a constant pressure reservoir.
Computer software processed the data, monitoring, logging, and
sending control commands. Loads transmitted to the specimen by
the actuator were controlled by an electropneumatic valve. The
system’s actuator was also modified to have a displacement trans-
ducer mechanically coupled to the actuator piston, enabling dis-
placement control in addition to force control. A command signal
containing the amplitude and frequency information from the
CDAS was compared with the actual feedback signal of force or
displacement. The difference between these signals was used to
adjust the servovalve to regulate the flow of air pressure to elimi-
nate the error. Thus, the control loop was closed electronically.
Although the system was controlled using a feedback signal from
the load cell, the area of the sample was not simultaneously cal-
culated. Hence, the deviator stress still tended to decrease when

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Fig. 15. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.216; qs / p⬘c = 0.5兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.216; qs / p⬘c = 0.5兲

the sample underwent large strains, but much less than with open-
loop systems. The measurement of cyclic shear strength of the silt
using a closed-loop compared with open-loop loading systems
was discussed by Higuchi et al. 共2000兲.
The samples were prepared using the light sedimentation
method 共Psed = 10 kPa兲 and isotropically and anisotropically con-
solidated under a mean normal effective stress p⬘c = 100 kPa with
various initial sustained deviator stress ratios qs / p⬘c = 0, 0.25, 0.5,
0.75, and 1 共Fig. 7兲. The cyclic tests were conducted at various
cyclic stress levels qcyc / p⬘c ranging 0.099⬃ 0.491, where qcyc was
defined as the single-amplitude cyclic deviator stress. The fre-
quency of the cyclic loading was set to 0.1 Hz for the purpose of
better control of the loading system and acquisition of data al-
though, this value was 10⬃ 20 times lower than the typical fre-
quency range for earthquake excitations. Although tests were not
carried out at lower frequencies it was considered that the rela-
tively low frequency of loading combined with an average B
value for all samples of 0.98 was sufficient to ensure pore pres-
sure equilibrium during cyclic loading. The test series for the
undrained triaxial cyclic loading is shown in Table 1 together with
the corresponding cyclic deviator stress and number of cycles to
failure.
Failure due to cyclic loading was defined by development of a
specified level of strain. However, the type of failure depended on

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Fig. 16. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.247; qs / p⬘c = 0.5兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.247; qs / p⬘c = 0.5兲

whether samples were subjected to stress reversal under cyclic
loading. Complete liquefaction only occurred under stress rever-
sal conditions. In the case of nonreversal, samples generated large
axial strains under reduced but still nonzero effective stress con-
ditions. Two separate criteria were therefore used to define failure
depending on whether samples were subjected to principal stress
reversal or not. In the case of reversal a double amplitude axial
strain ␧a,DA = 5% was used, and for nonreversal conditions an
axial plastic strain ␧a,P = 5% was defined as failure. Although
these definitions are completely different they each defined con-
ditions which, if replicated in situ, would lead to a rapid loss of
serviceability. A double amplitude axial strain ␧a,DA = 5% rapidly
led to liquefaction failure, while an axial plastic strain ␧a,P = 5%
was followed by excessive flow deformation.
Stress–Strain Behavior
Figs. 10共a兲, 11共a兲, 12共a兲, 13共a兲, 14共a兲, 15共a兲, 16共a兲, 17共a兲, and
18共a兲 show typical relationships between the deviator stress and
axial strain under cyclic loading with the monotonic results su-
perimposed. The cyclic stress–strain curves for isotropically con-
solidated samples 共qs / p⬘c = 0兲 in Figs. 10共a兲 and 11共a兲 remained

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Fig. 17. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.227; qs / p⬘c = 0.75兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.227; qs / p⬘c = 0.75兲

