HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING

(HVAC)

NOTES
 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO HVAC SYSTEMS .................................................................................................2

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................2

1.2 HVAC System Definitions .....................................................................................................................3

1.3 Psychrometric Chart .............................................................................................................................5

1.4 Application of the Psychrometric Chart ............................................................................................19

CHAPTER 2 – AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, THERMAL COMFORT AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY ........... 25

2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................25

2.2 Air-Conditioning System .....................................................................................................................26

2.3 Air-Conditioning Systems ...................................................................................................................29

2.4 Choosing an Air-Conditioning System ..............................................................................................35

2.5 System Choice Matrix .........................................................................................................................36

2.6 Thermal Comfort ..................................................................................................................................37

2.7 Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) ............................................................................................38

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................................ 40

Appendix A .......................................................................................................................................................................... 41

Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Appendix C .......................................................................................................................................................................... 43

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CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO HVAC SYSTEMS

The focus of this learning unit is to achieve the following outcomes on completion of
this learning unit:
Learning unit outcome Learning outcomes
Describe, and explain different types and 1.1 Definitions of HVAC systems
basic principles of HVAC systems; 1.2 Psychometric chart and its application
understand the Psychometric chart and its 1.3 Understand the basic HVAC system
application 1.4 Understand different types of HVAC
systems

Prescribed Material
Study chapter 2 in Fundamentals of HVAC Systems by Robert McDowall

1.1 Introduction
HVAC is an acronym that stands for Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning. Heating deals
with warming a space by suppling a hot fluid into a space via a heat exchanger and Air-
conditioning involves cooling or warming a space. On the other hand, ventilation is a process
of supplying (Dilution ventilation) or removing air (extraction ventilation) in a space. In this
learning unit, students will be introduced to the working principles of an HVAC system. Finally
we will take a look at Psychometric charts and their application in HVAC systems.
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1.2 HVAC System Definitions

Since HVAC has three components as already pointed out in the short introduction, these will
be defined in this section of the Learning unit.

1.2.1 Heating
Heating is concerned with raising the temperature of a defined space or building in order to
make it warmer than the outside environment. This can be achieved through central heating
system or by space heating system. Central heating entails use of boilers or heat pumps and
heat is transferred into a building by convention, conduction or radiation. This can also be
achieved via air handling units, which have heater banks installed in them and thus heated air
is transferred into a room/building via ducts and diffusers. Space heaters are only used for
heating single rooms by radiation mostly. Figure 1.1 shows a typical schematic of a central
heating system. [1]

Figure 1.1 Schematic Diagram of a Central Heating System

(Adapted from:
[Link]

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1.2.2 Ventilation
Ventilation is a process of introducing fresh air into space or building, by either natural means
(through door of window openings) or by use of mechanical fans through an extraction or
dilution ventilation. An extraction ventilation system mostly consists of a fan that removes
contaminated or humid air from a building and allowing fresh air into the same space through
openings. Dilution ventilation (see schematic in Figure 1.2 ) has a fan system supplying fresh
air into a space and contaminated air is displaced out through openings. [1]

Figure 1.2: Dilution Ventilation Schematic

(Adapted from: [Link]

1.2.3 Air-Conditioning
Air-conditioning is a process of control of temperature, and humidity. It also includes supply of
air from outside for ventilation, filtration of the same air and the movement of air in an occupied
room/space. In general Air-conditioning can be summarized as follows:-
• To maintain indoor air quality,
• To maintain inside design temperature as specified,
• To maintain humidity at acceptable levels inside a space/room, and
• To change air movement
These parameters will depend on the situation and the requirements of the given space and
its occupants. Figure 1.3 shows a schematic of an HVAC system. The system shows the flow
of air from outside, which is filtered inside an Air Handling Unit (AHU) before being supplied
into a room. Also included inside the AHU is a heat exchanger coil and a fan. The function of
the coil is to exchange heat between either chilled water from the chiller plant or hot water from
the boiler depending on the season (summer or winter). For energy efficiency exhausted air

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from the room can be fed back into the AHU as shown in Figure 1.3. [1]

Figure 1.3: HVAC Schematic

(Adapted from: [Link]

To learn more about HVAC systems, you can access the following youtube web pages:
• Defining HVAC Systems by Net Energy Optimizer (NEO) (Accessed on: 17 December at
21:30) [Link]
• What is HVAC, heating ventilating and air-conditioning, hvac definition for beginners?
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING BY A (Accessed on: 17 December at 21:45)
[Link]
• HVAC Training - Basics of HVAC by Price Industries (Accessed on: 17 December at 21:50)
[Link]

1.3 Psychrometric Chart

Air-conditioning processes to a large extend have to do with energy changes, which arise from
properties of the air, that is temperature and moisture within the air. These air properties can
be represented graphically by a chart known as the Psychrometric Chart. The chart shows the
relationship between the air temperature, moisture content and energy (enthalpy). This chart
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is crucial in the design of air-conditioning systems. [1]

