LxcerpLs from SLephen WhlLess enLry on Clcero ln Lhe 8ouLledge Lncyclopedla of hllosophy

(Ceneral Ld Ldward Cralg)

Clcero(10643 8CL)

Llfe and wrlLlngs

Marcus 1ulllus Clcero elder son of a locally lnfluenLlal famlly ln Lhe Lown of Arplnum moved Lo
8ome ln hls youLh Lo pursue a career ln law and governmenL 1here he sLudled wlLh several
Creek phllosophers lncludlng Lhe Academlc hllo of Larlssa and afLer a brllllanL legal debuL he
spenL Lwo years ln Creece sLudylng phllosophy and rheLorlc wlLh AnLlochus and Lhe SLolc
osldonlus upon hls reLurn he won elecLlon Lo a ma[or offlce LhaL broughL llfelong membershlp
of Lhe SenaLe (8omes supreme governlng body) and soon esLabllshed hlmself as Lhe foremosL
advocaLe of Lhe age LlecLed consul (8omes chlef execuLlve offlce) ln 63 8CL he suppressed an
lnsurrecLlon and was halled hls counLrys savlour 8uL opponenLs conLrlved hls exlle ln 38 8C
and when he reLurned Lhe followlng year he found hls lnfluence severely dlmlnlshed 1urnlng
Lo wrlLlng he formulaLed and defended hls pollLlcal ldeals ln Lhree ploneerlng dlalogues When
!ullus Caesar preclplLaLed clvll war ln 49 8CL Clcero slded relucLanLly wlLh Lhe opposlLlon as Lhe
lesser LhreaL Lo 8oman lnsLlLuLlons Caesars swlfL vlcLory broughL dlcLaLorshlp and Clcero
alLhough granLed clemency was excluded from pollLlcs 8eLurnlng Lo wrlLlng he champloned
free pollLlcal dlscusslon ln a serles of rheLorlcal works Lhen composed ln LwenLy monLhs a
dozen works (nlne survlve whole or ln large parL) dlscusslng cenLral problems ln PellenlsLlc
phllosophy 1he pollLlcal Lurmoll LhaL followed Caesars assasslnaLlon ln March 44 8C slowed
Lhen halLed Lhls asLonlshlng pace as he rallled reslsLance Lo Mark AnLonys despoLlc deslgns Pls
campalgn mlghL well have succeeded had AnLony noL colluded wlLh Caesars adopLlve helr Lhe
fuLure AugusLus Clcero was assasslnaLed and hls head lmpaled ln Lhe lorum where he had
spoken so ofLen and so eloquenLly

Clceros exLanL works alLhough only parL of hls enormous ouLpuL comprlse over flfLy speeches
nearly a Lhousand leLLers Lo frlends and assoclaLes several works on rheLorlcal Lheory and
pracLlce and Lwelve on phllosophlcal Loplcs 1hls vasL corpus besldes dlsplaylng greaL
lnLellecLual range and sLyllsLlc vlrLuoslLy embodles Clceros convlcLlon LhaL phllosophy and
rheLorlc are lnLerdependenL and boLh essenLlal for Lhe lmprovemenL of human llfe and socleLy
Pls oraLory bears Lhe sLamp of hls LheoreLlcal sLudles and hls LreaLlses and dlalogues are rlchly
oraLorlcal 1he phllosophlcal works ln parLlcular unlLe Lhe rheLorlcal Lechnlques and ample sLyle
of 8oman oraLory wlLh Lhe analyLlcal meLhods and concepLual apparaLus of Creek phllosophy ln
a unlque fuslon of eloquence and lnslghL All buL one of Lhese works are flcLlonal dlalogues
Some porLray Clcero or emlnenL 8omans of Lhe prevlous cenLury dlscourslng aL lengLh among
frlends oLhers employlng a formaL LhaL reflecLs 8oman pollLlcal and legal pracLlce buL also Lhe
crlLlcal splrlL Clcero admlred ln laLo and hls scepLlcal helrs ln Lhe new Academy presenL palred
speeches for and agalnsL Lplcurean and SLolc Lheorles Composed for audlences unused Lo
absLracL Lheory and sysLemaLlc analysls Lhe dlscusslons lapse aL Llmes lnLo earnesL
declamaLlon and Lhe close quesLlonlng found ln laLos dlalogues ls rare Powever Lhey are
meLhodlcally organlzed and ofLen lnclslve and by presenLlng opposlng vlews and argumenLs ln
clear and engaglng Lerms Lhey dramaLlze Lhe slgnlflcance of fundamenLal problems and
encourage crlLlcal reflecLlon