largely parallel to the monotonic curve until a strain level equiva-
lent to that at the initial peak point in the monotonic extension test
was reached. This was the same as the IPT in extension. At this
point the strain amplitude suddenly increased and the samples
failed within a few cycles, reaching ␧a,DA = 5%. Such a rapid ac-
cumulation of axial strain, characteristic of loose sands, was
termed flow deformation by Vaid and Chern 共1983a兲 and is now
more commonly known as liquefaction failure.
The stress–strain data for anisotropically consolidated
samples, Figs. 12共a兲, 13共a兲, 14共a兲, 15共a兲, 16共a兲, 17共a兲, and 18共a兲,
can be divided into that for reversal and nonreversal cyclic
loading. In tests for anisotropically consolidated samples at
qs / p⬘c = 0.25 with stress reversal, the stress–strain loops became
large after the strain level reached the initial peak point obtained
from the monotonic compression test as shown in Fig. 13共a兲.
Fig. 12共a兲, 14共a兲, 15共a兲, 16共a兲, 17共a兲, and 18共a兲, for anisotrop-
ically consolidated samples 共qs / p⬘c = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1兲 show
nonreversal loading conditions. In this case the plastic strain rate
increased after the ␧a,P reached the same strain level as the initial
peak point in a monotonic compression test. The rate of accumu-
lation became a maximum when ␧a,P exceeded the strain level
that was equivalent to the quasi-steady state or IPT in the mono-
tonic compression test. Vaid and Chern 共1983b兲 suggested that

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Fig. 18. 共a兲 Cyclic deviator stress versus axial strain, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.246; qs / p⬘c = 1兲; 共b兲 cyclic effective
stress path, with superposition of monotonic test data 共qcyc / p⬘c = 0.246; qs / p⬘c = 1兲

this flow deformation may be arrested as soon as the sample
strained sufficiently to initiate dilation with further straining. Al-
though this phenomenon, termed “limited flow deformation” by
Vaid and Chern 共1985兲, was used to explain the cyclic behavior of
loose sand, there was also some evidence of a slowing in the
strain rate for the silt samples shown in Figures 12共a兲, 14共a兲,
15共a兲, and 18共a兲.
Cyclic Stress Paths
Figs. 14共b兲, 15共b兲, 16共b兲, 17共b兲, and 18共b兲 show typical effective
cyclic stress paths with a superposition of the monotonic com-
pression and extension test results. It can be seen that the cyclic
loading moved the effective stress paths of the samples toward the
critical state line 共CSL兲 defined by the ultimate values of p⬘ and q
at strains in excess of 22% in the monotonic triaxial tests. The
types of cyclic stress paths observed in the tests can be catego-
rized into three, depending on their consolidation and loading
conditions:
1. Isotropic and reversal 共qs / p⬘c = 0; qcyc ⬎ qs兲;
2. Anisotropic and reversal 共qs / p⬘c ⬎ 0; qcyc ⬎ qs兲; and
3. Anisotropic and nonreversal 共qs / p⬘c ⬎ 0; qcyc ⬍ qs兲.
Each type of path is schematically illustrated in Fig. 19.

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Fig. 20. Relationship between cyclic deviator stress ratio and

number of cycles to cause failure 共␧a,DA = 5 % 兲, for stress reversal
tests 共qs / p⬘c = 0 and 0.25兲

gion, beyond the IPTL on the compressive side of the loading

cycle as is also shown figuratively in Fig. 19共b兲. A large reduction
in p⬘ was observed when the deviator stress changed from exten-
sion to compression 共i.e., when principal stress reversal occurred兲.
When the stress paths intersected the bounding surface formed by
the monotonic test curves, p⬘ reduced markedly and the samples
failed within a few cycles by accumulating a ␧a,DA ⬎ 5% shortly
before liquefaction. Hight and Georgiannou 共1995兲 reported the
importance of the effect of unloading from the bounding surface.
As illustrated in Fig. 19共b兲, the accumulation of excess pore pres-
sure for the anisotropic reversal case was accelerated by both the
compression and extension phases of a cycle.

Anisotropic Nonreversal Case

The third category was for samples anisotropically consolidated
Fig. 19. Schematic diagram explaining contractive and dilative shear and cyclically loaded without stress reversal, and this is the stress
behavior during undrained monotonic and cyclic loading condition to which in situ soil under earthquake cyclic loading is
most likely to be subjected. The tests in this category were:
CC25-178, 217, 227, and 248; CC50; CC75; and CC100. Typical
Isotropic and Reversal Case stress paths for this type of loading are presented in Figs. 12共b兲,
In the isotropically consolidated tests 共qs / p⬘c = 0兲, as seen in typi- 14共b兲, 15共b兲, 16共b兲, 17共b兲, and 18共b兲. Similar to the second case
cal stress paths in Figs. 10共b兲 and 11共b兲, the rate of reduction in described above, the rate of reduction in p⬘ increased slightly
effective stress during cycling was approximately constant at the
beginning of a test. However, as soon as the paths reached the
initial phase transformation line, shown as IPTL on the extension
side of the loading cycle, the rate of reduction increased and the
samples liquefied within 2 – 4 cycles. Contractive behavior was
initiated at the initial phase transformation point in undrained
monotonic loading. In a similar way, during cyclic loading, iso-
tropically consolidated samples became markedly contractive
when the stress paths entered the “contractive” region, as
sketched in Fig. 19共a兲. The deviator stress ratio at the boundary
between the “stable” and “contractive” regions, 共q / p⬘兲IPT,ext =
−0.56, determined from monotonic tests was a limiting parameter
for the contractive flow deformation of the sedimented silt
共Psed = 10 kPa兲.

