World

Geography
Contents
Asia .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Africa ............................................................................................................................................................... 22
Europe ............................................................................................................................................................. 48
North America ................................................................................................................................................ 68
South America ................................................................................................................................................ 94
Australia and Oceania ................................................................................................................................. 114
Antarctica ..................................................................................................................................................... 132
Major Straits of the World.......................................................................................................................... 138
Important Seas of the world........................................................................................................................ 161
Important Trenches of the World .............................................................................................................. 178
Important Peninsulas in the World ............................................................................................................ 193
Important Gulfs of the World ..................................................................................................................... 207
Important Rivers of the World ................................................................................................................... 228
Important Waterfalls in India & the World.............................................................................................. 284
Important Lakes of India & World ............................................................................................................ 299
Important Islands of the World .................................................................................................................. 316
Grasslands of the World .............................................................................................................................. 344
Important Dams in India (River Valley Projects) .................................................................................... 349
Important Ports of the World ..................................................................................................................... 358
Important Boundaries Lines in the World ................................................................................................ 363

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 World Geography
Asia
Asia is the world largest continent, having an area of 44,444,100 sq km.

It covers 8.8% of the Earth’s total surface area with a population of 4.4 billion which is 60
% of the world’s total population.

It is a continent of contrast in relief, temperature, vegetation and people also.

Asia is to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south
of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas.

It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and
on the north by the Arctic Ocean.

The earth’s highest and lowest places are both in Asia:

• The highest place on earth: Mount Everest

• The lowest place on earth: Dead Seashore

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Regional Divisions of Asia
Asia can be divided into six physiographic divisions:

Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

Eastern Asia: China, Hong Kong, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Macau, Mongolia,
Taiwan

Northern Asia: Russia

South-eastern Asia: Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines,

Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam.

Southern Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka.

Western Asia: Armenia, Azerbaijana, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan,
Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United
Arab Emirates, Yemen.

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Major Physical Divisions of Asia
• The Northern Lowlands
• The Central Mountains
• The Central and Southern Plateaus
• The Peninsulas
• Deserts
• The Great River Plains
• Island Groups

1. The Northern Lowlands

The Northern Lowlands are the extensive plain areas that comprise of several patches
of lowlands of this large continent.

The major lowlands are:

Great Siberian plain

• It extends between the Ural Mountains in the west and the river Lena in the
east. It is the largest lowland in the world covering an area of 1,200,000 square
miles approx.

Manchurian Plain

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 • It is the area adjoining Amur river and its tributaries of the northern part of
China with an area of 135,000 square miles approx.

Great Plains of China

• It is contributed by two major rivers of China, Hwang Ho and Yangtze

river which covers an area of 158,000 square miles approx.

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Tigris-Euphrates plains

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Ganga plains

Irrawaddy plains

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2. The Central Mountains

• These are the prominent and extensive mountain ranges that cover the parts of
Central Asia.
• They consist of Pamir and Tian Shan ranges and extending across portions of
Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
• These mountain ranges are designated as biodiversity hot spots by Conservation
International which covers several montanes and alpine ecoregions of Central
Asia.
• It encompasses several habitat types, including montane grasslands and
shrublands, temperate coniferous forests, and alpine tundra.
• A mountain knot is a junction of two or more mountain ranges. The two main
mountain knots in Asia are:
• The Pamir Knot is the junction of five mountain ranges they are the
Sulaiman, the Hindu Kush, the Kunlun, the Karakoram, and the Himalayan
ranges. Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world in the Himalayan
range.

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 • The Armenian Knot is connected to the Pamir Knot by the Elburz and the
Zagros Ranges that originate in the Armenian Knot. The Tien Shan and the
Altai are other mountain ranges in Asia.

Peaks of Asia

• Mount Everest (8848 m), Nepal-Tibet, China border

• K2 (8,61,1 m), Pakistan-China
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 • Kangchenjunga (8,586 m), Nepal-Sikkim (India).
• Lhotse (8,516 m), Nepal-Tibet, China
• Makalu (8,462 m), Nepal-Tibet, China
• Cho Oyu (8,201 m), Nepal

Mountains-Ranges

3. The Central and Southern Plateaus

Plateaus are the land areas having a relatively that surface considerably raised above
adjoining land on at least one side, and often cut by deep canyon.

Major Plateaus of Asian Continent –

Plateau Location Types

Ladakh Between Karakoram and Himalaya mountain ranges Intermontane

Tibet Between Kulun and Himalayan Mountain range Intermontane

Situated on the southeast of the Tibet Plateau and separated from

Yunan Piedmont
Szechuan Basin extensive fertile land by the range of Mountains

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 Well connected to the range of mountains such as The Himalayas with
Pamir the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush ranges on all Intermontane
sides

Armenian Present in between Caspian and the Black Sea Piedmont

Present in between Zagros Mountains, Caspian Sea, Turkmen-Khorasan

Iranian Piedmont
Mountain Range

Surrounded by the Greater Hinggan Mountains in the east, the Yin

Mongolian Mountains to the south, the Altai Mountains to the west, and the Sayan Intermontane
and Khentii mountains to the north

Stretched in the Pegu Yoma and Arkan Yoma in the eastern part of
Shan Intermontane
Myanmar,

Extended in between the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern
Ghats in the east of
Deccan Intermontane
Indian Subcontinent, it almost touches the southern tip of India and in
north covered by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges

Enclosed between Pontic mountain ranges in the South and Taurus in

Anatolian Volcanic
the southwest

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4. Peninsulas
A peninsula is a mass of land surrounded by water but attached to the mainland.
The Deccan plateau region is also a peninsula. The major peninsulas of Arabia, India,
and Malay are in southern Asia. The Kamchatka peninsula lies in northeastern Asia.

5. Deserts
Asia has some big deserts such as the Gobi, the Takla Makan, the Thar, the Kara-
Kum, and the Rub-al-Khali Deserts.

The Rub’ al Khali desert, considered the world’s largest sand sea, covers an area larger
than France across Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

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6. (a) Islands of Asia
Asia also has a cluster of islands, also called an archipelago. An archipelago sometimes
called an island group or island chain, which is formed close to each other in large
clusters. Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, Andaman, and Nicobar are some examples of
archipelagos.

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6. (b) Drainage of Asia
The drainage of Asia consists of mighty oceans, extensive seas, lengthy rivers, and their
tributaries and distributaries, major lakes, etc.

Oceans: Asian continent is surrounded by three major ocean from three sides such as

The Pacific Ocean – It covers the eastern part of Asia where major rivers of eastern Asia
drain, such as Menam Mekong, Xi Jiang, Chang Xiang, Huang Ho, and Amur.

The Indian Ocean – It covers the southern part of Asia and the major rivers that flow into
the Indian Ocean are Tigris, Euprates, the Indus, the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy,
Salween.

The Arctic Ocean – It covers the Noth east part of Asia and consists of three major rivers
such as Ob, Yenisey, and Lena.

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Seas:
As the continent is covered by sea from its three sides, It has also characterized by the
long stretch of bay and gulf.

Major seas contributing to Asian Drainage are Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Banda Sea,
Barents Sea, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, East Siberian Sea, Java Sea, Kara Sea,
Laccadive Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk. The South China Sea and the Yellow Sea.

Name Location Part of Ocean

Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, and East Siberian Sea North of Russia Arctic Ocean

Bering Sea Northerst of Russia Pacific Ocean

Sea of Okhotsk East of Russia Pacific Ocean

Sea of Japan West of Japan Pacific Ocean

Yellow Sea West of Korea Pacific Ocean

East China Sea East of China Pacific Ocean

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 South China Sea South of China Pacific Ocean

Sulu Sea West of the Philippines Island Pacific Ocean

Celebes Sea North of Celebes Island Pacific Ocean

Banda Sea East of Celebes Island Pacific Ocean

Flores Sea South of Celebes Sea Pacific Ocean

Molucca Sea East of Celebes Island Pacific Ocean

Java Sea North of Java Pacific Ocean

Timor Sea Northwest of Australia Pacific Ocean

Arafura Sea North of Australia South Pacific Ocean

Bay of Bengal East of the Indian Peninsula Indian Ocean

Arabian Sea West of the Indian Peninsula Indian Ocean

Red Sea Separates Asia from Africa Indian Ocean

Lakes:
Major lakes of Asia are

• Lake Baikal, Onega, Ladoga, and Peipus in Russia;

• Lake Akan, Mashu, Biwa, Shikotsu in Japan;
• Qinghai Lake, Lake Khanka in China;
• Dal Lake, Chilka, Vembanada, Pullicat and Sukhna in India;
• Lake Matano and Toba in Indonesia, etc.

Baikal is the deepest lake in the world. It is in Southern Siberia, Russia.

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Freshwater

• Lake Baikal, located in southern Russia, is the deepest lake in the world,
reaching a depth of 1,620 meters (5,315 feet). The lake contains 20 percent of the
world’s unfrozen fresh water, making it the largest reservoir on Earth. It is also
the world’s oldest lake, at 25 million years old.
• The Yangtze is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the
world (behind the Amazon of South America and the Nile of Africa). Reaching
6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles) in length, the Yangtze moves east from the glaciers
of the Tibetan Plateau to the river’s mouth on the East China Sea. The Yangtze is
considered the lifeblood of China.
• The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers begin in the highlands of eastern Turkey and
flow through Syria and Iraq, joining in the city of Qurna, Iraq, before emptying
into the Persian Gulf. The land between the two rivers, known as Mesopotamia,
was the center of the earliest civilizations, including Sumer and the Akkadian
Empire.

Saltwater

• The Persian Gulf has an area of more than 234,000 square kilometers (90,000
square miles). It borders Iran, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar,
Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq. The gulf is subject to high rates of evaporation,
making it shallow and extremely salty.
• The Sea of Okhotsk covers 1.5 million square kilometers (611,000 square miles)
between the Russian mainland and the Kamchatka Peninsula.

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 • The Bay of Bengal is the largest bay in the world, covering almost 2.2 million
square kilometers (839,000 square miles) and bordering Bangladesh, India, Sri
Lanka, and Burma. Many large rivers, including the Ganges and Brahmaputra,
empty into the bay.

Straits:
The important straits in Asia are the Strait of Malacca, Bering Strait, etc.

Name Separates Connects

Bering Strait Asia and North America East Siberian Sea with Bering Sea

La Parouse Strait Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido Island Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan

Tata Strait Eastern Russia and Sakhalin Sea of Okhotsk with Sea of Japan

Korea Strait South Korea and Kyushu (Japan) Yellow Sea with Sea of Japan

Formosa Strait (Taiwan East China Sea with South China

Taiwan and China
Strait) Sea

South China Sea with Pacific

Luzon Strait Taiwan and Luzon (Philippines)
Ocean.

Borneo (Kalimantan) and Celebes

Makassar Strait Celebes Sea with Java Sea.
Island

Sundra Strait Java and Sumatra Java Sea with India Ocean

Malacca Strait Malaya Peninsula and Sumatra Java Sea with Bay of Bengal

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 South China Sea with strait of
Strait of Jahore Singapore and Malaysia
Malacca

Strait of Hormuz UAE and Iran Persian Gulf with Gulf of Oman.

Strait of Bosporus Asia and Europe Black Sea with Sea of Marmara.

Sea of Marmara with

Strait of Dardanelles Asia and Europe Mediterranean
Sea

Resources
Asia’s climate can be most generally divided into three zones:

• North/central,
• Southwest
• Southeast

North/central Zone–

• The continent’s north/central zone is affected by cold and dry Arctic winds,
especially the Siberia region of Russia.
• Hardier grains, such as barley, buckwheat, millet, oats, and wheat, are grown in
the central and southern areas of this zone, where permanent frosts inhibit plant
growth.
• Animal husbandry is also very important in this zone. In Mongolia, for example,
75 percent of agricultural land is allocated to the rearing of livestock, such as
sheep, goats, and cattle.

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Southwest–

• The southwest zone is a dry, hot region that stretches from the Gobi Desert in
Mongolia through Pakistan, Iran, and into the Arabian Peninsula.
• This zone has very few areas with enough moisture and precipitation to produce
crops. Grains, such as barley and corn, are the principal irrigated crops of some
countries.
• Dates, figs, apricots, olives, onions, grapes, and cherries are the most important
of these fruit and vegetable crops.

Southeast–

• The southeast zone is greatly affected by the summer monsoon season.