The Psychrometric chart is derived from the principle of measuring moisture content of air,
which is termed psychrometry. This can be further explained by the concept of psychrometrics.
Psychrometrics being the study of thermal properties of moist air, which looks at measurement
and control of air moisture content and effects of atmospheric moisture on material and human
comfort. Figure 1.4 shows a simplified version of a psychrometric chart. It shows temperature
on the abscissa (horizontal axis) and the specific humidity or humidity ratio (kg of moisture per
kg of dry air) on the ordinate (vertical axis)

The curved lines on the psychrometric chart show the relative humidity (%), and as can be
seen on the graph, maximum relative humidity occurs at 100%, which is the outmost curved
line. This line is also called the saturation line, that is, when the air holds the maximum vapor
in it.
Looking at the chart, one can observe that, the maximum amount of water vapor that moist air
can contain increases rapidly with increasing temperature. The red diagonal lines show the
enthalpy (kJ/kg) of the air, whilst the green diagonal lines show the specific volume (m 3/kg) of
air. [1]

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Figure 1.4: Simplified Psychrometric Chart

(Adapted from: [Link]
Before one can understand and master how to read the psychrometric chart, a definition of
some major terms would be useful. The following are some of the major terms:-
• Relative humidity – is the amount of water vapor present in air expressed as a percentage
of the amount needed for saturation at the same temperature
• Saturation line – also known as the maximum vapor line is when the relative humidity is
100%, meaning the air cannot hold anymore vapor at the same temperature
• Enthalpy – is the total heat at saturation temperature (kJ/kg) of dry air
• Dry bulb temperature (ºC) – it is the temperature of unit mass of dry air for different
humidity contents as shown on the x-axis
• Wet bulb/Dew point/Saturation temperature (ºC) – is temperature at which the air starts to
condense. It is a point of saturation and occurs at the saturation line (100% relative
humidity). It is shown in the scale on the upper curved line. The dew points for different
low pressures are read on diagonal co-ordinates.

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1.3.1 Psychrometric Processes

Psychrometric processes involve conditioning outside air before supplying it into an occupied
space. The process enables the air to be comfortable for the occupants/people. There are a
number of psychrometric processes that change the psychrometric properties of outside air
before being introduced into an occupied space and are as follows:- [1]
Sensible heating,
Sensible cooling,
Cooling and dehumidification,
Cooling and humidification,
Mixing of air streams,
Heating and dehumidification, and
Heating and humidification

Cooling and Dehumidification

In air-conditioning, cooling can be achieved by passing moist air over a heat exchanger. A
typical example is an AHU in a building, where outside air is cooled by chilled water from a
chiller plant. Figure 1.5 shows a simplified AHU heat exchanger or coil. The chilled water is
typically around 6ºC and the outside air could be as high as 32ºC. Chilled water flows through
pipes in the coil and the air flows through fins housed in a shell.

In this process, typically two things happen. The first scenario has to do with the coil cooling
the air as it passes over it. When the cooling fluid passes over the coil, it usually has its
saturation temperature below that of air, therefore the moisture condenses on the coil. This
has the effect of reducing the enthalpy of the cooling water (chilled water) or refrigerant. As
moisture condenses on the coil, it drains away. The amount of moisture drained depends on
temperature of the cooling fluid, depth of the coils, configuration of the fins and the air velocity
across the fins. [1]

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Figure 1.5: Cooling Coil/Heat Exchanger

(Adapted from: Fundamentals of HVAC Systems by Robert McDowall)

The process is represented by Figure 1.6, which shows the condensation from A to B and
finally the cooling of the air from B to C. As illustrated, the enthalpy of condensation (A-B) is
about a third the enthalpy of cooling (B-C) of the air. In this process, air is brought in at about
80ºF (27ºC) and 50% relative humidity and cooled to 57ºF (14ºC).

Figure 1.6: Psychrometric Chart – Cooling Across a Wet Cooling Coil

(Adapted from: Fundamentals of HVAC Systems by Robert McDowall)

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Mixing of air streams,

Air streams can be mixed (as illustrated in Figure 1.7) in mostly ducted air-conditioning
systems and this process occurs adiabatically (no addition or rejection of heat) and at constant
total moisture content. [2]

Figure 1.7: Mixing of Air Streams

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

From the laws of conservation of mass and energy, the following can be deduced:-
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 …………………………………………………. 1.1
𝑚1 𝑊1 + 𝑚2 𝑊2 = 𝑚3 𝑊3……………………………………… 1.2
𝑚1 ℎ1 + 𝑚2 ℎ2 = 𝑚3 ℎ3 ………………………………………… 1.3

Where, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are dry air masses of the two streams, W is the specific humidity and h is
the enthalpy of the dry air at particular state points.