Anisotropic and Reversal Case

There were four tests in this category, anisotropically consoli-
dated at qs / p⬘c = 0.25 and tested at cyclic deviator stresses
qcyc = 26.4⬃ 39.8 kPa. As shown in a typical stress path in Fig.
13共b兲, the rate of reduction of the effective stress increased
slightly when the stress paths entered into the “contractive” re-
Fig. 21. Relationship between cyclic deviator stress ratio and
number of cycles to cause failure 共␧a,P = 5 % 兲, for stress nonreversal
tests 共qs / p⬘c = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1兲

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 ␧a,DA = 5%, and the results are shown in Fig. 20. For nonreversal
tests the failure was defined as axial plastic strain ␧a,P = 5%, and
the results are shown in Fig. 21.
It can be observed in Fig. 20 that under reversal conditions, the
isotropically consolidated sample required a greater cyclic devia-
tor stress to cause liquefaction in a given number of cycles, and
thus had a higher liquefaction strength. On the other hand, for
nonreversal tests, the cyclic shear strength became a minimum at
qs / p⬘c = 0.5, but then increased with qs / p⬘c .
The gradients of the best-fit lines for nonreversal tests were
steeper than those for reversal, and the gradients were similar to
each other for stress-reversal conditions. For the purpose of de-
velopment of an empirical model, the gradients for the reversal
cases were averaged, and the relationship between qcyc / p⬘c and N f
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was approximated by straight lines in log–log space as shown in

Fig. 22. Cyclic deviator stress ratio at N f = 1 versus initial sustained Fig. 20. Similarly, the qcyc / p⬘c and N f relationship for nonreversal
deviator stress ratio cases can be expressed by parallel straight lines for each qs / p⬘c in
logarithmic form, as shown in Fig. 21. These relationships can be
formulated as follows
after the paths went into the “contractive” region, shown in
Fig. 19共c兲, and was accelerated by intersecting the monotonic qcyc
compression stress path. By the time the cyclic paths approached = ␣ · N␤f 共2兲
p⬘c
the phase transformation line 共PTL兲, the axial plastic strain ␧a,P
had reached 1% and the reduction in p⬘ in each cycle became
large. Finally, the stress paths entered the “dilative” region and
where ␣ = cyclic deviator stress ratio to cause failure at one cycle;
tended to form repeated loops touching the CSL where the sample
deformed without any further change in p⬘. This is characteristi- and ␤ = slope of qcyc / p⬘c versus N f plot.
cally known as cyclic mobility. The ␤ slopes were −0.229 for reversal cases and −0.284 for
nonreversal cases. The value of ␣, defining the cyclic deviator
stress ratio qcyc / p⬘c at unit number of cycles to cause failure of N f ,
Cyclic Shear Strength was defined as a function of the initial sustained deviator stress
In order to define the liquefaction/cyclic shear strength for the ratio qs / p⬘c , as shown in Fig. 22, and is formulated as
cyclic loading test series, the relationships between cyclic devia-
tor stress ratio qcyc / p⬘c and the number of cycles required to cause
qs
failure, N f , are presented in Figs. 20 and 21. The failure for re- ␣ = − 0.36 · + 0.64 Reversal 共3兲
versal tests was defined as a double-amplitude axial strain p⬘c

Fig. 23. Relationship between number of cycles to failure, cyclic deviator stress ratio, and initial sustained deviator stress ratio