• Rice is one of Asia’s most important agricultural commodities and a major food
staple of the entire continent.
• Many regions where rainfall is less, grow a large amount of wheat.
• Southeast Asia is also a major producer of tropical fruits, such as mango, papaya,
and pineapple. India is the world’s largest mango-producing nation, accounting
for roughly 40 percent of total global output.

Mining:

• China, India, Russia, and Indonesia are the continent’s most productive mining
economies. These countries extract many of the same minerals.
• China is the world’s largest producer of aluminum, gold, tin, and coal.
• India is also a major producer of aluminum and iron ore, along with other
minerals such as barite (used in drilling fluids), chromium (used in steel
production and dyes), and manganese (used in steel production).
• Russia is a major producer of coal, tungsten (used in steel production),
diamonds, iron, and steel.
• Indonesia is a major producer of coal, gold, copper, and tin.

Drilling:

• Countries on the Arabian Peninsula have the world’s largest deposits of oil and
natural gas. These fossil fuels are drilled for energy and fuel.
• The oil found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East is of the
highest quality: light sweet crude.
• Light sweet crude oil is used to make gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuels.
• In 2010, Saudi Arabia was the world’s largest manufacturer of petroleum liquids,
producing 10.07 million barrels of liquid fuels every day. (An oil barrel is 159 liters
or 42 gallons.) It also has the world’s largest oil reserves, at roughly 250 billion
barrels.
• Russia has oil reserves in Siberia and massive natural gas reserves throughout
the Arctic.
• Russia and Iran have the world’s largest reserves of natural gas, while the US
produces the most.

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 Africa
Africa is the second largest continent in the area (30,330,000 sq Km) which covers 6%
of Earth’s total surface area and 20.4 % of its total land area.

Africa is sometimes nicknamed the “Mother Continent” as it’s the oldest inhabited
continent on Earth. Africa is the only continent which is traversed by the equator, the
Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer.

Greenwich Meridian passes through the western part of Africa. It is the only continent
where the 0° latitude meets the 0° longitudes, these lines meet at the Gulf of Guiana.

Algeria is Africa’s largest country by area, and Nigeria by population. Seychelles is

the smallest country in Africa.

Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined with Asia at its northeast
extreme end by the Isthmus of Suez 163 Km wide. It is bounded by the Red Sea along
the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and
the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

It is divided in half almost equally by the Equator. Africa has eight major physical
regions: the Sahara, the Sahel, the Ethiopian Highlands, the savanna, the Swahili
Coast, the rain forest, the African Great Lakes, and Southern Africa.

It has fully recognized 54 sovereign states.

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Alphabetical list of countries in Africa –

Regional divisions of Africa

The physiographic divisions of Africa are into the following six regions:

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 • Northern Africa
• Northeast Africa
• Eastern Africa
• Central Africa
• Southern Africa
• Western Africa

Northern Africa
It extends from Algeria in the north, through, the Canary Islands, Santa Cruz de
Tenerife, Ceuta, Egypt, Libya, Madeira, Melilla, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia, It reaches
up to Western Sahara.

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Northeast Africa
It is also called the horn of Africa which extends several hundred kilometers into the
Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It contains countries
such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

Eastern Africa
The extensive area stretches from the Red Sea and the Horn of Africa to Mozambique
including Burundi, Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte,
Mozambique, Réunion, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,
Zimbabwe.

Central Africa
It is a large landmass situated exactly in the middle of the continent covering Angola,
Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, São Tomé, and Príncipe.

Southern Africa
It is the southernmost part of the continent and covers the countries such
as Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland.

Western Africa
It is situated roughly at 100° E longitude covering countries like Benin, Burkina Faso,
Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Nigeria, Saint Helena, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.

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Major Physical Divisions of Africa
The major physical divisions of African continent are:

• The Plateau
• The Fold Mountains
• Deserts
• Rivers
• Islands

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The Plateaus
The vast African continents are famous for its saucer-shaped and steep-edged plateaus
that are facing towards the coast and extending from Guinea coast to Somali Land and
north Sahara to the Cape Province. These are divided into three groups:

South African plateau –

The South African plateau as far as about 12°S, bounded east, west, and south by bands
of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. The South African plateau is connected
towards the northeast with the East African plateau.

East African plateau –

The East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and
marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of
high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and
south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions.

Ethiopian Highlands –

The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Ethiopian Highlands,
a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the
whole continent.

Plateaus –

1. Katanga Plateau: Farming, ranching, resource-rich – copper and Uranium deposits

2. Ethiopian Plateau: Lake Tana (Source of Blue Nile), cooler despite close to the
equator
3. Great Karoo: Semi-desert region
4. Bie Plateau: Important for copper, Agriculture and cattle rearing
5. Adamawa Plateau: Savannah vegetation, Bauxite deposits

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Mountains

• Africa is famous for its newly formed folded mountains.

• Prominent mountain ranges with some of the very high raised mountain peaks
are the specialty of African Continents.

Some of the well known mountain ranges are:

Atlas Mountains –

• It is situated on the northwestern part of the continent stretching over an area of

2400 km towards the southwest direction across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.
• The range is again subdivided into high, medium, and Anti – Atlas group. The Jebel
Toubkal is among such highlands or mountain whose height is 4165 m from sea
level.
• It is a physical separator between the extensive coasts of the Mediterranean and
the Atlantic Sea and the Sahara Desert.

Ruwenzori Mountains –

• Stretching over an area of 240 sq. miles the range borders Uganda and Congo
(Kinshasa) and thought to be the “Mountains of the Moon.
• Mount Stanley at Margherita Peak (5,119 m is the highest pick of this mountain
system.
• It is a gigantic horst of six separate glaciated masses which falls steeply westward
to the Western Rift Valley.

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Mount Elgon –

• It is an extinct volcanic mountain situated in the northeast part of lake Victoria on

the Uganda – Kenya border.
• The height is about 4,321 km from the mean sea level.
• As a volcanic mountain it has a crater which is 610 m deep and 8 km across.

Tibesti Mountains –

• These are mostly situated in the northern part of Chad and spread west into
northern Niger and the Southern border area of Libya.
• They have a volcanic origin.
• The highest peak is 3,415 m. from mean sea level.

Ahaggar Mountains –

• The Ahaggar Mountains, also known as the Hoggar, is a highland region in central
Sahara, or southern Algeria near the Tropic of Cancer. They are located about
1,500 km south of the capital, Algiers. Mount Tahat is the highest peak (2, 918 m).
• It has a volcanic formation.

The Drakensberg –

• These mountains are the highest in Southern Africa rising up at Thabana

Ntlenyana at 3,482 m (11,422 ft) in height.
• They are located in the eastern part of South Africa, running from some 1,000 km.
• The highest peak is Thabana Ntlenyana at 3,482 m (11,422 ft). It is also the highest
peak of Lesotho.

Mount Kenya –

• Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya, and the second-highest in Africa
(after Mount Kilimanjaro). The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian (5,199m –
17,058 ft), Nelion (5, 188m – 17,022 ft) and Lenana (4,958 – 16,355 ft).
• Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya, just south of the equator, around 150 km
(95 miles) north-northeast of Nairobi.

Kilimanjaro –

• Kilimanjaro with its three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawensi, and Shira, is an inactive
stratovolcano in north-eastern Tanzania.
• Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world rising 4,600 m
(15,100 ft) from its base and includes the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters
(19,340 ft).

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The Deserts

Sahara desert

• The Sahara, the largest hot desert in the world, stretches across the entire width
of North Africa. It covers an area of approx. 3,320,000 sq. miles.
• The major countries contributing their land to Sahara deserts are Libya, Algeria,
Egypt, Tunisia, Chad, Morocco, Eritrea, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, and Sudan.
• The principal topographical features of the Sahara include shallow, seasonally
inundated basins (chotts and dayas) and large oasis depressions; extensive gravel-
covered plains (serirs or regs); rock-strewn plateaus (hammadas);
abrupt mountains; and sand sheets, dunes, sand seas (ergs) and Oases( lush
green area).

Nubian Desert

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 • The Nubian Desert is the eastern region of the Sahara desert, between the Nile
and the Red Sea. There is virtually no rainfall here, and there are no oases. It is in
Egypt. It covers an area of 1,54,000 sq. miles approx.

Namib desert

• Namib is a cool coastal desert in southern Africa. The Namib Desert is believed to
be as old as 55 million years; thus, it is the oldest desert in the world.
• The high sand dunes of the Namib Desert and the point where the desert meets
the sea are the key attractions of this UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Kalahari Desert

• The Kalahari Desert lies in the south and the Namib Desert is along the south-
west shore of Africa. It covers an area of 3,50,000 sq. miles and encroaching parts
of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Angola, and Zimbabwe.
• San People have lived in the difficult terrain of the Kalahari Desert.
• Famous for Dimond mining.
• Okavango Delta
• It is one of the very few major interior delta systems that do not flow
into a sea or ocean.
• This delta comprises permanent marshlands and seasonally flooded
plains.
• The delta covers part of the Kalahari Desert and owes its existence
to the Okavango (Kavango) River.
• It is home to some of the world’s most endangered species of large
mammal, such as the cheetah, white rhinoceros, black rhinoceros,
African wild dog and lion.

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 • Sahara Desert– Largest hot desert – subtropical HP zone, Tuareg tribes
• Namib desert -Off-shore trade wind + cold Benguella current, sandy
desert, Hottentots tribes
• Kalahari Desert -Rain-shadow effect, stony-rocky desert. Bushmen tribe (the
oldest surviving tribal group of Africa)
• Nubian desert -Separated by Libyan desert by Nile river rocky desert

The Islands
There are very few islands near Africa.

• Madagascar (Malagasy) in the Indian Ocean is the largest island in Africa.

• To the north-west, in the Atlantic Ocean are the Canary Islands.
• West of Africa in the South Atlantic Ocean is the island of Saint Helena where
Napoleon died in exile.
• Zanzibar belongs to Tanzania and is closer to the Indian Ocean.

• Madeira – Portugal
• Canary – Spain
• Cape Verde
• Mauritius
• Reunion – France
• Comoros – France
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 • Seychelles

Islands between Africa and Latin America –

• All of them –British overseas territories

• Ascension Islands– UK military base
• St. Helena Islands – the exile of Napoleon
• Tristan De Cunha Island – the most remote island of the world

The Rivers of Africa

The most important ones are the Nile, the Congo, the Niger, and the Zambezi.

River Nile –

• This is the longest river in the world.

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 • It starts from many streams in the equatorial rainforest of the Lake Victoria and
Ruwenzori Mountain (the mountains of the moon) region.
• From Lake Albert, it flows as the White Nile.
• At Khartoum, it is joined by the Blue Nile which starts from Lake Tana on the
Ethiopian Highlands.
• The Nile flows from 3,000 kilometers through the dry Sahara Desert of Egypt and
enters the Mediterranean Sea.
• Egypt is called the gift of the Nile because without the river it would have been a
desert.
• Cotton cultivation,
• Petroleum at mouth, navigable, irrigation
• Aswan dam, lake Naseer
• Port Said and Alexandria at the mouth
• Cairo, Giza, Khartoum cities are on River Nile

River Congo or Zaire –

• The Congo is the second-longest river in Africa.

• It starts from the south-west of Lake Tanganyika and flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
• The Zaire basin is one of the wettest regions of the Earth and is covered with
dense impenetrable jungle.
• The river and its network of tributaries are not navigable because of rapids and
waterfalls caused by the descent from the plateau to the coast.
• Origin: Katanga Plateau
• Boyoma waterfall
• Pigmy tribes
• Petroleum reserve at the mouth
• Crosses equator twice

River Niger –

• This river is the chief river of West Africa. It rises from the Fout Djllon Mountain
quite close to the sea but flows north and then turns south again to form a wide
arc.
• Finally, it joins the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean.

River Zambezi –

• River Zambezi flows into the Indian Ocean.

• The famous Victoria Falls at the head of a long gorge is on this river.

River Limpopo –

• River Limpopo also flows into the Indian Oceans, which crosses the Tropic of
Capricorn twice.

River Orange –

• This flows from the Drakensberg Mountains into the Atlantic Ocean.