From the three equations, we can derive the following:-

𝑚1 𝑊 −𝑊 ℎ −ℎ
= 𝑊3−𝑊2 = ℎ3 −ℎ2....................................................1.4
𝑚2 1 3 1 3

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Plotting the process on the psychrometric chart, will be as shown in Figure 1.8. The state of
the two mixing streams is point 3 and it divides the line into two parts that are in the same ratio
as were the two masses of air before mixing. It is generally assumed that densities of the air is
constant throughout the process for simplicity. [2]

Figure 1.8: Psychrometric Chart for two Mixing Air Streams

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

Sensible Heating
Looking at the same coil (Figure 1. 9) and we pass air over the surface, which is greater than
the dry bulb temperature of the air, it under goes sensible heating. In this process, the specific
humidity remains constant, but the dry bulb temperature rises (asymptotically) to the
temperature of the coil surface. This effect can be expressed in terms of the equivalent by-
pass factor (that’s when the air temperature approaches the mean effective surface
temperature of the coil).2

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The by-pass factor (BF) can be expressed mathematically as follows:-

𝑡𝑑𝑏3 −𝑡𝑑𝑏3
𝐵𝐹 = 𝑡 ………………………….……….1.5
𝑑𝑏3 −𝑡𝑑𝑏1

Where,
𝑡𝑑𝑏1 – Initial air temperature as it passes over the coil
𝑡𝑑𝑏2 – Air temperature as it leaves the coil
𝑡𝑑𝑏3 – Average surface temperature the coil

BF depends on coil design and velocity of the air. To deduce the heat added to the air, this can
be read from the chart enthalpies (h2 – h1) or from the product of the humid specific heat and
(𝑡𝑑𝑏2 − 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 ). A typical sensible heating example is preheating and reheating of air in an air-
conditioning system. [2]

Figure 1. 9 Psychrometric Chart for Sensible Heating

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

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Sensible Cooling
Sensible cooling occurs, when a fluid passes over a cooling coil as illustrated in Figure 1.10.
Only this time, the surface temperature of the coil is less than the dry bulb temperature of the
air, but greater than the dew point temperature. A typical situation is passing air over an
evaporating coil of a refrigeration cycle. In this process, the specific humidity remains constant
and dry bulb temperature decreases and asymptotically approaches the mean effective surface
temperature. The sensible cooling process can illustrated on a psychometric chart. [2]

Figure 1.10: Psychrometric Chart for Sensible Cooling

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

Sensible cooling occurs from 1 to 2 in Figure 1.10 and point 3 represents the effective surface
temperature of the coil. Therefore the By-pass factor for this process is calculated as:-
𝑡𝑑𝑏2 −𝑡𝑑𝑏3
𝐵𝐹 = …………………………………………...1.6
𝑡𝑑𝑏1 −𝑡𝑑𝑏3

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Cooling and Dehumidification

The process of cooling and dehumidification takes place when air passes through a coil surface
or spray of water that has its temperature less than the dew point temperature of the air.
Condensation of some of the vapour occurs and at the same time sensible cooling is also
taking place. For the air that is closer to the cooling coil surface, its temperature will be reduced
to approximate the mean surface temperature along 1-2-3. Along the same path, condensation
and thus dehumidification occur from 2 to 3. This process is plotted on the psychometric chart,
Figure 1.11. [2]

Figure 1.11: Psychrometric Chart for Cooling and Dehumidification

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

The actual behaviour of the air is shown by a curved dashed line 1 to 4, although for analysis
it is simplified as a straight line as shown. Complete saturation of the air does not take place
practically speaking and thus the final state of the air is point 4. The effective surface
temperature is referred to as apparatus dew point (ADP). [2]

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The sum total of the heat removed from the air is given by:-
𝑄𝑡 = ℎ1 − ℎ4 = (ℎ1 − ℎ1′ ) + (ℎ1′ − ℎ4 ) = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑠
= 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑠 ……………………………………………..…1.7
The first part of the summation is the Latent heat removed, whilst the second part is the
sensible heat removed.
𝑄
The sensible heat factor, 𝑆𝐻𝐹 = 𝑄𝑠 ……………………………………………………1.8
𝐿

𝑄𝑠
And sensible heat ratio, 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝑄 …………………………………………………1.9
𝐿 +𝑄𝑠

The cooling coil capacity is,

= 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 (ℎ1 − ℎ4 ) [𝑘𝑊]......................................1.10

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 (ℎ1 −ℎ4 ) 𝑥 60

Or = [𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
14000

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the mas flow rate of the air (Kg/s)

(ℎ1 − ℎ4 ) is the heat/enthalpy removed from the air (kJ/Kg)

Cooling and Humidification

Cooling and humidification occurs when unsaturated air passes over a spray of constantly
recirculated water. In this case, the humidity of the air will increase, while its temperature will
go down. It is termed evaporative cooling or adiabatic saturation. An illustration of this process
is shown in Figure 1.12. [2]

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Figure 1.12: Psychrometric Chart for Cooling and Humidification

