Designing poultry diets without doubts

A
lthough there are still discussions as to whether or not antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) really present a threat to human health, AGPs are now considered to be politically dead. The benefits of AGPs in feed are clear though, but the response to these substances seems to be very variable and has shown to be relatively greater when broilers are raised under unfavourable environmental conditions. All AGPs used in broiler production preferentially target gram-positive bacteria. This property makes them very suitable in the prevention of primarily necrotic enteritis due to Clostridium perfringens type A. From a nutritional point of view, AGPs are believed to inhibit growth of intestinal bacteria with growth-depressing properties for the chicken competing with the host for available nutrients. This hypothesis is confirmed by studies with germ-free chickens showing that the intestinal microflora accounts for a loss of approximately 10% of the total apparent metabolisable energy.

A variety of feed additives and feed ingredients, some with excellent nutritional properties, have become questionable. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these doubtful ingredients and what are the alternatives?
By Ricarda M. Engberg and Jette S. Peterson
the effects of the removal of AGPs from feed. Results showed no evidence of a decreased productivity (kg broiler/m2) or increased mortality following the removal. However, a major increase in feed consumption was reported corresponding to 16g feed/kg broiler. In another study where broilers from different farming systems were compared, it was shown that the level of enterococci resistant to a number of antibiotics including those used as AGPs was considerably lower in broilers from organic production as compared to birds from conventional production. Furthermore, it was found that resistance to AGPs (vancomycin) persists among enterococci isolated from broiler chickens, suggesting a flock to flock transfer of vancomycin resistant bacteria surviving the cleaning and disinfecting of broiler houses.

Improving digestibility
Alternatives to AGPs should aim at the reduction of the intestinal bacterial number and fermentation activity. One way is to efficiently reduce the amount of undigested nutrients in the contents of the small intestine, and thereby minimise available substrate for microbial growth and fermentation. This can be done by formulating a diet of high digestibility for the broilers taking feed ingredients, processing and feed structure (particle size) into consideration (Figure 1). Dietary addition of NSP-degrading enzymes (xylanases and -glucanases) has shown to reduce intestinal viscosity, and to increase nutrient digestibility in particular the digestibility of fat. Since dietary inclusion of viscous polysaccharides does not lead to growth depression in germ free chickens, it seems that the intestinal microflora also play a central role in the mediation of growth response to enzymes. Over the last approximately five years feeding enzymes have become standard in the formulation of broiler diets, especially those containing high amounts of wheat or barley. The use of enzymes is probably one of the reasons why the elimination of AGPs in Denmark, where broiler diets are wheat based, did not have dramatic consequences for broiler production.

Living without AGPs

In Denmark all AGPs were (partly voluntarily) removed from broiler feed from February 1998. The Danish Poultry Council studied

Acids
Feed conversion is most affected when AGPs are withdrawn from the feed.

The other way of achieving a reduced microbial growth in the small intestine and thereby growth promotion, is the addition of

FEED MIX Volume 10 Number 1 2002

www.AgriWorld.nl

Figure 1 - Counts of Clostridium perfringens in guts of broilers fed mash of pelleted diets

Figure 2 - Counts of Clostridium perfringens in guts of broilers fed diets supplemented with zinc bacitracin or salinomycin

compounds with bacteriostatic properties. From the aspect of health it would be desirable to aim this bacteriostatic effect at undesirable potentially pathogenic bacteria including E. coli, salmonella, campylobacter and C. perfringens. In poultry organic acids are assumed to inhibit growth of bacteria in the feed and in the upper part of the digestive tract (crop and stomach) rather than in the intestine. This results in a lower number of potentially pathogenic bacteria entering the intestine. A significant improvement of growth similar to that of AGPs can only be expected when the growth of beneficial as well as pathogenic gram-positive bacteria (lactic acid bacteria and clostridia) is also inhibited. Research is ongoing to make organic acids work in poultry production by using combinations of organic acids with essential oils. A different type of additive, which has shown to improve growth and feed utilisation in broilers is phosphorylated mannan oligosaccharide protein. This product is suggested to bind to the lectins on the bacterial surface, thus preventing pathogens becoming attached to the intestinal epithelium. Many of the recently developed products including organic acids as well as probiotics and prebiotics do preferentially target bacteria of the gram-negative flora, which is in fact desirable. When using these products in combination, results are superior to those obtained when the respective products are used alone.