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Lakes of Africa

• Lake Victoria is the second-largest freshwater lake in the world. It is the largest
lake in Africa. It is situated on the block mountain between the two branches of
the Great Rift Valley. The Equator passes through it. It is the source of the white
Nile.
• The lakes of the rift valley. There is a string of lakes in the rift valley. Lake
Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa (Malawi) are the larger ones.

• Lake Tana is on the Ethiopian Plateau. It is the source of the Blue Nile.
• Lake Chad at the southern edge in the Sahara Desert is in a region of inland
drainage. Streams start from the surrounding hills and flow into this lake instead
of the sea. River Charl is the largest river in this area.
• Lake Nasser is on the river Nile. It is a man-made lake located between Egypt and
Sudan
• Lake Kariba is situated in the southernmost part of Africa a Zambezi river. It is one
of the biggest looks man-made like and it is the largest producer of
hydroelectricity in Africa.
• Lake Assal is situated in Djibouti and the lowest point in Africa

Famous Lakes of Africa –

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Lake Elevation Lake Type

Victoria 11.33 m Tropical Lake

Tanganyika 773 m Rift Valley Lake

Malawi — African Rift Valley

Turkana 360 m Alkaline Lake

Lake Albert 615 m Western Rift

Lake Edward 912 m Drain North into Lake Albert

Lake Kivu 1460 m Ruzizi River

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Important Dams and Waterfalls
Dam/Falls River Country

Aswan Dam Nile Egypt

Kariba Dam Zambezi Zimbabwe and Zambia

Kainji Dam Niger Nigeria

Cahora Bassa Dam Zambezi Mozambique

Victoria Fall Zambezi Zambia- Zimbabwe

Boyoma Fall Zaire Democratic

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Climate
It is quite obvious that as a large continent Africa experiences a highly variable climate.

Keeping in view the prevailing weather conditions such as temperature, rainfall,

humidity etc the climatic zones of Africa are:

• Equatorial rainforest climate

• Temperate grasslands
• Mediterranean Hot Summer
• Hot Desert Climate
• Tropical Wet/Dry (Savanna) Climate

Natural Vegetation
There are extensive areas in Africa where few people live and where natural vegetation
and wild animals have not been disrupted by such activities as farming or the raising of
livestock. In some parts of the continent, large forest reserves have been established.

Tropical Rain Forests

• The large area of Africa is covered by tropical rain forests or selvas type of
vegetation covering less than a tenth of the continent with heavy rain throughout
the year. These forests contain several layers of vegetation.
• The top layer consists of the crowns of trees rising 125 to 250 feet (38 to 76 m) in
height; the lower layers are arranged according to their height like shorter trees,
shrubs, and vines respectively.
• They yield pulp, timber, and such cabinet woods as mahogany, ebony, and teak.
Oil palms, rubber-producing trees and vines, orchids, and lilies are among the
numerous kinds of plants found in these forests.

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Tropical Savannas

• Savannas, covering perhaps one-third of the continent, consist of areas mainly

growing grass.
• There are spots of woodlands, scattered trees, or shrubs, depending on the length
of the dry season. Coarse grasses up to 12 feet (3.7 m) high and large woodlands of
deciduous trees are found near the border of Tropical forest. They even include
many evergreens found in tropical rain forests, such as oil palms, rubber trees, and
African ebony trees.

• Away from the Equator to the north and south, rainfall decreases and there is a
zone where there is a definite dry season unlike the equatorial region where it
rains always.
• This is the Sudan type of climate and has tropical Grassland or Savanna
vegetation.
• This region continues over the Eastern Highlands and forms a wide area around
the equatorial forests.
• The grass is thick and coarse. In some places, there is the tall elephant grass.

Tropical Steppes and Deserts

• Increased aridity and longer dry seasons are the main features of tropical steppes.
• These are regions that grow short grasses only.
• Thorny acacias, dwarf palms, and jujube trees are found here. Steppes bordering
on deserts no trees are spotted, rather widely scattered bunches of grasses grow.
• Vegetation at Oases includes date palms, fig-trees, willows, poplars, and tamarisks.

Mediterranean Forests

• Mediterranean type of vegetation in Africa is found along the northern and

southern coast.
• Different variety of shrubs and small trees, both deciduous and evergreen are
grown.
• The plants are able to withstand long, dry summers with waxy, leathery leaves and
long taproots develop here.
• The northern region raises cork oak, olive trees, cedars, and pines; in the south,
laurels, cedars, and ironwood.
• Grasses and low flowering plants grow only during the rainy months.

Montane Forests

• The Montane vegetation of highlands, particularly in Ethiopia and the mountains

of the Great Rift Valley are such examples.
• Depending on elevation, latitude, and direction of the winds vegetation grows.
• The region under Montane forests yields valuable timber and cabinet woods along
with bamboo and wild varieties of coffee and banana. The slopes of the mountain
are covered with thick evergreen forests.

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 • The High Veld of southern Africa is temperate grassland between 3,500 and
11,000 feet (1,070 and 3,350 m) above sea level.

Mangrove Forests

• Mostly found along the African coast, but are most extensive along the Gulf of
Guinea.
• A variety of other trees tailored to life in muddy estuaries and tidal flats are found
other than Mangrove.
• Swamp and marsh also occur along the larger rivers and lakes of western and
central Africa. Papyrus, tall grasses and lotus are the most common plants.

Mineral reserve of Africa

• Petroleum
• Coal
• Iron
• Diamonds
• Gold
• Uranium, Platinum

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AGRICULTURE

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Some of the most famous tribes in Africa:

• Zulu, South Africa.

• Xhosa, South Africa
• Karo, Ethiopia.
• Hamar, Ethiopia
• Yoruba, Nigeria.
• Himba, Namibia.
• San Bushmen, Kenya
• Samburu, Kenya
• Maasai, Kenya, and Tanzania.
• Hadzabe, Tanzania

Sahel Region
Sahel region is an ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between
the Sahara Desert to the north and Sudanian Savanna to the south. It stretches across
the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red
Sea.

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Geographic definitions of the Sahel region vary. Commonly, the Sahel stretches
from Senegal on the Atlantic coast, through parts of Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso,
Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Sudan to Eritrea on the Red Sea coast.

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 Europe
Europe is the second smallest continent, the smallest being Australia. Its area,
including the islands around the coast, is about 10 million square kilometers.

Europe is often described as a “peninsula of peninsulas.” A peninsula is a piece of land

surrounded by water on three sides. It is roughly three times the size of
India and smaller than China.

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Location of Europe
• A large part lies in the temperate zone as it stretches from 35°N to 80°N latitude.
• Longitudinally, it stretches from 10°W to 60°E
• The Prime Meridian passes through London. Prime Meridian passes through
the UK, France, and Spain in Europe and Algeria, Mali, Burkina, Faso, Tongo, and
Ghana in Africa.
• In the north, though it stretches into the Arctic Circle, the Warm Gulf Stream
keeps the ports ice-free.
• The broad continent shelf on its west provides good fishing grounds and there are
sheltered harbors along the indented coastline.
• It has the longest coastline in proportion to size.

Boundaries of Europe
• To the east, it is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountain, Caspian Sea, Caucasus
Mountain, and the Black Sea.
• To the south is the Mediterranean Sea. The Aegean Sea and the Adriatic Sea are
two of its branches.

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 • To the west is the Strait of Gibraltar separating Europe from Africa and joining the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. The Bay of Biscay, the English Channel, and
the North Sea are parts of the Atlantic Ocean.
• Baltic Sea with two branches – the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland is an
inlet in the north. The Arctic Ocean to the north has a bay called the White Sea.
• The peninsula of Greece, known as the Balkan Peninsula, and Italy extends into
the Mediterranean Sea.
• In the southwest is the Iberian Peninsula which is made up of Spain and Portugal.
• In the northwest is the Scandinavian, Peninsula consisting of Norway and Sweden.

Physical Divisions of Europe

• Western Upland
• North European Plain
• Central Uplands or Plateau
• Alpine Mountain Systems
• Islands of Europe
• Drainage Pattern
• Gulfs and Bays

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Western Upland
It is also known as the Northern Highlands, delineates the western edge of Europe and
defines the physical landscape of Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark),
Finland, Iceland, Scotland, Ireland, the Brittany region of France, Spain, and Portugal.

These landforms are result of glaciations of hard rock in ancient times. Distinct physical
features such as marshlands, lakes, and fjords have been emerged with the recession of
glaciers form the highland areas.

The famous Norwegian Fjords which are Lyse fjord, the Geiranger fjord.

• A fjord is a long, deep, narrow body of water that reaches far inland. Fjords are
often set in a U-shaped valley with steep walls of rock on either side.

North European Plain

It is the extensive low land spread along the bank of various mighty rivers such as Rhine,
Weser, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula. These river valleys are favorable for growing seasonal
crops.

It covers all most half of Europe. Bordered by Baltican White sea from north and Black
and Azov from the south the plain is gradually narrowed down towards the west.

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The northern part of the land is characterized by diversified glacial landforms such as
Pipet Marshland, Valdai hills of western Russia, glacial lakes, etc.

Central Uplands or Plateau

These are the collection of distinctive landscapes of summits, steep slopes, valleys, and
depression which stretches across central Europe.

It extends from Belgium in the East to France in the West and from the Czech Republic
and south Germany in south to Switzerland and Austria in the North.

Except for some river valleys such as the Rhine, Rhone, Elbe, and Danube river valleys all
other areas of this division is sparsely populated.

Alpine Mountain Systems

These are located in south-central Europe, immediately north of the Mediterranean Sea.

They extend for almost 700 miles in a crescent shape from the coastline of southern
France (near Monaco) into Switzerland, then through northern Italy and into Austria, and
down through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro – then
ending in Albania on the rugged coastline of the Adriatic Sea.

The highest point is Mont Blanc at 15,771 ft. (4,807m).

Mountains –

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The Ural Mountains:

• The Ural Mountains are a mountain range that forms part of the natural boundary
between Europe and Asia.
• The mountains run through western Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean
to the Ural River and Kazakhstan.
• From north to south, these are 2,200 km long and 80-120 km broad with many
parallel valleys.
• Several islands, such as Vaygach Island and the islands of Novaya Zemlya, are a
continuation of the Ural Mountains that run below the sea and emerge again on
the islands.
• The Ural Mountains are a rich source of minerals including coal, metal ores, and
precious stones, and mining in the region significantly contributes to Russia’s
economy.
• The highest peak in the range is Mount Narodnaya, which has an elevation of
1,894 m.

The Scandinavian Mountains:

• Scandinavia consists of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

• In fact, Scandinavia exists or Fenno-Scandia which continues into the east through
Finland to the Kola Peninsula in Russia.

The Old Mountain Blocks –

• These are Hercynian and Caledonian mountain chains.

• In the west, the Meseta of Spain, the Central Plateau of France, the Britanny
Peninsula, the Rhine Upland, the Block Forest, Vosges, Bohemian Plateau, and
Rhodope Mt, etc, are examples of these old mountains.
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The Alpine Mountain Ranges:

• The highest peak is (Mount Blanc 5,000 m).

• The mountain range runs in many branches.
• The main ones are the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans, the Caucasus, etc.
• Another branch is the Apennines (Italy, the Atlas (Africa, and the Sierra Nevada
Spain).
• Still another branch is the Dinaric and the Pindus mountain (Yugoslavia and
Greece) and enters through the Crete island into Asia.

Apennines:

• The Apennine Mountains are a range consisting of several sub-ranges that run
parallel to each other for approximately 1,200 km, along the length of peninsular
Italy.
• Como Grande is the tallest peak in the Apennines, with an elevation of 2,912 m.
• The Apennine Mountains contain pristine forests and montane grasslands, many
of which are protected by national parks.

The Pyrenees:

• The Pyrenees are half as Long and broad as the Alps and separate broadly France
from Spain.
• The highest peak is Pice de Aneto (3,404 m).

Balkan Mountains

• The Balkan Mountain are a mountain range is located in the eastern part of the
Balkan Peninsula, stretching for approximately 557 km from the Vrashka Chuka
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 Peak near the Bulgaria-Siberia border to Cape Emine along the coast of the Black
Sea.
• The highest peaks of the Balkan Mountains are located in the central part of
Bulgaria, the tallest of which is Botev Peak, with an elevation of 2,376 m.
• Several protected areas, such as Central Balkan National Park and Bulgarka
Nature Park, help conserve the ecosystem and landscapes within the Balkan
Mountains. Additionally, numerous caves within the range are a significant tourist
attraction in the region.
• The Balkan Mountains are closely connected to the history of Bulgaria and are
considered to have the nation and its people.