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

The final state of the air is given by point 3, which is the equilibrium temperature of the
recirculated water. In this case, one would look at the humidifying efficiency, which is the ratio
of the dry-bulb temperature decrease to the entering wet bulb decrease.
Therefore, the humidifying efficiency or saturating efficiency is given by:-

𝑡𝑑𝑏1 −𝑡𝑑𝑏2
%𝜂𝑠𝑎𝑡 = [𝑡 ] 𝑥 100..................................................................1.11
𝑑𝑏1 −𝑡𝑑𝑏3

Heating and dehumidification

Heating and dehumidification process takes place when air is passed over either a solid or
absorbent surfaces. The absorbent surface mostly has a lower water vapour pressure than
air. Sensible heating of the air results from condensation of the air and heat being released as
a result of the process. [2]

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This process also results in heat being released by an active material and is called heat of
adsorption or absorption. Typical solid and liquid absorbents include silica gel, and solutions
of organic salts (ethyl, and glycol respectively). The psychrometric representation of this
process is shown in Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13: Psychrometric Chart for Heating and Dehumidification

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

Heating and Humidification

For this process, air is passed through a humidifier containing heated water sprays. As a result,
the air is humidified. The enthalpy will also increase and the increase or decrease in the dry
bulb temperature will depend on the initial temperature of the air and that of the spray. This
process is illustrated by Figure 1.14. [2]

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Figure 1.14: Psychrometric Chart for Heating Humidification

(Adapted from:
[Link]
ng%20Digital%[Link])

1 to 2 represents whereby temperature of the heated spray water is less than the air dry bulb
temperature and 1 to 3 is a case when the temperature is equal to the dry bulb air temperature.
As for process 1 to 4, spray temperature is more than air dry bulb temperature.

Some helpful video on Psychrometric Charts can also be accessed on the following web
pages:-
• How to Read a Psychrometric Chart by Tec Tube (Accessed 23h00 on 11 December 2021)
[Link]
• How to Read a Psychrometric Chart-stepwise animated explanation by The Practical Study
(Accessed 23h30 on 11 December 2021)
[Link]

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1.4 Application of the Psychrometric Chart

The importance and application of the Psychrometric chart is in the design and optimisation of
HVAC systems for both domestic and industrial situations. In air-conditioning design of houses,
office space, including engineering systems (server room air-cons) and processing equipment.
Some examples also include chilling, drying, and generally in situations where there is moisture
transfer between food and the surrounding areas. The behaviour of air and steam can be
modelled within reasonable accuracy and thus allow accurate designs. Another application of
the Psychrometric chart is in trouble shooting, for example, moisture condensing in a cooling
chamber. This problem can be diagnosed by plotting the condition on a psychrometric chart
and thereby identifying the fault and correcting it. [2]

This section will look at some of the simple applications of the psychrometric chart that includes
trouble shooting. More application examples will follow in HVAC system design and finally in
the form of mini-design projects at the end of the module.

Example 1.1
An HVAC design engineer is tasked with designing and installation (through supervision of the
contractor and signing off) an Air-conditioning system for an open plan office space. The
following are the design parameters or criteria:-
• Outside air temperature = 26ºC (60% RH)
• Air flow (supply) = 4.72 m3/s
• Air being discharged (from the AHU) into the office space = 11ºC (90% RH)
After careful analysis, the engineer recommends an 88 kW chiller plant for outside air unit. On
testing the system after installation office space conditions are not achieved. Diagnose the
problem and come up with a solution.

Solution
Check the heat (enthalpy) that needs to be removed from the office space, by plotting (Figure
1.15) the states of the outside air and air being discharged.
Thus the enthalpy to be removed is = (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = 58.1𝑘𝐽 − 30𝑘𝐽 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝒌𝑱 [read from the
graph]

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Given the air mass flow rate and enthalpy change, the power required is given:-
4.72
= 𝑥 28.1 = 𝟏𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝑾
0.8163
162.5𝑘𝑊 > 88𝑘𝑊: That means the chiller plant was undersized
Note: 0.8163𝑚3 /𝑠 = 1𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Figure 1.15: Example 1.1

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Example 1.2
An office served by a split unit air-conditioner has an indoor design temperature of 24°C and a
relative humidity of 50%. Determine the following:-
a) Humidity ratio,
b) Enthalpy,
c) Specific volume,
d) Dew point, and
e) Wet bulb temperature

Solution
The state point of the office is determined by plotting on the psychrometric chart (Figure 1.16),
the design temperature and the relative humidity. Where these two line meet represents this
point (A), thus:-
a) Humidity ratio = 0.0092 kg/kg of dry air – horizontal line through A to the left
b) Enthalpy = 48 kJ/kg – line through A and parallel to the enthalpy scale
c) Specific volume = 0.851 m3/kg – line through A parallel to the moist line
d) Dew point = 11.6ºC – horizontal line through A to the saturation line (100% RH)
e) Wet bulb temperature = 17ºC – line through A and parallel to the wet bulb line

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Figure 1.16: Example 1.2

Problems (Section 1)
Attempt the following problems (Use Psychrometric Chart given in Appendix A):-
Problem 1.1
Refer to cooling and dehumidification process (Figure 1.6) Explain why there is no change in
temperature (condensation A-B)?