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 ␣ = − 2.03 · 冉冊
qs
p⬘c
3
+ 5.2 · 冉冊
qs
p⬘c
2
− 3.93 ·
qs
p⬘c
+ 1.38 Nonreversal
contractive behavior after intersecting the bounding surface
formed by undrained monotonic compression tests. This led to a
cyclic mobility compressive failure.
共4兲 The relationship between the cyclic deviator stress, qcyc / p⬘c ,
The variations in the cyclic strengths with initial sustained and number of cycles to cause failure, N f , was approximated by a
deviator stress ratios at various numbers of cycles have been pre- logarithmic relationship for each initial sustained deviator stress
sented as contour lines in Fig. 23 using Eqs. 共2兲–共4兲. Together ratio qs / p⬘c . The gradients of the lines for the nonreversal loading
with the contour lines all the test results are plotted in the figure. condition were steeper than those for reversal and the lines were
It can be seen that there is a good fit between the model and the parallel for each loading condition. The cyclic shear strength
data used for its development. Fig. 23 provides a tool for predict- based on this definition tended to decrease for 0 艋 qs / p⬘c ⬍ 0.5 and
ing the cyclic shear strength, or number of cycles to cause failure, increase for 0.5⬍ qs / p⬘c 艋 1 with increasing qs / p⬘c . An empirical
for the sedimented 共Psed = 10 kPa兲 limestone silt consolidated at a model was developed relating the number of cycles to failure
given qs / p⬘c . Examination of this figure shows a reduction in the under conditions of both liquefaction and cyclic mobility to the
initial anisotropically-sustained deviator stress and cyclic deviator
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cyclic strength as the initial sustained deviator stress ratio qs / p⬘c is

increased to between 0.5 and 0.6. Further increases in initial stress stress ratio.
anisotropy beyond this point lead to a recovery in the cyclic
strength. It would appear that structural loads resulting in an ini-
tial qs / p⬘c of 0.5–0.6 in the foundation soil would create the con- Notation
ditions for lowest earthquake resistance.
The following symbols are used in this paper:
B ⫽ Skempton’s pore pressure parameter;
Conclusions e ⫽ void ratio;
Gs ⫽ specific gravity of soil solids;
Samples of a low-plasticity silt, consisting of powdered limestone N f ⫽ number of cycles to cause failure;
reconstituted from a slurry using 1D and sedimentation methods, Psed ⫽ negative head of water during sedimentation;
were isotropically or anisotropically consolidated and tested p⬘ ⫽ mean normal effective stress;
under monotonic and cyclic loading. The objectives were the p⬘c ⫽ p⬘ at consolidation;
characterization of liquefaction, cyclic failure, and the develop- q ⫽ deviator stress;
ment of an empirical model describing the cyclic strength of silt. qs ⫽ initial sustained shear stress;
Three different sample preparation methods were attempted in v ⫽ specific volume;
the process of seeking a liquefiable deposition structure for the w ⫽ moisture content;
silt. For p⬘c ⬍ 1,000 kPa, samples prepared using a 1D preconsoli- wL ⫽ liquid limit;
dation method lay on the dry/dense side of the critical state, and w P ⫽ plastic limit;
sedimented samples lay on the wet/loose side of the critical. The ␣ ⫽ cyclic deviator stress ratio to cause failure at one
sedimentation technique 共Psed = 40 kPa兲 produced samples that cycle;
were more contractive than those from the 1D preconsolidation ␤ ⫽ slope of qcyc / p⬘c versus N f plot;
method. The light sedimentation technique 共Psed = 10 kPa兲 pro- ␧a ⫽ axial strain;
duced samples that were even more contractive and had the high- ␧a,DA ⫽ double amplitude axial strain;
est susceptibility to liquefaction among the three sample prepara- ␧a,P ⫽ axial plastic strain;
tion methods. ␭ ⫽ slope of normal consolidation line and critical state
Contractive behavior of samples was triggered when the stress line 共negative兲;
path reached an IPT in both compression and extension tests. The ␴⬘1 ⫽ major effective principal stress;
samples became dilative after reaching a PT point. The stress ␴3⬘ ⫽ minor effective principal stress;
ratio at the IPT was only constant for isotropically consolidated ␴⬘3c ⫽ effective confining stress;
samples. The PT stress ratio was constant in each case for isotro- ␴h⬘ ⫽ horizontal effective stress;
pically and anisotropically consolidated samples. ␴⬘v ⫽ vertical effective stress;
The cyclic shear behavior of the silt samples prepared using ␶ ⫽ shear stress; and
the sedimentation method 共Psed = 10 kPa兲 and consolidated at vari- ␶max ⫽ maximum shear stress.
ous initial sustained deviator stress ratios qs / p⬘c was examined
using a closed-loop loading system. Two different failure criteria
were defined: double amplitude axial strain ␧a,DA = 5% for reversal References
conditions; or axial plastic strain ␧a,P = 5% for nonreversal. For
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