ionophores Monensin sodium, Salinomycin sodium, Lasalocid sodium, Narasin, and Maduramicin ammonium are approved as feed additives in poultry within the EU. In contrast to AGPs, ionophores are absorbed in small amounts following ingestion and are deposited in various tissues including liver, muscle, fat and skin. To prevent antibiotic residues in the carcass, ionophore antibiotics are withdrawn from the finisher diets five days prior to slaughter. Compared to most chemical coccidiostats, the situation of coccidial resistance against ionophores seems not to be alarming. But, following long-term application, a clear decreased efficiency of ionophorous anticoccidial drugs has been observed. Beside their anticoccidial effect, ionophore antibiotics inhibit the growth of gram-positive bacteria, and have shown to effectively reduce the intestinal number of C. perfringens (Figure 2), thus preventing necrotic enteritis. Ionophores seem to be able to substitute AGPs to a certain extent. The continued application of ionophores in broiler feed is very likely the reason, why the removal of AGPs in Denmark was not followed by increased problems related to necrotic enteritis e.g. increased mortality and liver condemnations at slaughter.

Microbial resistance of enterococci against ionophore antibiotics has recently been shown, but the practical significance of this observation may be questioned, since ionophores are not used in antibiotic therapy in human medicine. Anyway, it is difficult to say with good conscience to the consumer, that broiler production now is free of AGPs, well knowing that antibiotics in the form of anticoccidials are increasingly added to the feed. Ionophore antibiotics are not easy to substitute. At the present the only real alternative to anticoccidial drugs in broiler feed is the application of non-attenuated or attenuated live vaccines.

Products of animal origin

In December 2000 meat and bone meal (MBM) suspected as a vehicle for the infectious agents of BSE in cattle was removed within the EU from the feed of all animals used in the food production chain. At the same time all sales of MBM as well as import and export was forbidden. The ban also includes other feed ingredients derived from animal origin at the processing plant. Excluded from the ban is fishmeal in the feed for other animals than ruminants as well as gelatine derived from other animals than from ruminants for the use as coating material for feed additives. The feeding of milk and dairy products is likewise still permitted.

Antimicrobial properties
The antimicrobial property of ionophores is the reason why some of these substances are also used as AGPs in animal feed. Conflicting results exist on growth-promoting properties of ionophore antibiotics in broiler production. On the one hand it was found that monensin, narasin and maduramicin had a significant growth enhancing influence in broilers. But salinomycin at 66 mg per kg feed or 101 mg monensin per kg feed were shown to induce growth depression in broilers.

Benefits of meat and bone meal

The nutritive value of different MBMs mainly depends on their content of protein and ash. It has generally been considered as a dietary source of readily available phosphorus for poultry and has been added to poultry diets at levels covering almost the entire phosphorus requirement of the birds. The removal of MBM from animal feed has resulted in significant economical con-

Ionophore anticoccidials
Ionophore antibiotics are fermentation products of different Streptomyces species and other fungi. They are polyether antibiotics, which exert their antibiotic action by disturbing the transport of ions in cell membranes. At the moment, the

www.AgriWorld.nl

FEED MIX Volume 10 Number 1 2002

Table 1 Walking ability (gait score) of broilers fed different calcium and phosphorous levels and phytase addition
Trial/feedmill Without phytase I/A II/A I/B II/C Mean LS mean*** With phytase I/D I/E II/E Mean LS mean*** Ca* % 0.73 0.71 0.90 0.92 0.84 0.70 0.61 0.59 0.63 P* % 0.66 0.63 0.67 0.68 0.66 0.56 0.53 0.57 0.55 Ca/P 1.11 1.13 1.34 1.35 1.27 1.25 1.15 1.04 1.14 Mean GS** 1.86 1.43 1.61 1.51 1.56 1.59a 1.45 1.57 1.43 1.48 1.37b

Data from two trials (Petersen 2001) comparing broiler feed from five feed mills. For each mill, mean values from three pens of 80 birds shown per trial. * Mean calcium and phosphorus content of compound feed and whole wheat ** Gait score = walking ability assessed for 35 day old broilers using a scale from 0-5 (0= no abnormalities) *** Least square means corrected for differences due to body weight and trial. (p<0.05)