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Problem 1.2
Using the psychrometric chart, confirm the wet bulb temperature given dry bulb temperature

and relative humidity.

Dry bulb temperature (ºC) Relative Humidity (%) Wet Bulb Temperature (ºC)
20 95 19.4
20 90 18.9
20 55 14.4
20 17 8.9

Problem 1.3
A contractor is requested to provide a turnkey (design and install) solution to a project. The
scope of the works involves providing heating in an office space through installation of electric
heater in an air duct. Air from the air handling unit (AHU) is supplied to the space through the
duct at a rate of 0.082 kg/s at 24ºC. The air needs to be heated to 35ºC before being supplied
to the office space. Determine the capacity of the heater. Use the sensible heat equation and
check with the psychrometric chart (Ans. 0.90 kW)
Assume sensible heat factor of 0.657

Problem 1.4
A space that is designed for 100% outside air at 9.44 m3/s has design set point for winter that
is set at 22ºC and relative humidity (RH) of 30% has a humidifier installed for supply of heated
moisture at 0.04 kg/s. On a particular very cold day, outside weather conditions had air ambient
conditions at -1.11ºC and RH at 30% and suddenly the design set point was not met. Using
the psychrometric chart, find out what could be the problem?

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Online discussion (Create an online platform for group discussion – include the
instructor/lecturer in the group)
From your own research on the subject, using material provided and from your own sources,
summarize and review Learning unit 1 by capturing key concepts. Discuss the summary online
and share your opinions on the subject with your fellow students.
Using the same platform, perform the following:-
• Solve simple problems and share with your colleagues
• Answer simple questions from fellow students,
• Reflect on your reading and share with others
• Research on space heaters

Summary
HVAC systems and their definitions have been described and explained in this learning unit.
The Psychrometric Chart was described and explained, including its application and examples.
The following are the key points that have been covered and explained:-
• HVAC systems and a breakdown of the three components (Heating, Ventilation and Air-
Conditioning),
• Psychrometric Chart and its application,
• Psychrometric processes, and
• Worked examples

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CHAPTER 2 – AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, THERMAL

COMFORT AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY
The focus of this learning unit is to achieve the following outcomes on completion of
this learning unit:
Learning unit outcome Learning outcomes
Understand air-conditioning systems, 2.1 Understand different types of Air-
thermal comfort and indoor air quality and its
Conditioning systems
application in air-conditioning systems
design 2.2 Understand Air-Conditioning systems
selection
2.3 Factors influencing thermal comfort
2.4 Understand that thermal comfort
depends on both the individual and thermal
conditions
2.5 Acceptable thermal design conditions
2.6 Identify types of indoor air contaminants
2.7 Different methods of maintaining indoor
air quality

Prescribed Material
Study chapter 2, 3 & 4 in Fundamentals of HVAC Systems by Robert McDowall

2.1 Introduction
The previous learning unit introduced the HVAC system and its various components. It also
touched on Psychrometric charts and the processes. In this learning unit, we will look deeper
into one of the components, which is Air-Conditioning and how the psychrometric processes
are combined to form an air-conditioning system. At the end of the learning unit, we will have
a more detailed understanding of different types of air-conditioning configurations and system
selection. The second part of this learning unit will look at Thermal comfort and indoor air quality
and its application in air-conditioning design. Finally the learning unit we will deal with filter
selection and application of standards. [1]

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2.2 Air-Conditioning System

A basic air-conditioning system has two units, an indoor unit (evaporator) and an outside unit
called a condenser. This is typically referred to as a split system (Figure 2.1). The indoor unit
is installed inside the room or space to be conditioned, while the condenser is installed outside.
A refrigerant circulates in a closed circuit. It enters a compressor at low pressure and high
temperature where it is compressed and circulated to a condenser. Upon entering the
condenser, which has a fan, it transfers the heat to the outside air. The refrigerant leaves the
condenser at high pressure and medium temperature and is throttled before moving to the
evaporator. At this stage, the refrigerant is at low temperature and pressure and thus absorbs
heat from the air circulating in the room and provides a cooling effect. It should be noted that
for this system, there is no outside air into the space or room. The system circulates the same
air in the space, which is filtered by the evaporator.

Figure 2.1: Typical Mid-Wall Split Unit Air-Conditioning Schematic

(Adopted from: [Link]
conditioning-system_fig5_349141795)

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A more complex air-conditioning system involves an air handling unit (AHU) that supplies
conditioned air to multiple spaces, typically in a multi storey office space building. The AHU is
connected to a chiller plant through pipe work that circulates chilled water, which enters the
AHU at 7ºC and leaves at 13ºC. The other pipe work circuit has cooling water for the chiller
plant that is cooled by cooling towers in the case of water cooled chillers. Figure 2.2 shows a
schematic of an AHU of an air-conditioning plant.