Caucasus Mountains

• Like the Urals, the Caucasus Mountains also form part of the boundary between
Europe and Asia. The mountain range has a length of approximately 1,200 km
and stretches between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
• Europe’s highest peak, Mount Elbrus, which has an elevation of 5,642 m, is
located in the Caucasus Mountains. Additionally, all 10 of the tallest peaks in
Europe are located in the Caucasus Mountains, particularly in Russia, Georgia, or
along the Russia-Georgia border.

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Islands of Europe
As surrounded by a number of seas from all sides, Europe is an island rich continent.
The British Isles is the largest and the most important group of islands consisting of
England, Scotland, and Ireland.

Largest European islands by area are as follows:

• Great Britain
• Iceland
• Ireland
• Severny Island
• Spitsbergen
• Yuzhny Island
• Sicily
• Sardinia
• Nordaustlandet
• Cyprus

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Peninsula
Europe’s main peninsulas are the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan, located in southern
Europe, and the Scandinavian and Jutland, located in northern Europe.

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Drainage Pattern

• The rivers of Europe are perennial being fed by melting snow or by the rain
brought by the Westerlies.
• Many of them have their origin in the Alps.
• Rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea are Rhone (France) and Ebro
(Spain).
• River Po of Italy flows into the Adriatic Sea.
• The Danube, Dnieper, and Don flow into the Black Sea.
• Rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are – Guadalquivir (Spain), Tagus and
Douro (Portugal), Loire and Seine (France), The Rhine Weser and Elbe (Germany)
• Many rivers flow into the Baltic Sea.
• The Thames, the chief river of England, flows into the English Channel.
• Rhine and Danube are international rivers because they pass through many
countries.

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The Rhine starts from the Alps in Switzerland and flows northwards through Germany
and enters the sea through Holland. It passes through heavily industrialized regions and
is used for transporting heavy goods. It is the busiest waterway in Europe. Rotterdam,
the largest part of Europe, is on its delta.

The Danube is also an international river. It rises from the Alps in Germany and flows
through Austria, Hungary, Serbia, and enters the Black Sea in Romania. It is not as
important as the Rhine for international trade because of the Black Sea in the interior.

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Gulfs and Bays
These are the parts of large water bodies which are adjacent to a massive land may it be
continents or countries which are of economic importance for any human civilization,
As Europe is surrounded by
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number of large water bodies such as the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, The North Sea
etc. there are a lot of Gulfs, Bay, and straits.

The Gulf of Finland is situated in the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea and extends
between Finland (to the north) and Estonia (to the south) all the way to Saint Petersburg
in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include
Helsinki and Tallinn. The eastern parts of the Gulf
of Finland belong to Russia, and some of Russia’s most important oil harbors are located
farthest in, near Saint Petersburg.

The Gulf of Bothnia situated in the northernmost part of the Baltic Sea and bordered by
Sweden at its western side and Finland at the eastern side.

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The Gulf of Riga is a brackish water body which is considered as a sub-basin of the
Baltic Sea. The areal extent of the Gulf of Riga is approximately 16,300 km². It is also
called the Bay of Riga which is a very shallow water sea with a maximum depth of
67metres.

The Gulf of Lions extends from the easternmost spurs of Pyrenees and covers various
lagoons, the Rhone River delta, limestone hills of Marseille. It’s an embayment of the
Mediterranean coastline of Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence in France.

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FAQ
What are Scandinavian and Nordic countries?
‘Scandinavia‘ is commonly used for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the term “Nordic
countries” is vaguely used for Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland,
including their associated territories of Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Åland
Islands.

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What are the smallest countries in Europe?
The European microstates or European ministates are a set of very small sovereign
states in Europe. The term is typically used to refer to the six smallest states in Europe
by area: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City.

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Great Britain
Great Britain, also called Britain, island lying off the western coast of Europe and
consisting of England, Scotland, and Wales. The term is often used as a synonym for
the United Kingdom, which also includes Northern Ireland and a number of
offshore islands.

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What is the smallest country in the world?
Based on the landmass, Vatican City is the smallest country in the world, measuring
just 0.2 square miles, almost 120 times smaller than the island of Manhattan. Situated on
the western bank of the Tiber River, Vatican City’s 2-mile border is landlocked by Italy.

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French islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans

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 North America
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all
within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a northern subcontinent of
the Americas.

It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the
west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the
Caribbean Sea.

North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and
the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

• North America is the third largest continent after Asia and Africa. It covers an
area of nearly 24 million square kilometers.
• From south to north, it extends from 7°N to 85°N latitude and east to west from
20°W to 179° W.
• In other words, its northern boundary is only about 500 kilometers away from the
North Pole and its western boundary only 10 kilometers away from the
International Date Line.
• There are five time zones in North America.
• The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle passes through the continent and the
100°W longitude cuts through the center of the continent.

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North-America-Time-zone

US-Timezone

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• This huge landmass includes three large countries – Canada, the United States of
America and Mexico, seven small states of Central America, and the islands of the
West Indies.
• The Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans surround North America in the east, west,
and north respectively.
• In the north-west, the Bering Strait separates it from Asia and in the south-east,
the Isthmus of Panama joins it to South America. North America has a smooth
coastline except for the existing in the north-west.

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Regional Divisions Of North America
Region-wise North America can be classified into the following parts which are listed
below:

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 • Western Region
• Great Plains
• Canadian Shield
• Eastern Region

Western Region
Young mountains rise in the west. The most familiar of these mountains are probably
the Rockies, North America’s largest chain. They stretch from the province of British
Columbia, Canada, to the U.S. state of New Mexico.

Great Plains
In the middle of the continent lies the Great Plain. Deep, rich soil blankets are large
areas of the plains in Canada and the United States. Grain is grown in this region called
the “Breadbasket of North America,” feeds a large part of the world. The Great Plains are
also home to rich deposits of oil and natural gas.

Canadian Shield
The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau. It extends over eastern, central,
and northwestern Canada. The Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape
pocked by an astounding number of lakes.

Eastern Region
This varied region includes the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic coastal plain.
North America’s older mountain ranges, including the Appalachians, rise near the east
coast of the United States and Canada. These areas have been mined for rich deposits of
coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.

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Major Physical Divisions of North America
• The Western Cordilleras
• The Central Lowlands
• The Eastern Highlands

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The Western Cordilleras

• The parallel ranges of young fold mountains run from Alaska and extend into
South America as the Andes.
• As they resemble twisted cords they are known as Cordilleras.
• Fold mountains are formed when tectonic plates push the Earth’s crust and force
it to form ridges and valleys.
• Volcanic rocks from the base of fold mountains.
• The Cordilleras are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount St. Helena is in the USA.
• The snow-covered Cordilleras act as a barrier to moisture-laden winds and cause
relief rainfall.
• Some of the rivers flow westwards and some eastwards with the Cordilleras acting
as the water divide between them.
• Rocky Mountains, Alaska Range, Cascades, Sierra Nevada, and the Sierra Madre
are the chief ranges of the Western Cordilleras
• The Grand Canyon is a network of deep narrow valley cuts into the dry Colorado
Plateau.
• The Old Faithful” is a natural geyser (a hot waterspout). Once in every 90 minutes,
the water from the geyser comes out roaring up to 60 meters high. It is found in
Yellowstone National Park.

The Central Lowlands

• These stretch from around the Arctic Shores and Hudson Bay to the Gulf of
Mexico.
• They are hemmed in by the Cordilleras in the west and the highlands in the east.
• In the west, they are known as high plains because of the greater altitudes.
• In the north, they form the Canadian Shield.

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 • The Canadian Shield is a peneplain with a number of lakes. They are large enough
to be called seas. They are the five Great lakes – Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,
and Ontario.
• Lake Winnipeg, Great Bear Lake, and Lake Athabaska are also on the Canadian
Shield.
• South of the Canadian Shield, the Central Lowlands are covered with layers of
sediment brought by glaciers and rivers. It is a very fertile region.

Great Lakes of USA –

Importance of great lakes region

• Glacial lakes
• The largest freshwater system
• Together – they hold 1/5 th of the earth surface’s freshwater
• Source of drinking water, irrigation, transport, sulfide and iron mining in the
periphery

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The Eastern Highlands

• They are old fold mountains that stretch from the valley of River St. Lawrence to
Southern USA.
• They are not high or as continuous as the Cordilleras.
• The highlands are also known as the Laurentian highlands in Canada and the
Appalachians in the USA and are less than 2,000 meters in height.
• Their eastern slopes facing the Atlantic Ocean are very steep causing waterfalls in
the streams that flow to the coast.

Canadian Shield –

The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau. It extends over eastern, central,
and northwestern Canada. The Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape
pocked by an astounding number of lakes.

Gulfs of North America

A gulf is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land which is very large in size, shape,
and depth. They are generally larger and more deeply indented than bays and often
make excellent harbors. Many important trading centers are located on gulfs.

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 • Gulf of Mexico
• Gulf of Alaska
• Gulf of California
• Gulf of St. Lawrence

Gulf of Mexico
It is an important economic site for three countries and surrounded by the United
States, Mexico, and the island nation of Cuba. As one of the biggest gulf, it has a
coastline of 5000 kilometers.

Gulf of Alaska
It is situated in the northwestern part of North America where two types of water run
into each other, a light, almost electric blue merging with a darker slate-blue.

Gulf of California
It separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican mainland. It has a coastline
of 4000 km( 2600 miles). It is considered to be one of the most diversified seas on the
planet and is home to more than 5,000 species of microinvertebrates.

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Gulf of St. Lawrence
It is a water outlet of the North American Great Lakes via Saint Lawrence river. It’s a
semi-enclosed sea that covers 236,000 square kilometers (91,000 sq mi) and containing
about 35,000 cubic kilometers (8,400 cu mi) of water, which results in an average depth
of 148 meters (486 ft).

Islands
The world famous islands of North America are:

Vancouver Island
It is situated on Canada’s Pacific Coast, is known for its mild climate and thriving arts
community. It is separated from British Columbia mainland by the Strait of
Georgia and Queen Charlotte Strait and from Washington by the Juan De Fuca Strait.

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Greenland
It is a massive island situated between Atlantic and Arctic oceans and 80% of its land is
covered by ice.

Prince of Wales Island

It is one of the islands of the Alexander Archipelago in the Alaska Panhandle. This ranks
four among the island in size.

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Hawaii Island
It is otherwise known as the Big Island provides a vast canvas of natural environment
and it is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago in the Central Pacific.

Cuba Islands of Antilles

It is known as the sugar bowl of the World and its vast source of metallic resources
include cobalt, nickel, iron ore, chromium, and copper. Other resources include timber,
petroleum, silica, salt, and arable land.
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Bermuda Island
It is the territory of the British Islands in North Atlantic and famous for its pink sand
beaches such as Elbow and Horseshoe Bay.

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Drainage Pattern
There are many rivers in North America. River of North America can be grouped
according to the seas they drain into, like

• Rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico

• Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean
• Arctic Ocean drainage
• Pacific Ocean Drainage

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1. The rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico

These are the Mississippi, Missouri and their tributaries drain the whole of the lower
Central Lowlands. They start from the Western Cordilleras. The Ohino and Tennesse.
Rivers which are also tributaries of the Mississippi but have their source in the
Appalachians are exceptions.

2. Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean

River St. Lawrence is the large river of this group. In this group the smaller rivers of the
Fall Line can also be included.

3. Arctic Ocean drainage

River Mackenzie which has many shallow lakes on the Canadian Shield. River Nelson
flow into the Hudson Bay.

4. Pacific Ocean Drainage

River Yukon in Alaska, Columbia, Fraser, and Colorado along the west coast. The
Colorado River cuts across the Colorado plateau and forms the world’s most famous and
attractive deep gorges, known as grand canons having nearly one km depth. Among the
other rivers, the Yukon, the Fraser, the Snake, the Humboldt, the Sacramento, the San
Joaquin, etc. are well known.

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Seas in North America
Caribbean Sea
It is a sub-oceanic basin bordered by coasts of Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama; to the
west by Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatán Peninsula
of Mexico; to the north
by the Greater Antilles islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico; and to the
east by the north-south chain of the Lesser Antilles, consisting of the island arc that
extends from the Virgin Islands in the northeast to Trinidad.