Classlcal republlcanlsm

Clceros flrsL phllosophlcal works are Lhree long dlalogues LhaL analyse and evaluaLe Lhe pollLlcal
lnsLlLuLlons and pracLlces of conLemporary 8ome ln Lhe llghL of Creek Lheory AlLhough largely
conservaLlve Lhey provlded Lhe flrsL pollLlcal Lheory ln LaLln and remaln Lhe mosL sysLemaLlc
anclenL accounL of 8oman governmenL whlle oLhers descrlbed evenLs only Clcero advanced a
sLrucLural analysls WrlLLen when 8omes republlcan LradlLlons were collapslng under
unprecedenLed concenLraLlons of economlc and mlllLary power Lhese dlalogues champlon
pollLlcal llberLy raLlonal debaLe and rule by law ArLlculaLlng Lhe prlnclples behlnd hls llfelong
goal of harmonlzlng 8omes compeLlng lnLeresLs ln a [usL and sLable concord of Lhe orders
Lhey propound a comprehenslve vlslon of clvll socleLy dlrecLed by an elecLed ellLe schooled ln
rheLorlc and phllosophy devoLed Lo consLlLuLlonal governmenL and able Lo shape publlc
oplnlon Lhrough effecLlve oraLory

1he flrsL of Lhese works Cn Lhe CraLor explores Lhe role of rheLorlc and phllosophy ln publlc
llfe CraLory had long been a poLenL Lool ln 8oman pollLlcs and Clcero alms Lo relnforce lLs
presLlge and leglLlmlze lLs lnfluence by showlng LhaL lLs success requlres wlde learnlng and
sound reasonlng Much of Lhe dlscusslon focuses on educaLlon as he welghs Lhe merlLs of Lhe
LradlLlonal 8oman emphasls on hlsLory poeLry and pracLlcal experlence agalnsL Lhe Creek
dlsclpllnes of formal rheLorlc and phllosophy Pls model oraLor who clearly reflecLs Clceros
own proflclencles unlLes Lhorough knowledge of hlsLory and law wlLh compleLe command of
loglcal meLhod phllosophlcal Lheory and rheLorlcal Lechnlques ln a 8omanlzed verslon of
laLos phllosopherrulers 8oLh expecL phllosophlcal educaLlon Lo produce Lhe besL sLaLesmen
buL whereas laLos ldeal hlnges on maLhemaLlcal Lralnlng and LranscendenLal meLaphyslcs
Clcero proposes a Lhoroughly pragmaLlc programme of lnsLrucLlon deslgned Lo fosLer
eloquence and lnformed clvlc debaLe

Clcero dellneaLes Lhe lnsLlLuLlonal framework behlnd hls concepLlon of leadershlp ln Cn Lhe
8epubllc whlch was almosL enLlrely losL unLll mosL of Lhe flrsL Lhlrd was recovered ln 1820
Challenglng Lhe uLoplan benL of Creek pollLlcal Lheory exempllfled by laLos 8epubllc Clcero
argues LhaL Lhe besL consLlLuLlon far from belng unaLLalnable was largely reallzed ln 8ome
where a unlque blend of monarchy arlsLocracy and democracy formed a mlxed consLlLuLlon
LhaL provlded a sysLem of governmenL osLenslbly sLable and [usL 1hls accounL whlch recasLs
8omes narrow ollgarchy as a paradlgm of arlsLocraLlc paLernallsm resLs on an lnclslve and
apparenLly orlglnal analysls of pollLlcal leglLlmacy ueflnlng a republlc (res publlca) as a peoples
affalr (res popull) and a people as a communlLy unlLed by consensus abouL rlghL and by muLual
lnLeresL Clcero crlLlclzes all oLher consLlLuLlons for conLravenlng Lhe peoples rlghLs and
lnLeresLs Lhen argues LhaL no pollLlcal sysLem ls leglLlmaLe unless lL dlsLrlbuLes legal rlghLs
equally Lo all buL elecLoral leglslaLlve and [udlclal auLhorlLy proporLlonally accordlng Lo merlL
and wealLh CLher exLanL secLlons of Lhe dlalogue classlfy Lypes of consLlLuLlon ln classlcal Creek
fashlon and survey Lhe developmenL of 8oman lnsLlLuLlons losL or poorly preserved secLlons
summarlzed PellenlsLlc debaLes abouL Lhe naLure and rewards of [usLlce dlscussed 8oman
educaLlon and measured pasL 8oman sLaLesman agalnsL Clceros ldeal Lndlng Lhe work ls Lhe
famous dream of Sclplo whlch lnLerweaves asLronomy and eschaLology Lo skeLch a Lheodlcy
LhaL rewrlLes laLos myLh of Lr ln Lhe llghL of SLolc cosmology and exalLs publlc servlce by
reservlng Lhe flnesL posLhumous rewards for ouLsLandlng sLaLesmen