For this type of system, the ratio of outside ventilation air to return air typically varies from 15
to 25% of outside air. Some similar systems provide 100% outside air, but this becomes
uneconomical in terms of energy usage.

Figure 2.2: Schematic of an AHU of an Air-Conditioning Plant [1]

This AHU consists of the following components:-

• Cooling Coil,
• Heating coil,
• Filter,
• Humidifier,
• Centrifugal fan,
• Outside air damper, and a
• Mixing chamber

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The cooling coil is for cooling air in summer conditions and the heating coil does the opposite.
Because outside air contains contaminants hence the incorporation of a filter. A humidifier
provides moisture to the space for comfort just like the filters. In order to move air from outside
into the space where air-conditioned air is required, a fan is installed in the AHU. The outside
damper is installed to provide control of flow of air, whilst the mixing chamber provides an
environment for the mixing of outside air and return (air for the conditioned space). [1]

To save on energy use (particularly in climates with long winter periods) and hence cooling
load, an economizer cycle can be incorporated into the AHU as given by Figure 2.3. A typical
economizer has an expanded air intake and damper, relief outlet with automatic damper, and
a return air damper. All the damper are mostly for air control and hence control air conditioning
design temperature and air flow rate.

Figure 2.3: Schematic of an AHU of an Air-Conditioning Plant with an Economizer Cycle [1]

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2.3 Air-Conditioning Systems

Air-Conditioning systems come in various forms that applicable to domestic, commercial and
industrial situations. This section will attempt to explain and describe some of the common air-
conditioning systems.

2.3.1 Individual Systems

These are ductless systems designed for a room or space are usually installed in windows or
the one already described like the mid-wall split system and another referred to as a packaged
terminal air-conditioner (they are normally installed inside and below a room window). The
individual systems are supplied by companies like Samsung, Trane, Carrier, Mitsubishi etc.
and come in different names and sizes. [3]

2.3.2 Space Conditioning Systems

A typical space conditioning system consist cooling and heating provision and heat recovery
for winter seasons. They have an outdoor ventilation unit for supply of fresh air into the
conditioned space. The space conditioning system has two sub-systems that are briefly
explained below.

Four-Pipe Fan-Coil System

This system uses four pipes that have supply and return for both chilled water and hot water
for cooling and heating. It also incorporates a recirculating circuit for mixing with outside air
supplied by a fan coil. The system is shown in Figure 2.4.

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Figure 2.4: Schematic of a Four-Pipe Fan Coil System

(Adopted from: [Link]

Water Source Heat Pump Systems

The working principle of a water source heat pump is through extraction of heat and converting
it into useful energy. It consists of an air coil to cool and heat air and then a water coil to reject
and extract heat from the condenser water, as shown in Figure 2.5. In offices it acts as a
source for cooling during summer and heating during winter and a source of hot water. [3]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Figure 2.5: Water Source Heat Pump System [2]

2.3.3 Packaged Systems

Cooling in this type of system is achieved by a Direct Expansion cooling coil (DX coil) and
heating is through an electric heater bank or furnace. The cooling and heating is in a packaged
unit. They are used to serve more than one room and therefore ideal for offices and use ducts
for supply and air return. If the packaged unit is located on the roof it’s called rooftop packaged
unit and those located inside spaces are called split or indoor units. They are further classified
as described below. [3] A typical packaged unit is given in Figure 2.6, which is a rooftop
packaged unit installed on a roof top. The unit can be either water cooled or air cooled, but the
one shown is air cooled, but has provision for water cooling. It has a cooling coil, but normally
most units have both cooling and heating coils. The packaged unit has an air intake side and
supply side, but it also incorporates return air. Supply and return are both ducted into the
conditioned space. [3]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Figure 2.6: A typical Packaged Unit (Rooftop Type)

(Adopted from: [Link]

Single-Zone Constant-Volume (CV) Packaged Systems

This type of system is a packaged system controlled by one sensor and supply of conditioned
air flow rate is constant. Constant air supply is achieved through a feedback control system
that compares the inside conditions through the sensor and if there is deviation from the set
design volume flow, then a damper is used to correct/control the volume flow. [3]

Variable-Air-Volume Packaged Systems (VAV)

As the name suggests there is variable air volume flow rate for this system, which is dictated
by the cooling load demand in the conditioned space or room. It varies the flow rate to match
reduction of space load at part load. The system allows for multiple zones or several spaces
to be conditioned at the same time. Just like the CV system, this is achieved through a control
damper. [3]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