Beaufort Sea
It is situated in the north of Canada and Alaska is known to be the marginal sea of Arctic
Ocean covering an area of 184,000 sq. miles and the average depth of 3,239 ft (1,004 m).

Hudson Bay
It is known as the second largest bay in the world which encompasses an area of
1,230,000 square kilometer (470,000mi) and large body of Salt water.

Labrador Sea
It is bordered by continental shelves and separates Canada from Green Land.

Bering Sea
It is situated on the extreme North of North America separating the continents of Asia
and north America.

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Inland Drainage System
The Great Basin area in the Rocky Mountains (Middle) has rivers which do not reach the
coast, but terminate in the land. This is the Inland Drainage System.

The rivers are small, seasonal and end up in saline lakes.

Lakes in North America

• The Lakes of the Canadian Shield are freshwater bodies.
• The Great Salt Lake between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada has a high salt
content and is an area of ‘Inland drainage’.
• Lake Erie in Ontario, Canada, and Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania in the
USA.
• Lake Huron in Ontario, Canada, and Michigan in the USA.
• Lake Ontario in Ontario, and New York in the USA.
• Lake St Clair in Ontario, and Michigan in the USA.
• Lake Superior in Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin in the USA.

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Resources

Agriculture
From the freezing Arctic to the tropical jungles of Central America, North America enjoys
more climate variation than any other continent. Almost every type of ecosystem is
represented somewhere on the continent, from coral reefs in the Caribbean to the ice
sheet in Greenland. These differences contribute to North America’s variety of
agricultural industries, which are often divided by climate zone:

• tropical zone,
• subtropical zone,
• cool temperate zone,
• dry zone

Tropical Zone –

• Farmer’s harvest oranges, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, and bananas. These crops
grow on coastal plains and humid mountain slopes. Cotton and hemp are
cultivated in the warmer and drier intermediate climate zone. These crops are
important exports for Central American countries.

Sub – tropical Zone –

• Fruits, vegetables, cotton, and tobacco are predominant in the warm, subtropical
zones of northern Mexico and the United States.
• Important agricultural areas in this zone include the Rio Grande Valley (citrus
fruits) in the U.S. state of Texas and Mexico, California’s Central Valley (fruits and
vegetables), the Gulf Coastal Plain (vegetables), and the sandy valleys of the
Appalachians (cotton and tobacco).
• These areas benefit from ample rain and warm air currents.

Cool Temperate Zone –

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 • Important agricultural areas in this climate include the Finger Lakes region of New
York in the U.S.; the Niagara Peninsula in the Canadian province of Ontario; the
Columbia River basin in the U.S. state of Washington and the Canadian province
of British Columbia; and the valleys of the Appalachians.
• These areas benefit from excellent drainage and predictable, established frosts.
• The Dairy Belt, Corn Belt, and Wheat Belt are three agricultural areas in the
continent’s cool temperate zones.
• Dairy animals, including cows, goats, and sheep, feed on the hay and hardy
small grains that thrive in New England and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
region along the Atlantic coast. This is the Dairy Belt.
• The Corn Belt, located between the Ohio River and the lower Missouri River,
receives ample water and strong summer sun, ideal for corn and soybeans.
• West of the Corn Belt, the Wheat Belt stretches from the U.S. state of Kansas
through the Canadian Prairie Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and
Manitoba. This vast area of the Great Plains allows wheat to be cultivated in
both winter and spring.

Dry Zone –

• Dry zones, common in the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico, are ideally
suited for livestock ranching.
• Ranches with thousands of cattle are common in this region. Traditionally,
livestock fed on locally grown fodder such as prairie grasses. However, irrigation
for fruit and cotton farming has drained water supplies in the region.
• Native grasses cannot nourish the huge herds of livestock kept by ranchers. Cattle,
sheep, hogs, and other livestock are less likely to graze than to eat corn-based
feed.
• In fact, most of the corn grown in the Corn Belt is feeder corn used for livestock
feed.

Forestry
Forestry is the management, cultivation, and harvesting of trees and other vegetation in
forests. In the Pacific Northwest, for instance, logging companies harvest cedar, fir, and
spruce trees.

Lumber from these trees is exported around the world for construction. Some of the
continent’s largest paper mills are found in these temperate rain forests. In addition to
paper, paper mills produce cardboard and fiberboard.

Forestry is a major economic activity for much of North America. In the United States,
the timber industry is strong in the Pacific Northwest, the Gulf states, and South Atlantic
coastal plains. In Canada, forestry is a major industry in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario,
and British Columbia.

Mining
North America is a leading producer of coal, used in energy production; bauxite used to
create aluminum; iron and copper, both used in construction; and nickel, used to create
steel, which North American companies export around the world. Gold and silver mines

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operate in the western part of the continent. Visitors to Crater of Diamonds State Park, a
mine in the U.S. state of Arkansas, can search for their own diamonds.

Coal–

• Coal remains a primary industry for the U.S. and is often linked with states near
the Appalachians.
• Coal can be mined underground or in large, open pits. Around 20% of the World’s
Coal is mined in Pennsylvania, USA.

Metallic minerals–

• Large deposits of iron ore are found in the areas around Lake Superior and the
Eastern part of the Canadian shield. Iron is also found in the southern
Appalachians.
• The USA is one of the largest producers of copper in the world. It is mined
extensively around the great lakes and the Rocky Mountains.
• Mexico is the world’s largest producer of silver. Large deposits of silver are found in
the USA and Canada too. It is a byproduct of the Zinc industry as well. Chihuahua
is the largest silver mine in the World. It is in Mexico.
• Canada and the US produce a substantial amount of Gold which is mined in the
Rocky Mountains. California and Alaska saw the Gold rush in the early 1900s.
• Canada produces about 90% of the world’s Nickle.
• Canada is also the largest producer of Asbestos, Zinc, and platinum and the
second-largest producer of cobalt, Uranium, and radium. Note that China is also
one of the World’s largest producer of Asbestos.
• The USA is one of the world’s largest producer of Uranium and Sulphur.

Drilling
North America is home to vast deposits of oil and natural gas, which are drilled for
energy and fuel. Oil and gas extraction are key elements of North America’s economy.
The United States, Canada, and Mexico are among the world’s top oil producers.

The Athabasca tar sands, in the Canadian province of Alberta, are the world’s largest
reservoir of heavy crude oil. More than 20 national and international extraction projects
are established in the Athabasca tar sands.

Large reserves of Petroleum are found in North America in a great arc from Alaska to
Texas in the USA. The United States is the top oil-producing country in the world, with
an average of 17.87 million b/d, which accounts for 18% of the world’s production.

The U.S. overtook Russia in 2012 for the No. 2 spots and surpassed former leader Saudi
Arabia in 2013 to become the world’s top oil producer. Much of the increased U.S.
production is attributable to fracking in the shale formations in Texas and North Dakota.
The U.S. has been a net exporter of oil (i.e., exports exceed imports) since early 2011.

Mexico leads other North American countries as one of the top oil exporters in the
world, largely because of its reserves in and around the Gulf. (Although both the United
States and Canada produce more oil than Mexico, they also consume far more. Both
countries are mostly importers, not exporters, of oil and natural gas.)
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Important Industrial Centers of North America
United States of America:
West Coast Important Cities –

• Seattle – world’s largest aircraft assembly center. Lumbering, fish canning,

aluminum smelting electrical engineering are important industries.
• San Francisco – known as ‘The City of Golden Gate’. Famous for oil refining and
ship building.
• Los Angeles – known for its film industry – Hollywood.

Great Lake Region-

• Famous for heavy industries and iron and steel.

• Important cities – Chicago, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Toledo, Detroit, etc.
• Detroit – greatest automobile region of USA
• Akron – world’s largest synthetic rubber and tyre making center.
• Pittsburg – highest production of Iron and steel

Texas –

• Houston – Oil refinery, shipbuilding, chemical, and machinery are important

industries located here.

Canada

• Hamilton – located at the head of Lake Ontario. It is known as the Birmingham of

Canada. Center for iron and steelworks and engineering.
• Sudbury – Located on the shore of Lake Huron. It is one of the most productive
mining areas of Canada which yields nickel, Platinum, copper, etc.
• Arvida – Situated on Saguenay River. It has the largest aluminum smelter in the
world.
• Sarnia – Located on the shore of Lake Huron. It has the largest oil refinery in the
world.
• Ottawa – Paper and pulp and sawmilling

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 South America
South America is a long triangular shaped continent.

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• It stretched from 12°N to 55°S latitude.
• The Equator passes through the northern part of the continent and the Tropic
of Capricorn runs roughly through the middle.
• Because of its tapering shape, a major part of the landmass is in the tropics. South
America lies on the west of the Prime Meridian. So the time at any place on this
continent will be some hours less than or behind the Greenwich Mean Time.
• The 60° meridian divides the continent lengthwise into two halves. It is more to
the east compared to North America and is, therefore, closer to Europe and Africa.
South America is the fourth largest continent after Asia, Africa, and North America.
• It is two-third the size of Africa and six times the size of India. The coastline of
South America is smooth with very few inlets except in the extreme south-west
where there are fiords and many small islands.
• Fiords are deep inlets of the sea into mountains land. There are a few large islands
off the coast of South America.
• The Galapagos Islands near the Equator and the Juan Fernandez Islands near
Central Chile are in the Pacific Ocean.
• The Tierra del Fuego is in the Southern Ocean and the Falkland Islands in the
South Atlantic Ocean. The island of Trinidad is near Venezuela in the North
Atlantic Ocean.
• The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world. South America’s three
southern countries – Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay – constitute a region
sometimes referred to as the Southern Cone because of its pointed, ice-cream-
cone-like shaped.
• Landlocked Countries – Paraguay and Bolivia

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South America includes 14 countries:

1. Argentina
2. Bolivia
3. Brazil
4. Chile
5. Colombia
6. Ecuador
7. Falkland Islands (United Kingdom) i.e. (British Overseas Territories)
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 8. French Guiana (France)
9. Guyana
10. Paraguay
11. Peru
12. Suriname
13. Uruguay
14. Venezuela.

Major Physical Divisions of South America

• The Pacific coastal strip
• Mountain Ranges
• The Central Lowlands
• The Eastern Highlands

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1. The Pacific coastal strip

• It lies in the west, between the ocean and the Andes. It is the longest coastal plain
in the Atlantic world.
• In most places, it is about 80 kilometers wide but in some, it is as narrow as 8
meters. The coastline of South America is smooth and regular. At the river mouths,
there are inlets that are used as harbors.
• The south-western coast of the continent has fiords or deep inlets of the sea.

Andes Mountains:

• Forms the second-highest mountain systems in the world and is next to the
Himalayas
• Mount Aconcagua is the extinct volcano lies in Argentina
• Mount Ojas del Salado is the highest active volcano in the world of Argentina
• Andes Mountains – A part of seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,
Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Argentina.

2. Mountain Ranges

• The Andes stretches through the entire continent, running in the north-south
direction from Isthmus of Panama to Strait of Magellan.
• They are the continuous range of folded mountain systems that cover the entire
western coast of South America.

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 • The Andes is the longest mountain range in the world. The highest mountain of
this mountain range is Aconcagua, which stands at 6,962 meters (22,841 feet) and
straddles the Argentina-Chile border.
• They form a chain of ranges and knots with enclosed intermontane
plateaus namely in Ecuador and Bolivia.
• Being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, there are many volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes in this region. Mount Cotopaxi and Mount Chimborazo are active
volcanic peak, which is the highest peak in South America.

Intermontane plateau – Bolivian plateau

Guiana Highlands:

an abundance of rain, tropical rainforest, gold, diamond, and iron ore reserve. World’s
highest fall – Angel’s fall on the Caroni River.
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Plateau of Mato Grosso:

Ancient erosional plateau, savannah, cattle raising, gold, and diamond reserve.

Plateau of Borborema:

Semi-arid, deciduous-thorny scrub

Brazilian highlands:

Lava plateau, Minas Garais region- iron and gold reserve.