Flock mentality: Politicians are often forced to make decisions too quickly.

sequences for poultry producers. Substitution of meat and bone meal is difficult. Diets for egg layers are now balanced by increasing the inclusion of soybean meal and fat, which gives rise to increased feed prices in the range of e8 per tonne. Broiler diets were balanced for protein and amino acid content by adding more soybean meal. For phosphorus and calcium requirements MBM was replaced by dicalcium and monocalcium phosphate. A negative effect of this move is increased intake of water by the birds, resulting in poor litter quality, and creating a negative effect on the welfare of the birds primarily due to increased ammonia evaporation. Dietary levels of calcium, phosphorus, and the addition of phytase may have influence on the occurrence of leg disorders, due to poor distribution of phosphates in the feed. Hence, preliminary results indicate that walking ability may be improved when phytase is added to the diet (Table 1).

the poison to unacceptable levels in edible tissues. Although the concentration of dioxins is higher in fishmeal as compared to grains, grains may remain the major source of dioxins due to their high dietary inclusion level. A desirable reduction of human exposure to dioxins via the food chain will be achieved more effectively by reduction of dioxin pollution rather than by changing agricultural practises and food consumption patterns. Fishmeal is an excellent protein source, providing also calcium, phosphorus, and a number of micronutrients. However, for concentrations of above 5% fishmeal may result in fishy off-flavour of poultry meat and eggs. Related to the favourable amino acid pattern, high levels of fishmeal are at present included in feed for broilers and egg-layers at a maximum of 5% in organic farming systems in Denmark. The presence of fishmeal in organic feed has to be questioned, though.

cereal having a certain potential in this respect. Naked oats have a protein content of about 15% with a balanced amino acid pattern. Field beans, peas and seed of blue lupine, a variety that can be cultivated relatively colder areas, may likewise present alternatives. Blue lupine is rich in protein, but the amino acid pattern shows deficiencies in lysine, methionine and tryptophan. A further disadvantage is the relatively high fibre content and the presence of non-starch polysaccharides. Addition of appropriate exogenous enzymes may improve the nutritive value of blue lupine.

GMO crops
In Europe the Novel Food Regulation permits an accidental GMO contamination of 1% related to the single added ingredient (maize or soybean). Until now no comparable threshold for animal feed has been agreed on, but this may be the subject of future considerations. Nutritionally the current GMO crops have no direct benefits for poultry nutrition, but future varieties may have improved properties. An improvement of the protein content and amino acid pattern would especially be interesting in grains, e.g. wheat and barley. Consumer protection seems to be the key issue in the ongoing political debate concerning food and agriculture and politicians are often forced to make decisions quickly and at times without sufficient scientific background. To improve consumer acceptance of food, steps towards a transparent risk analysis system should be taken involving the food industry, scientists and the media.
This article is an edited version of a presentation held at the 13th European Poultry Nutrition and Ascites workshop held in Blankenberge, Belgium

Replacing fishmeal
It is possible to replace fishmeal in rations for broilers and layers by e.g. soybean meal and maize gluten. Maize gluten 60 is a byproduct from the starch industry providing 60% crude protein of high digestibility. The advantage of this feed item is the high concentration of sulphur amino acids. The major disadvantage of maize gluten is the amino acid imbalance, in particular excess leucine and deficiencies in lysine and tryptophan. Other protein sources, which may be considered in the formulation of poultry diets, are rapeseed meal and sunflower meal. In organic farming the use of solvent extraction meals is not allowed and appropriate protein feeds are desperately needed. Certain varieties of naked oats may be a

Dioxin threats
Fish has been recognised to be one of the major sources of dioxin, which is a highly carcinogenic environmental poison. This is particularly true for fish derived from the more polluted areas like the North Sea and the Baltic around Scandinavia. Since dioxins are mainly deposited in fat tissues, fish oils and fishmeal contain relatively high concentrations of these chemicals. The use of these items in poultry feed therefore may be questioned. Layers exposed to relatively low dietary levels of dioxin have shown to excrete dioxin with eggs and to accumulate

10

FEED MIX Volume 10 Number 1 2002

www.AgriWorld.nl