2.3.4 Central Systems

A central system air conditioner is composed of a chiller plant (water or air cooled), air handling
units (AHUs), air diffusers and return air grille or plenum. They can provide both cooling and
heating and this is achieved through cooling coils or heating coil/heater bank/boiler
respectively. The system is used for commercial buildings and is especially suitable for a multi-
storey building that allows for installation of AHUs at different floors of the building. Figure 2.7
shows a schematic arrangement of a central air-conditioning system. The system consists of
two loops/circuits, one for chilled water circulation and another for air circulation. This particular
system has a boiler for circulation of hot water to the AHUs for heating in winter. A central
system can also be either a single zone CV, CV or VAV system and the operating principle is
more or less as other CV or VAV packaged systems. Besides they also come in the form of
dual duct CV and VAV systems. [3]

Figure 2.7: Central Air-Conditioning Schematic

(Adopted from: [Link]

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2.3.5 Variable Refrigerant Volume (VRV) and Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) Systems
These two systems VRV and VRF are the same technology in terms of how they function and
they both use DX coils, which are ideal for cooling solution. The DX coils are filled with a coolant
that evaporates and therefore allows the coil to function as a cooling coil. The VRV/VRF
technology circulates only the minimum amount of refrigerant needed during a single heating
or cooling period. Both systems are multi-split type air conditioners for commercial buildings
that use variable refrigerant flow control to provide the ability to maintain individual zone control
in each room and floor of a building.

Figure 2.8: Schematic of a VRF/VRV System

(Adopted from: [Link]

The VRV/VRF system as shown in Figure 2.8 has a single outdoor unit (condenser) that saves
multiple indoor units (evaporators). Connection between the outdoor and indoor units is via
refrigerant/gas piping.

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2.4 Choosing an Air-Conditioning System

There are various factors that affect selection of a suitable air-conditioning system that fits a
particular situation as per client requirements and design brief. The main factors include
purpose of the building (building design – commercial or domestic etc.), location of the site,
utilities, heating or cooling loads and client requirements. [1]

Building design plays a major role in terms of its orientation especially when it comes to cooling
loads and also space for HVAC equipment. Space requirements issues are normally resolved
through negotiations with the architect. Site location has a bearing on design conditions as far
as the weather patterns are concerned. Cooling design, for example, requires weather data
that will guide engineers when it comes to outside/outdoor design temperatures.

Utilities in particular, energy requirements also help in deciding an energy saving system and
hence the energy cost of the building. On the other hand, indoor requirements include
population, equipment and lighting. The population, equipment and lighting affect the cooling
load of the space. The client’s requirements will also need to be taken into account when
choosing a system. These requirements could be budget issues or aesthetics (client might
want the air-conditioning equipment be hidden) [1]

In order to choose an appropriate air-conditioning system for a building, the HVAC design
engineer needs to ascertain whether the building needs heating or cooling or both. If both are
required, then cooling load calculations should be performed and also heat requirements for
the building. These loads will determine the size of the unit required and thus narrow the
selection criteria. For example, for domestic use for a bedroom a mid-wall split unit will be most
suitable considering the cooling and heat loads for such relatively small space. Once the
cooling and heat loads calculations are performed, the next stage is to use a selection matrix
as a tool for decision making. [1]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

2.5 System Choice Matrix

The system matrix is a tool used extensively in mechanical engineering conceptual design,
whereby at least three options are ranked, scored against chosen criteria and the total will
determine the preferred concept for detailed design. In this particular case, as given in Table
2.1, the first column has the criteria for selection and these are allocated relative importance
score. Three systems are selected based on the above mentioned choosing of an air-
conditioning system. Each system has a relative performance score as decided by the design
engineer. Scoring of each system is a product of relative importance of each criteria and
relative performances to give the relative score. These are added up to give a total score. For
this system choice matrix, only cooling is considered. [1]

[1]
Table 2.1: System Selection Matrix Template
System 1 System 2 System 3
Relative
Relative Relative Relative Relative Relative Relative
Importance
Performance Score Performance Score Performance Score

Cooling Capacity 10
Temperature Control 9
Zone Occupany Timing 9
Initial/Capital Cost 6
Operating/Running Cost 7
Totals

Some helpful information on System Selection Matrix can also be accessed on the following
web page:-
• HVAC System Analysis and Selection Chapter 1 by ASHRAE (Accessed 00h58 on 23
December 2021)
[Link]
[Link]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Some helpful video on Air Conditioning can also be accessed on the following web pages:-
• How Air Conditioner Works - Parts & Functions Explained with Animation by Academic Gain
Tutorials (Accessed 18h45 on 24 December 202)
[Link]
• Air Conditioning Systems: Introduction, Classification, Selection Criteria by Mona Yaday
(Accessed 18h50 on 24 December 2021)
[Link]
• Central air conditioning system working Animation by MP Engineering Tutorials (Accessed
18h55 on 24 December 2021) [Link]