3. The Central Lowlands

• They are formed by two great river systems – the Amazon- the Orinoco and the
Parana-Paraguay. The vegetation of the lowlands is given special names.
• The Orinoco Basin has dense tropical forests. The northern part is a plain covered
with savanna grass called the Llanos.
• The equatorial jungle of the Amazon Basin is called the selvas, a typical tropical
rain forest.
• The rich temperate grasslands around the mouth of the Parana-Paraguay is the
pampas.
• At the source of these rivers is a region scrub forest called the Gran Chaco.

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4. The Eastern Highlands

• These are plateaus made up of hard old rocks.

• The River Amazon separates them into the Guiana Highland to the north and the
Brazilian Highland to the south.
• They have been worn down by wind, rain, and rivers. They have steep cliffs along
the east coast and slope gently towards the Central Plains.
• The savanna grasslands of Brazilian Highlands are the Campos.
• Towards the Central Lowlands, it is known as the plateau of Matogrosso.
• The Eastern highlands consists of Igneous and Metamorphic rocks.

Highlands are split in to three regions:

1. Brazilian Highlands
2. Guiana Highlands
3. Patagonian Plateau

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Guiana Highlands

• It is a geographically stunning part of Planet Earth, over 1,000 miles in length, the
Highlands stretch from southern Venezuela across the northern edge of South
America to the tip of Brazil.
• It consists of a vast plateau, one marked by deep gorges, tropical rain forests,
numerous rivers, and waterfalls. It’s famed for the highest waterfall in the world
(Angel Falls) at 3,212 ft (979 m) high. The highest point is Mt. Roraima on the
borders of Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela at 2,810 m.

Brazilian Highlands

• This highlands region is about 800 miles in length and runs through the Brazilian
states of Minas Gerais, Goias, Bahia, and Sao Paulo in southeastern Brazil. The
magnificent landscape includes varied mountain ranges, namely the Serra de
Mantiquiera, Serra do Paranapiataba, Serra Geral, and Serra do Mar.

Patagonian Plateau

• It is located between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean, and about 1,000 miles in
length; Patagonia stretches south from the Rio Negro river in southern Argentina
to Tierra del Fuego and the Strait of Magellan. It’s mostly rugged, barren land,
famed for its beauty and striking scenery.

Deserts of South America

• Patagonian Desert – the largest desert by area located in Argentina
• La Guajira Desert – a desert in northern Colombia and some of northwestern
Venezuela
• Atacama – a desert in Chile, the driest place on Earth.
• Sechura Desert – a desert located along a portion of the northwestern coast of
South America
• Monte Desert – in Argentina, a smaller desert above the Patagonian desert.

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Drainage System of South America
• The Amazon Basin
• The Rio de Plata Basin
• The Orinoco Basin
• The Sao Francisco Basin

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The Amazon Basin

• It is the basin of River Amazon.

• Its length is second to that of the Nile river of Africa.
• It has the largest flow of water in the world.
• The river drains nearly 40 per cent of the area of South America.
• The major tributaries of the Amazon river are the Caqueta, the Jurua, the Madeira,
the Negro, etc.
• Equatorial rainforest
• Navigable till Manaus
• Petroleum at mouth
• Natural Rubber
• Amazon rainforest – deforestation due to cattle ranching and soya beans field.

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The Rio de Plata basin

• This basin is second in size to that of the Amazon.

• The main rivers which form the Basin of Rio de Plata are the river Paraguay, the
Parana, and the river Uruguay.
• River Parana (4,879 km) rises from Minas Gerais from a water divide Carino.

The Orinoco basin

• This is considered to be the third-largest drainage system of South America.

• It rises in the Southern end of Sierra Parima near Mount Delgado Chalboud at a
height of 1000 meters.
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 • It traverses 2,740 km to meet the Atlantic ocean.
• The word the Orinoco means ‘a place to paddle’, i.e. a river where navigation is
possible.
• In the North, the Orinoco river passes through a zone called ‘Region of Rapids’
where there are enormous granite boulders.
• The world’s highest waterfall Angel (979 m) is situated on river Churun which is a
tributary of river Caroni which is further a tributary of river Orinoco.
• The Orinoco flows through the llanos (savanna grasslands) of Venezuela into the
(North Atlantic Ocean).

Parana river system –

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 • From source to its junction with Paraguay – known as Alto Parana
• Numerous waterfalls in alto Parana – then navigable
• Useful for HEP, irrigation
• Wheat cultivation in Pampas region

Uruguay river system –

• Joins Parana river – to form Rio de la Plata estuary

• Important for irrigation and HEP
• Not useful for navigation due to numerous rapids

The Sao Fancisco basin

• The fourth-largest river system of South America is the river Sao Francisco which is
about 2,914 km in length. It flows within Brazil.
• It originates North-west of the city of Belo Horizonte.

Rivers of South America

• Amazon River
• Orinoco River
• Magdalene River
• Parana-Rio de la Plata
• Tocantins-Araguaia
• Sao Francisco River
• Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers.

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Important Lakes and Islands
NAME LOCATION

North of Venezuela, is one of the major oil producing

Lake Maracaibo (12,950 sq. km)
[Link] lak of South America.

Lake Titicaca (12,500 feet Situated between Bolivia and [Link] navigable lake in the
above sea level) world.

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 Lies in the Altiplano (high Plateau between the Andes mountain
Lake Popo
chain) in Bolivia.

Home of many unique species of reptiles (turtles), birds and

Galapagos Islands
fishes.

Galapagos Islands

Pantanal Wetlands
• It is the world’s largest tropical wetlands.
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 • It sprawls across three South American countries i.e. Bolivia,
Brazil, and Paraguay, and supports millions of people there, as well as
communities in the lower Rio de la Plata Basin.
• The Pantanal derives its name from the Portuguese word for ‘swamp’.
• It has the largest concentration of crocodiles in the world.
• Jaguars, the largest feline in the Americas, hunt caiman in the Pantanal, which
has one of the highest density of jaguars anywhere in the world.
• The Pantanal is also home to the biggest parrot on the planet, the hyacinth
macaw.
• The areas that are protected include parts that fall under an agreement
called Ramsar that requires national governments to conserve and wisely use
wetlands and some that are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Biosphere
Reserves.
• The Pantanal is bounded by the Chiquitano dry forests to the west and northwest,
by the Arid Chaco dry forests to the southwest, and the Humid Chaco to the
south.
• Less than 5% of the Pantanal is protected, with parts that fall under an Ramsar
agreement, and some that are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Biosphere
Reserves.
• Around 95% of the Pantanal is under private ownership, the majority of which is
used for cattle grazing.

Latin America
Reference – Britannica

Latin America is generally understood to consist of the entire continent of South

America in addition to Mexico, Central America, and the islands of the
Caribbean whose inhabitants speak a Romance language.

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North And Central America

• Belize
• Costa Rica
• El Salvador
• Guatemala
• Honduras
• Mexico
• Nicaragua
• Panama

South America

• Argentina
• Bolivia
• Brazil
• Chile
• Colombia
• Ecuador
• French Guiana (département of France)
• Guyana
• Paraguay
• Peru
• Suriname
• Uruguay
• Venezuela

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Caribbean
countries

• Cuba
• Dominican Republic
• Haiti

dependencies and constituent entities

• Guadeloupe
• Martinique
• Puerto Rico
• Saint-Barthélemy
• Saint-Martin

Lithium Triangle
Lithium Triangle is an intersection of Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, known for high
quality salt flats.

Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, Salar de Atacama in Chile, and Salar de Arizaro in Argentina
contains over 45%of known global lithium reserves.

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• Beneath Salar de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat lies the world’s greatest
lithium deposits.
• Bolivia, one of South America’s poorest countries, envisions development by
harvesting lithium on an industrial scale from underground saltwater brines.
• It can be mined from rock or processed from brine.
• Lithium dissolved in underground saline aquifers called “brine”, pumped to the
surface by wells and then allowed to evaporate in vast knee-deep ponds.
• Demand for electric vehicles and smart devices powered by lithium-ion
batteries gives an opportunity for development.

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 Australia and Oceania
Thousands of islands combine to form the Oceania region mostly covering the Central
and South Pacific Ocean.

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The region is dominated by the world’s biggest island and two other major landmasses,
micro-continent of Zealandia ( includes New Zealand) and the western half of the
island of New Guinea, made
up of the nation of Papua New Guinea. Oceania also includes three island
regions: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (including the U.S. state of Hawaii).

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It stretches from the Strait of Malacca to the coast of the Americas. The Tropic of
Capricorn divides it into almost two halves.

Australia is the world’s largest island and smallest continent. It is the only nation that
completely covers a continent. Its total area is nearly double that of India and Pakistan
combined. It lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere and is aptly named – Austral
meaning south. It is located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, stretches west to
east from 114°E longitude to 154°E longitude and from 10°S to 40°S latitude.

The Tropic of Capricorn cuts the continent almost into half. Asia is the continent nearest
to Australia. The nearest point on the mainland of Asia is Singapore To the west of
Australia, Indian Ocean, to the south, the icy shore of Antarctica to the south-east
is New Zealand. To the north-west is the continent of Asia.

Australia
Capital: Canberra

• It is the only continent which is also a country

• It lies between the Indian and the Pacific oceans
• It is surrounded by
• The Timor Sea in the North-West
• The Gulf of Carpentaria in the North,

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 • Great barrier reef in the north-east &
• Great Australian bight in the south
• To the southeast of the mainland lies the island of Tasmania

Major states –

It has 6 states and 2 centrally administered territories.

Its 6 states are:

1. Western Australia
2. Queensland
3. South Australia
4. New South Wales
5. Victoria
6. Tasmania

• Australia is the most leveled and lowest of all the continents.

• There are no high mountains, deep valleys, or large rivers.
• Mount Kosciusko 2,230 meters above sea level, is the highest peak.
• The coastline is very smooth with no inlets except in the south. So there are very
few good harbors.
• As the smallest continent, Australia has no prominent physical division, yet efforts
have been made to divide it roughly into four categories, such as:

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Major Cities in Australia

• Australia’s major cities include Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide,

Cairns, Darwin, and Canberra, the capital.

Physical Divisions
• Eastern Highland
• The Western Plateau
• Desert
• The Central Lowland
• The Great Barrier Reef

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Eastern Highland
This is a chain of hills and mountains which interrupts the leveled landform of Australia.
These are also known as the Great Dividing Range.

The Great Dividing Range

• It is, also known as the Eastern Highlands, is Australia’s most substantial mountain
range.
• The range stretches more than 3500 km from the northeastern tip of Queen’s
land, running the entire length of the eastern coastline through New South Wales,
then into Victoria and turning water, before finally fading into the central plain at
the Grampians in western Victoria.
• The Great Dividing Range does not consist of a single mountain range.
• It consists of a complex of mountain ranges, plateau, upland areas, and
escarpments with an ancient and complex geological history.
• The crest of the range is defined by the watershed or boundary between the
drainage basins of rivers which drain directly eastward into the Pacific Ocean, and
those rivers which drain into the Murray- Darling River system towards the west.
• In the north, the rivers on the west side of the range drain towards the Gulf of
Carpentaria.

The Western Plateau

• This eroded plateau has undergone the process of erosion for a quite long period.
It is characterized by several ‘sinkhole’ a network of underground caves which
filled with water.
• The Western Plateau is also called the home for several deserts and the climate is
comparatively dry owing to the cold water current of western Australia. The series
of the desert in this region are:
• The ranges were originally home to Australian Aboriginal tribes such as the Kulin.

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Desert

• Gibson Desert – a central Australian desert

• Great Sandy Desert – a northwestern Australian desert
• Great Victoria Desert – the sixth-largest desert in the world by area, located in
south-central Australia.
• Simpson Desert – a central Australian desert
• Little Sandy Desert – a western Australian desert
• Strzelecki Desert – a south-central Australian desert
• Tanami Desert – a northern Australian desert
• Western Desert – a desert located in western Australia, comprising the Gibson,
Great Sandy, and Little Sandy deserts.
• Rangipo Desert – a barren light altitude desert on the North Island Volcanic
Plateau in New Zealand.

The Central Lowland

• The extensive patch of plain or low land has its existence between the Eastern
Highlands and Western Plateau.
• The patch is drained by two rivers such as Murray and Darling which also facilitate
the land with irrigation facilities for farming and other essential activities.
• The area is also known as the Great Artesian Basin as it is covered by a number of
underground pressurized wells from which the water comes out automatically to
the surface. Yet they are not suitable for drinking as they are salty by nature.