Cn Laws a sequel probably lefL lncompleLe and publlshed only afLer Clceros deaLh fllls ln hls
consLlLuLlonal model by ouLllnlng a comprehenslve legal sysLem vylng wlLh laLos Laws Lhls
Llme he conLlnues hls argumenL LhaL 8ome already embodled much of Lhe ldeal Pls LreaLmenL
of rellglon and pollLlcal admlnlsLraLlon whlch ls all LhaL survlves ls deeply conservaLlve largely
an explanaLlon and defence of exlsLlng sLaLuLes and lnsLlLuLlons by appeal Lo Creek Lheory and
8oman hlsLory wlLh proposals for change llmlLed Lo sLreamllnlng and archalzlng reforms raLher
Lhan exLenslve revlslon or Lhorough codlflcaLlon 1he work was exLremely lnfluenLlal especlally
on ChrlsLlan and early modern LhoughL because lL conLalns Lhe fullesL survlvlng anclenL accounL
of naLural law urawlng heavlly on SLolc ldeas Clcero argues LhaL Lhe naLural world exhlblLs a
dlvlnely ordalned and raLlonally lnLelllglble order LhaL can be codlfled ln leglslaLlon and provldes
Lhe ulLlmaLe Lrlbunal for all poslLlve law

Clvll war lnLerrupLed Clceros wrlLlng and he never reLurned Lo consLlLuLlonal or legal Lheory
8uL hls very lasL book rounds ouL hls pollLlcal Lhlnklng by examlnlng Lhe role of personal
morallLy ln publlc llfe ln Lhe gulse of an exLended eplsLle Lo hls son Cn uuLles maps ouL a code
of conducL for Lhe 8oman noblllLy LhaL emphaslzes [usLlce benefacLlon and publlc servlce 1he
focus LhroughouL ls on men of hlgh sLaLlon and Lhe problems of lnLegraLlng personal amblLlons
and soclal obllgaLlons 8orrowlng heavlly from Lhe SLolc anaeLlus Clcero argues LhaL vlrLuous
conducL ls always expedlenL as well as morally requlred and LhaL apparenL confllcLs beLween
morallLy and personal advanLage are lllusory because vlrLuous acLlon ls always Lhe besL opLlon

PumanlsL eLhlcs

lnformlng all of Clceros work ls a profound falLh ln Lhe naLural goodness of humanlLy and Lhe
power of reason Lo dlrecL and lmprove human llfe 1he assumpLlons behlnd Lhls humanlsL
ouLlook whlch ls probably Clceros mosL consLrucLlve synLhesls of Creek ldeas are
sysLemaLlcally examlned ln Cn Lhe Lnds of Cood and Lvll (usually known as Lhe ue flnlbus)
1ackllng Lhe cenLral quesLlon of anclenL eLhlcal Lheory Lhe dlalogue lnqulres lnLo Lhe ulLlmaLe
end of human acLlon and how happlness ls aLLalned (see Ludalmonla) alred speeches
expound and crlLlclze Lplcurean and SLolc accounLs of human naLure and Lhe sLaLus of moral
vlrLue endlng Lhe work and recelvlng only brlef crlLlclsm ls a neoArlsLoLellan accounL derlved
from AnLlochus Clcero speaks LhroughouL as an Academlc scepLlc argulng LhaL Lplcurean
hedonlsm ls lncoherenL and morally subverslve and challenglng Lhe SLolc docLrlne LhaL moral
vlrLue ls Lhe sole good and hence sufflclenL for happlness 8uL he commends Lhe moral ausLerlLy
and LheoreLlcal rlgour of SLolc eLhlcs and whlle he flnds Lhe ArlsLoLellan poslLlon lnLulLlvely
aLLracLlve and mosL conduclve Lo publlc servlce he quesLlons wheLher AnLlochus vlew LhaL
nonmoral lnLeresLs are also lnLrlnslcally good undermlnes Lhe supremacy of moral vlrLue