2.6 Thermal Comfort

Design of any building or space has to take into account the comfort of occupants of the space.
The comfort of the occupants is a function of thermal conditions (temperature, ventilation air
speed or the lack of it, air quality (free of pollutants from outside and from within), acoustical
environment (noise levels) and other factors. These factors can be controlled by installation of
an HVAC system or through natural means like opening windows etc.
Thermal comfort on its own is influenced by the following factors: - [1]
Activity level – heat emitted by a person as result of various activities
Clothing – depending on the weather, people wear accordingly to cover themselves and to
keep cool or warm
Expectation – these are perceptions of entering a building and expect to be comfortable in
that space
Air temperature – this is how a person feels and is also individual dependent
Radiant temperature – radiant temperature is a function of heat emitted by warmer bodies
within the occupied space
Humidity – humidity is the moisture content of the air. Normally relative humidity around
50% is perceived to be comfortable and below that the air becomes dry and uncomfortable
to breath. If the relative humidity is much higher than 50% let’s say around 80%, the air
becomes too moist and can be irritating to the skin and breathing as well.
Air speed – empirical data shows that indoor air speed above 2.5 m/s can be irritating to
the eyes and cause noise discomfort.

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2.7 Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Pollutants or contaminants are a source of poor air quality in a space or room. They come in
the form of gases, particles and vapours in the air. For example, in an enclosed parking space,
accumulation of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide due to the vehicles emissions have to
be eliminated/minimised as the gases could be dangerous to the health of people. The
elimination/minimisation of pollutants can be managed through control of pollutants source,
use of filters or dilution ventilation to reduce concentration levels. In order to minimise or
eliminate pollutants within a space, a mechanical ventilation system can be installed or natural
ventilation can be used as an option. Air-conditioning on the hand can incorporate both
conditioned air for cooling or heating and introduction of fresh air into the space. [1]

Further information on Indoor Thermal Comfort and Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality can be
accessed on the following web pages:-
• Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy: ASHRAE Standard 55-2010
(Accessed 11h54 on 23 December 2021)
[Link]
• Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality ASHRAE Standard 62.1 – 2004 (Accessed
00h10 on 24 December 2021)
[Link]
elines/standards%20addenda/62-1-2004_addendasupplementpackage-[Link]

The above standards guides an HVAC design engineer in the design process in terms of
acceptable ranges of humidity levels, pollutants levels, ventilation air requirements etc.

Some helpful video on Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality can also be accessed on the following
web pages:-
• Understanding and Indoor Air Quality by GreenHome Institute (Accessed 19h15 on 24
December 2021) [Link]
• Home Ventilation & Indoor Air Quality by Paul Cochrane (Accessed 19h30 on 24 December
2021) [Link]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Online discussion
From your own research on the subject, using material provided and from your own sources,
summarize and review Learning unit 2 by capturing key concepts. Discuss the summary online
and share your opinions on the subject with your fellow students.
Using the same platform, perform the following:-
• Answer simple questions from fellow students,
• Reflect on your reading and share with others
• Research on ASHRAE standards

Summary
Air-conditioning is explained in more detail, including the various systems and their sub-
systems. The learning unit provided a better insight into the various air-conditioning systems,
and the selection process. Last parts of the unit looked at thermal comfort and indoor air-quality
and how it influences HVAC design considerations. The following are the key points that have
been covered and explained:-
• Various types of air-conditioning systems,
• Selection an air-conditioning system, and
• Thermal comfort and indoor air quality

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Bibliography
1. McDowall, R. (2006). Fundamentals of HVAC Systems. Elsevier
2. Author Unknown (n.d.). Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning. Available from:
[Link]
d%20Air%20Conditioning%20Digital%[Link]
3. Wang, S. K. and Lavan, Z. (1999) Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration – Mechanical
Engineering Hand Book, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC
4. Bhatia, A. (n.d.) Design Options for HVAC Distribution Systems. Available from:
[Link]
bution%20Systems%[Link]
5. Bhatia, A (n.d.) Cooling Load Calculations and Principles – Available from:
[Link]
Principles%[Link]
6. Parsons, R (1997) ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook – Chapter 28 (I-P) – Available from:
[Link]
7. Parsons, R (1997) ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (SI), ASHRAE
8. Legg, R (2017) Air Conditioning System Design, Butterworth – Heinemann
9. Bhatia, A (n.d.) How to Size and Design Ducts – Available from:
[Link]
%20How%20to%20Size%20and%20Design%20Ducts%[Link]
10. Varkie, C. T. (2013). HEAT GAINS and LOSSES: WINDOWS and SKYLIGHTS (Glass). –
Available from: [Link]
glass
11. Bhatia, A (n.d.) HVAC - Domestic and Industrial Ventilation Systems – Available from:
[Link]
Ventilation%[Link]
12. ASHRAE 62.1 (2013) – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality - Available from:
[Link]
[Link]

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 HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Appendix A

NOTE:
The Psychrometric Chart can be accessed on the following web page:-
[Link]
df

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HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Appendix B

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HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Appendix C
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HEATING, VENTILATION & AIR-CONDITIONING (HVAC)

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