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The Great Barrier Reef

• This is the largest coral reef in the world.

• It lies along the east coast of Queensland, Australia, in the Pacific Ocean.
• It is about 2,000 kilometers long, in some places, it is as close as 16 kilometers to
the coast while in other places it is 200 kilometers away.
• It is one of the natural wonders of the world.
• It is formed by the tiny coral polyps.

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The Islands of Australia & Oceania

• The islands situated surrounding the younger most continent in size are
collectively known as Oceania. Broadly it has been divided into three major island
groups Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
• Melanesia is otherwise known as Black Islands and congregated around north and
east of Australia. Some of the major islands are East Timor, Fiji, New Caledonia,
Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.
• Micronesia which is also called as Little Islands is the agglomeration of islands
such as Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru,
Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and Wake Island.
• Polynesia is otherwise known as Many Lands which expand from islands of
Midway in the north to New Zealand in the south and include the series of islands
such as the American Samoa Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Pitcairn,
Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna Islands.
• The islands of Oceania have been formed due to the differential activities of
volcanoes. The low islands of Micronesia have been formed by building up coral
reefs on the rim of the volcanic islands, hence giving it a shape of a Ring which is
known as Atolls. The atolls further encircle the lagoons which are characterized by
shallow pools of clear water at a very low altitude of just a few feet above sea level.

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Drainage System
• Australia has low average rainfall.
• Being a hot dry country the rate of evaporation is high. So there is very little water
left to flow like a river to the sea.
• As a result of this, the total Australian continent is mainly drained by two of the
largest drainage basins Murray and Darling and an inland lake is also found
which is known as Lake Eyre Basin. Which accounts for an area for over 1 million
square kilometers.
• River Murray starts from the Snowy Mountains of the Great Dividing Range.

• Its tributaries are the Darling, Murrumbidgee, and Lachlan. Many dams have been
built across these to provide for irrigation and power generation.
• River Swan near Perth is also utilized in the same way.

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Climatic zones
There are generally four types of wind that prevail over Australian continent
throughout the year which affect the climate of the little continent to a large extent.

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Seasonal change in the Temperate Zones
The coastal hinterland of New South Wales, much of Victoria, Tasmania, the south-
eastern corner of South Australia and the southwest of Western Australia are
contributing the temperate zones where the seasonal changes are as follows –

• Summer: December to February

• Autumn: March to May
• Winter: June to August
• Spring: September to November

• The two similarly affected areas to that of temperate zones are:

• The temperate grassland that surrounds the arid and semiarid desert areas in the
center and gradually percolates into the area north of Alice Springs in the
Northern Territory.
• Desserts are the arid and semi-arid areas of the center of the continent which
stretch across the vast amount of South Australia and Western Australia.

Seasonal change in the Tropical Zones

• There are three climatic zones in the tropical areas of Australia:

• Equatorial – the tip of Cape York and Bathurst and Melville Islands north of Darwin.
• Tropical – across northern Australia including Cape York, the Top End of the
Northern Territory, land south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and the Kimberley region.
• Sub-tropical – the coastal and inland fringe from Cairns along the Queensland
coast and hinterland to the northern areas of New South Wales and the coastal
fringe north of Perth to Geraldton in Western Australia.

• These above-mentioned areas experience two exactly opposite spells of season i.e.
wet and dry seasons.
• The wet season is otherwise called as the monsoon season, which lasts about six
months, between November and March. The temperature ranges between 30 and
50 degrees Celsius and comparatively it is hotter than the dry season because of
the high humidity during the wet, which is caused by large amounts of water in
the air. It is also marked by heavy rainfall which leads to frequent flooding. The dry
season lasts about six months, usually between April and October. Temperatures
are lower and the skies are generally clearer during the dry. The average
temperature is around 20 degrees Celsius.

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Natural Vegetation

Downs

• The temperate grassland of Australia known as downs is found in the Murray-

Darling basins of South-Eastern part.
• They are largely used for pastoral activity.
• Cultivation is profitably done in the down areas where Mitchel grasses grown.
• The Mitchel grasses grow even on the cracking clay soils, basaltic soils, and even
on skeletal soils.
• Similarly, Canterbury grassland is found in New Zealand.

The tropical Rain forest regions

• These are home to dense forests with coconut palms and mangroves growing
nearer the shorelines. High temperatures throughout the year with very little
rainfall.

The deciduous forest region

• It has a wealth of plant life and includes tall and short trees, shrubs, small plants,
and mosses. Four distinct seasons with warm summers and cold, wet winters. The
trees shed their leaves in autumn.

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Savanna

• Very high temperatures all year and rain during the summer season only.

The dry desert and desert scrub region

• It is home to the eucalyptus as well as those plants that can survive the arid
conditions like cacti. Warm to high temperatures with very little rainfall. Hot
summers and cold winters with above-average rainfall.
• The varying climate of Australia is largely dependent on its size. The temperature
ranges below zero in the Snowy Mountains in southern Australia to extreme heat
in the Kimberley region in the north-west of the continent. Different climatic
zones are characterized by distinct climatic phenomena with prominent seasonal
changes.
• Four prominent seasons such as Summer, Autumn, Winter, and Spring are
experienced in the Temperate zone, Desert, and the Grassland climatic zones but
drastically it has changed to wet and dry seasons in the tropical north of the
continent which includes the Equatorial, Tropical and sub-tropical zones.

New Zealand
• Lying in the southwest Pacific, New Zealand consists of two main islands – the
North Island and the South Island. Stewart Island and many smaller islands lie
offshore.
• The North Island of New Zealand has a ‘spine’ of mountain ranges running
through the middle, with gentle rolling farmland on both sides.
• The central North Island is dominated by the Volcanic Plateau, an active volcanic
and thermal area.
• The massive Southern Alps form the backbone of the South Island. To the east of
the Southern Alps is the rolling farmland of Otago and Southland, and the vast,
flat Canterbury Plains.
• New Zealand sits on two tectonic plates – the Pacific and the Australian. Fifteen
of these gigantic moving chunks of crust make up the Earth’s surface. The North
Island and some parts of the South Island sit on the Australian Plate, while the rest
of the South Island sits on the Pacific. Because these plates are constantly shifting
and grinding into each other, New Zealand gets a lot of geological action.

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Physical features
Southern Alps

• The mountains of the South Island, includes the country’s highest peak, Mount
Cook (3,764 m).

Mount Egmont

• An extinct volcano in south-west of North Island.

• Situated to the north of central volcanic plateau of North Island.

Wellington

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 • Situated on the southern tip of the North Island.
• Country’s capital and also the southernmost capital city of the world.
• An important sea port on the Cook Strait.
• Cattle rearing and dairy is the main economic activity around this city.

Auckland

• Biggest city of the country and also the largst port on the coast of North Island.

Christchurch

• Major industrial centre of the South Island.

Taranaki Plain of New Zealand

• Volcanic plain
• Volcanic peak – Mt. Taranaki
• More than 50% of the region has rich pastureland
• sheep and cattle rearing for Dairying, meat imp activities

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 Taranaki Plain
Canterbury Plain of New Zealand

• The most extensive plains, an example of Piedmont Alluvial plain crossed by rivers
cover 12,500 km of the South Island’s east coast.
• The chief farming region in New Zealand.
• Pastoral farming
• Predominantly sheep farming for lamb-wool
• then cattle rearing for meat then dairying

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 Antarctica

• It is the southernmost continent and lies entirely within the Antarctic Circle
spread around the South Pole.
• To the south of India, beyond the Indian Ocean lies the frozen continent of
Antarctica.
• The name means – opposite the Arctic.
• It separated from the rest of the world by the icy waters of the Southern
Ocean which comprises of the southern portions of the Indian, Atlantic, and
Pacific Oceans.
• Its area is over 14 million square kilometers.

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• It is the fifth-largest continent.
• It is larger than Europe and is twice the size of Australia.
• The continent is a high plateau that is frozen throughout the year.
• There is no coastal plain.
• There are mountain ranges, peaks, a rift valley, and volcanoes.
• Two broad inlets, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea and the Trans-
• Antarctic Mountains that cross the entire continent divide the land into West
Antarctica and East Antarctica.
• The former faces the Pacific Ocean. The Antarctic Peninsula points towards South
America. It is the continuation of the Andes Mountain range.
• East Antarctica, faces the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, Mount Erebus, an active
volcano, is actually of the Ross Sea.
• It is the only continent that is completely covered by permanent ice and snow
hence it is known as the white continent.
• In some places, its ice cap is 4,000 meters deep.
• The valleys between the mountain ranges are dry, windy, frozen and barren and
strangely called oases.

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Climate of Antarctica
• The climate of Antarctica is frozen cold because of its distance from the Equator
and because of the great height of the plateau.
• In the winter months of May, June, and July the sun never rises and the
temperature at the South Pole falls to minus 90°C.
• In the summer months of December, January, and February, the sun never sets
and their continuous daylight. The summer temperature is about 0°C.
• Extremely cold and icy winds blow throughout the year.
• There is a marked difference between the summer and winter temperatures.
• There is also a vast difference between the temperatures of the continental
interior.
• Most parts of the continent are dry with an average of 5 centimeters of rain
annually.
• Antarctica is a cold desert.
• Mosses and lichens which cling to rocky slopes are found along the coast.
• There are scattered clumps of coarse grass and flowering plants in a few places
where the climate is mild.

Aurora

• In winter, there is a continuous night for 3 months in the polar regions. Curtains
of brilliant colored lights appear on these dark nights. They are caused
by magnetic storms in the upper atmosphere.
• They are called Aurora Australis in the south and Aurora Borealis in the north.

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Minerals
• Scientific studies have shown Antarctica to be rich in gold, platinum, nickel,
copper, and petroleum.
• But by the international Agreement, this continent is to be used only by the
scientists to study the climate of the Earth and the origin of its crust.

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 • About 70 percent of the Earth’s supply of freshwater can be extracted from the
ice-caps of Antarctica.

Expeditions of Antarctica
• In 1912, a dramatic contest to reach the South Pole was held by two teams. The
British team was led by Captain Robert F. Scott and the Norwegian team by Roald
Amundsen.
• The five British men reached the pole only to find the Norwegian flag flying at the
South Pole. They had been beaten by 34 days.
• Indian expedition to Antarctica had a 21 member team with Dr. S. [Link] as its
leader. It left Goa on the 6th of December 1981 and landed on the frozen continent
on 9th January 1982.

• They set up a scientific station called Dakshin Gangotri laid plans for a second
base called Maitri and named a point Mount Indira.
• They left automatic weather recorders powered by solar batteries at the stations.
• The South Pole is 2,250 kilometers away from Dakshin Gangotri.

The Antarctic Treaty

• The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by
the twelve nations that had been active during the IGY (Argentina, Australia,
Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United
Kingdom, United States, and USSR). The Treaty, which applies to the area south of
60° South latitude, is surprisingly short, but remarkably effective. Through this
agreement, the countries active in Antarctica consult on the uses of a whole
continent, with a commitment that it should not become the scene or object of
international discord. In its fourteen articles the Treaty:
• stipulates that Antarctica should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes,
military activities, such as the establishment of military bases or weapons testing,
are specifically prohibited;
• guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research, as enjoyed during
the IGY;
• promotes international scientific cooperation including the exchange of research
plans and personnel, and requires that results of the research be made freely
available;

• sets aside the potential for sovereignty disputes between Treaty parties by
providing that no activities will enhance or diminish previously asserted positions
with respect to territorial claims provides that no new or enlarged claims can be
made, and makes rules relating to jurisdiction;
• prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste;
• provides for inspection by observers, designated by any party, of ships, stations
and equipment in Antarctica to ensure the observance of, and compliance with,
the Treaty;
• requires parties to give advance notice of their expeditions; provides for the parties
to meet periodically to discuss measures to further the objectives of the Treaty;
and
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• puts in place a dispute settlement procedure and a mechanism by which the
Treaty can be modified.

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 Major Straits of the World
Strait: A strait is a thin channel of waterways i.e. narrow passage of water that
connects two seas or two other large areas of water.

The following are the main characteristics of a strait:

• Formed by natural processes

• Narrower than the seas it connects
• Navigable

Straits of the world are used by commercial shipping to travel from one sea or exclusive
economic zone to another and they are of immense strategic and commercial
importance. Straits serve as a channel through which ocean currents pass, modifying
the climate of that area.