SeLLlng aslde scepLlcal worrles Lo address pracLlcal quesLlons Clcero explores some appllcaLlons
of hls eLhlcal raLlonallsm ln Lwo subsLanLlal works and a palr of earnesL buL eleganL morallzlng
essays Cn uuLles employs a SLolc framework Lo spell ouL sysLemaLlc rules of conducL 1usculan
ulspuLaLlons slmllarly uses SLolc Lheory Lo analyse problems ln moral psychology AdopLlng a
formaL used by Carneades Clcero presenLs flve lengLhy dlsqulslLlons refuLlng common bellefs
abouL Lhe emoLlons buL slnce each speech upholds a SLolc paradox Lhe resulL ls a susLalned
defence of SLolc docLrlnes lnvoklng a leglon of phllosophlcal and llLerary auLhorlLles Clcero
argues vlgorously LhaL phllosophy ls Lhe medlclne of Lhe soul and LhaL lL alone enables us Lo
scorn deaLh endure paln overcome grlef and oLher passlons and lead good llves Much of Lhe
argumenL resLs on an acuLe SLolc analysls of emoLlons as governed by bellefs 8uL Clceros ldeal
of raLlonal resLralnL and selfconLrol as Lhe source of menLal LranqullllLy and happlness dlsLllls
ldeas cenLral Lo Creek and 8oman culLure allke 1wo shorLer dlalogues porLray emlnenL 8omans
from Lhe prevlous cenLury as sage advlsors on more personal Loplcs Cn Cld Age enumeraLes
Lhe lasLlng rewards of honourable characLer and educaLlon lncludlng a glorlous afLerllfe Cn
lrlendshlp exLols a paradlgm of arlsLocraLlc male companlonshlp based on muLual beneflL buL
also lnLegrlLy and loyalLy 8oLh works whlle dlsLlncLly less sysLemaLlc Lhan Clceros oLher
dlalogues exempllfy hls ablllLy Lo lllumlnaLe vlLal human concerns wlLh phllosophlcal lnslghL
and graceful eloquence

lnfluence

Clcero was Lhe mosL lnfluenLlal wrlLer and lnLellecL of hls Llme and hls lmpacL on WesLern
culLure has been lasLlng and profound Pls phllosophlcal wrlLlngs by forglng expresslons
essenLlal for LheoreLlcal dlscusslon lnauguraLed over slxLeen cenLurles of phllosophy ln LaLln
1hey also fuelled Lhe rlse of ChrlsLlanlLy ln Lhe WesL as Lhe LaLln laLhers mlned hls dlalogues ln
Lhelr campalgns agalnsL pagan rellglon and phllosophy (see aLrlsLlc phllosophy) AugusLlne
whose llfe was Lransformed by Lhe exhorLaLlon Lo phllosophy ln Clceros losL PorLenslus drew
on hls wrlLlngs exLenslvely especlally ln AgalnsL Lhe Academlcs and ClLy of Cod 1hrough Lhese
and oLher wrlLers mosL noLably Ambrose !erome and Lhe pagan Macroblus (whose
neoplaLonlc commenLary on Sclplos dream was wldely sLudled) Clceros ldeas shaped
medleval LhoughL especlally eLhlcs and Lheorles of naLural law Pls lnfluence reached lLs zenlLh
ln Lhe 8enalssance when Lrasmus and oLher humanlsLs emulaLed hls crlLlcal splrlL and
reafflrmed hls secular ouLlook and ecumenlcal ldeals 8y maklng hls wrlLlngs Lhe foundaLlon of a
llberal educaLlon Lhey also lncreased hls moral auLhorlLy and ln Lhe followlng cenLurles hls
eLhlcal and pollLlcal works (above all Cn uuLles dubbed 1ullys Cfflces ln Lngllsh) fosLered Lhe
revlval of republlcanlsm and Lhe developmenL of llberallsm whlle hls dlalogues on rellglon were
lnsplraLlonal Lo delsm volLalre proclalmed hlm Lhe model of enllghLened reason and Pume
was deeply lndebLed Lo Clcero especlally ln hls crlLlque of rellglous dogmaLlsm and hls
concepLlon of mlLlgaLed scepLlclsm 1he rlse of ldeallsm ln Lhe nlneLeenLh cenLury lowered
Clceros phllosophlcal repuLaLlon conslderably 8uL renewed lnLeresL ln scepLlclsm and vlrLue
eLhlcs along wlLh lmproved undersLandlng of PellenlsLlc phllosophy has ln recenL decades
sLlmulaLed lnLense dlscusslon of hls work yeL agaln
8eLurn Lo Syllabus

PellenlsLlc and 8oman LLhlcs