1. Malacca Strait

Joins: Andaman Sea & South China Sea

Location: Indonesia –Malaysia

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2. Palk Strait

Join: Palk Bay & Bay of Bengal

Location: India-Sri Lanka

3. Sunda Strait

Join: Java Sea & Indian Ocean

Location: Indonesia

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4. Yucatan Strait

Join: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea

Location: Mexico-Cuba

5. Mesina Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea

Location: Italy-Sicily

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6. Otranto Strait

Join: Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea

Location: Italy-Albania

7. Bab-el-Mandeb Strait

Join: Red Sea & Gulf of Aden

Location: Yemen-Djibouti

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8. Cook Strait

Join: South Pacific Ocean

Location: New Zealand (North & South Islands)

9. Mozambique Strait
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Join: Indian Ocean

Location: Mozambique -Madagascar

10. North Channel

Join: Irish Sea & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Ireland-England

11. Taurus Strait (Torres Strait)

Join: Arafura Sea & Gulf of Papua

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Location: Papua New Guinea — Australia

12. Bass Strait

Join: Tasman Sea & South Sea

Location: Australia

13. Bering Strait

Join: Bering Sea & Chuksi Sea

Location: Alaska-Russia

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14. Bonne-Fasio Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea

Location: Corsika — Sardinia

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15. Bosporous Strait

Join: Black Sea and Marmara Sea

Location: Turkey

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16. Dardanelles Strait

Join: Marmara Sea and Agean Sea

Location: Turkey

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17. Davis Strait

Join: Baffin Bay & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Greenland-Canada

18. Denmark Strait

Join: North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean

Location: Greenland-Iceland

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19. Dover strait

Join: English Channel & North Sea

Location: England-France
Strait of Dover or Dover Strait is the narrowest part of the English Channel

20. Florida Strait

Join: Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean

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Location: USA-Cuba

21. Hormuz Strait

Join: Gulf of Persia & Gulf of Oman

Location: Oman-Iran

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22. Hudson strait

Join: Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Canada

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23. Gibraltar Strait

Join: Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean

Location: Spain-Morocco

• The Strait of Gibraltar is located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula.
• The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Peninsular Spain in Europe from
Morocco in Africa.
• The two continents are separated by 14.3 kilometers of the ocean at the Strait’s
narrowest point.
• The Spanish side of the Strait is protected under El Estrecho Natural Park.
• On the northern side of the Strait are Spain and Gibraltar(a British overseas
territory in the Iberian Peninsula); while on the southern side are Morocco and
Ceuta (a Spanish autonomous city in northern Africa).
• Due to its location, the Strait is commonly used for illegal immigration from
Africa to Europe.

• The Iberian Peninsula: The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme
south-west of Europe and includes modern-day Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and
Gibraltar. At the nearest point, it is only 5 miles (8km) from the continent of Africa.

24. Magellan strait

Join: Pacific and South Atlantic Ocean

Location: Chile
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25. Makkassar Strait

Join: Java Sea & Celebeze Sea

Location: Indonesia

26. Tsugaru Strait

Join: Japan Sea and Pacific Ocean

Location: Japan (Hokkaido-Honshu Island)

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27. Tatar Strait

Join: Japan Sea & Okhotsk Sea

Location: Russia (East Russia-Sakhalin Islands)

28. Foveaux Strait

Join: South Pacific Ocean

Location: New Zealand (South Island- Stewart Island)

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29. Taiwan Strait (Formosa Strait)

Join: South China Sea & East China Sea

Location: China-Taiwan

Bohai Strait

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The Bohai Sea is connected to the Yellow Sea via the Bohai Strait.

The Bohai Sea is a marginal sea which is the north-western extension of the Yellow Sea.

30. Korea Strait

Join: East China Sea and Sea of Japan

Location: Japan and South Korea

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31. Jamaica Channel

Join: The Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic

Location: Jamaica and Hispaniola

32. Ten Degree Channel

Join: The Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal

Location: Car Nicobar Islands and Little Andaman

33. English Channel

The English Channel is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates southern
England from northern France and links to the southern part of the North Sea by the
Strait of Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busiest shipping area in the world.

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34. Kerch Strait

• The Kerch Strait is a strait connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
• It separates the Kerch Peninsula of Crimea from the Taman Peninsula of Russia’s
Krasnodar Krai.

35. Straits of Lombok

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Join: Java Sea & Indian Ocean
Location: Indonesia (Bali and Lombok)

36. Bali strait

Join: Bali Sea & Indian Ocean

Location: Indonesia (Bali and Java)

Isthmus: A narrow strip of land with sea on either side, forming a link between two
larger areas of land. The Isthmus of Panama is a narrow strip of land at the
southernmost end of Central America. It lies between the Pacific Ocean and
the Caribbean Sea while linking North and South America.

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10 Important strategic Straits and Channels
• Strait of Gibraltar
• Bab-El Mendeb Strait
• Strait of Hormuz
• Strait of Malacca
• Bosporus Strait
• Bering Strait
• Strait of Magellan
• Strait of Messina
• Suez Canal
• Panama Canal

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 Important Seas of the world
In terms of geography, Seas are smaller than oceans and are usually located where
the land and ocean meet. Typically, Seas are partially enclosed by land. Seas have great
geographical, Political, and Economical significance.

In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or

peninsulas.

Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal,
Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red
Sea, and all four of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian).

The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are associated with
depth and proximity to landmasses. Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than
open oceans, are more influenced by human activities, river runoff, climate, and water
circulation.

Major (Important) Seas of the world

1. Arabian Sea
2. South China Sea
3. East China Sea
4. Coral Sea
5. Caribbean Sea
6. Mediterranean Sea
7. Ionian Sea
8. Bay of Bengal
9. Arabian Sea
10. Bering Sea
11. Sea of Okhotsk
12. Gulf of Mexico
13. Tasman Sea
14. Hudson Bay
15. Sea of Japan
16. Sea of Azov
17. Caspian Sea
18. Adriatic Sea
19. Baltic Sea
[Link] Sea
21. Yellow Sea
22. Dead Sea
23. Black Sea
24. Tyrrhenian Sea
25. Ligurian Sea
26. Balearic Sea
27. Alboran Sea
28. Sargasso Sea
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 29. The Aegean Sea…

Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by
Pakistan, Iran, and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui
Channel, and the Arabian Peninsula, on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea, on the
southwest by the Somali Sea, and on the east by India.

The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait
of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian
Gulf.

Andaman Sea
The Andaman Sea (historically also known as the Burma Sea) is a marginal
sea of northeastern Indian Ocean bounded by the coastlines of Myanmar and
Thailand along the Gulf of Martaban and west side of the Malay Peninsula and
separated from the Bay of Bengal to its west by the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar
Islands.

Its southernmost end is defined by Breueh Island, an island just north of Sumatra, and
communicates with the Malacca Strait.

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South China Sea
Places here are China, Vietnam, Hainan, Malaysia, and the Philippines. China is involved
in disputes with many countries here. Places in dispute are Paracel, Scarborough
Shoal, and The Spratly Islands.

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East China Sea
The East China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly
offshore from East China.

Towards the east of this sea are the Japanese islands of Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands,
towards the south of it is the South China Sea and to the west by the Asian continent.
The sea connects with the Sea of Japan through the Korea Strait and opens to the north
into the Yellow Sea. The countries which border the sea include South Korea, Japan, the
Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People’s Republic of China.

In recent times, tensions between China and Japan have risen over the contested
Senkaku/Diaoyu islands that lies in this sea, and both nations have raised as incursions
into the disputed waters. Both countries have increased their military capabilities,
particularly their radar and missile systems, in the region.

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Sea of Okhotsk
• The Sea of Okhotsk is a marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean.
• It is located between Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula on the east, the Kuril
Islands on the southeast, Japan’s island of Hokkaido on the south, the island of
Sakhalin along the west, and a stretch of eastern Siberian coast along the west
and north.
• Kuril Islands
• The Kuril Islands are stretched from the Japanese island of Hokkaido to the
southern tip of Russia’s the Kamchatka Peninsula separating the Okhotsk
Sea from the North Pacific ocean.
• It consists of 56 islands and minor rocks.
• The chain is part of the belt of geologic instability circling the Pacific
and contains at least 100 volcanoes, of which 35 are still active, and many
hot springs.
• Earthquakes and tidal waves are common phenomena over these islands.

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Adriatic Sea
• The Adriatic Sea is a part of the Mediterranean Sea positioned between the
eastern coastline of Italy, and countries of the Balkan Peninsula, from Slovenia,
South through Croatia, Montenegro, and to Albania.
• The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from
the Balkan Peninsula.
• The countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, and Slovenia.

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Dalmatian coastline

• Dalmatia is one of the four historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper,
Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of the Adriatic
Sea, stretching from the island of Rab in the north to the Bay of Kotor in the
south.

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Black Sea
The Black Sea is an inland sea located between far-southeastern Europe and the far-
western edges of the continent of Asia and the country of Turkey. It’s bordered by
Turkey, and by Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Georgia.

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The Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is an enclosed body of water between Asia and Europe. It is bordered
by Iran, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Russia.

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Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by
the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north
by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by
the Levant.

Sargasso Sea
• While all other seas in the world are defined at least in part by land boundaries,
the Sargasso Sea is defined only by ocean currents.
• It is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, north, by the North Atlantic Current,
east, by the Canary Current, and south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
• This system of ocean currents forms the North Atlantic Gyre.
• It is the only sea on Earth which has no coastline.

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Caribbean Sea
• The Caribbean Sea is a tropical sea in the Western Hemisphere, part of the
Atlantic Ocean, southeast of the Gulf of Mexico.
• The Caribbean Sea is bordered by Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama to the
south, Central American countries (Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras,
and Belize) on the west; with the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, the Dominican
Republic, and Puerto Rico) on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the east.
• Anguilla
• It is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea and a British overseas territory.

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Gulf of Mexico
• Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked body of water on the
southeastern periphery of the North American continent.
• It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Straits of Florida, running between
the peninsula of Florida and the island of Cuba, and to the Caribbean Sea by
the Yucatán Channel, which runs between the Yucatán Peninsula and Cuba.
• Dead Zone
• Dead zones are hypoxic (low-oxygen) areas in the world’s oceans and large
lakes.
• The dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico, fueled by the nutrient-laden water
spilling from the mouth of the Mississippi River, is the second-largest in
the world.
• It blooms every summer when warming waters accelerate the
metabolisms of microorganisms, and it is expected to get even worse as the
climate continues to change.

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Red Sea
• The Red Sea (Erythraean Sea) is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying
between Africa and Asia.
• The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and
the Gulf of Aden.
• To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of
Suez (leading to the Suez Canal).
• The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.

The six countries bordering the Red Sea are:

• Saudi Arabia
• Yemen
• Egypt
• Sudan
• Eritrea
• Djibouti

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The Ionian Sea
• The Ionian Sea is an elongated bay of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic
Sea.
• It is bounded by Southern Italy to the west, southern Albania to the north, and the
west coast of Greece.

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Coral Sea
• The Coral Sea takes its name from its coral formations of the Great
Barrier Reef, the largest known reef system in the world.

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Tasman Sea
• The Tasman Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between
Australia and New Zealand.
• The Tasman Sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman,
who was the first recorded European to encounter New Zealand and Tasmania.
• The British explorer Captain James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman
Sea in the 1770s as part of his first voyage of exploration.

Marginal Seas of the Arctic Ocean

• Barents Sea
• The Irish Sea

Marginal Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

• Argentine Sea
• Caribbean Sea
• English Channel
• Gulf of Mexico
• Hudson Bay
• Irish Sea
• Labrador Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• North Sea
• Norwegian Sea

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 • Scotia Sea

Marginal Seas of the Indian Ocean

• Andaman Sea
• Arabian Sea
• Bay of Bengal
• Java Sea
• Persian Gulf
• Red Sea
• Sea of Zanj

Marginal Seas of the Mediterranean Sea

• Adriatic Sea
• Aegean Sea

Marginal Seas of the Pacific Ocean

• Bering Sea
• Celebes Sea
• Coral Sea
• East China Sea
• Philippine Sea
• Sea of Japan
• Sea of Okhotsk
• South China Sea (another important conflict zone)
• Tasman Sea (between Australia and New Zealand)
• Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)

Other Seas
• The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Mediterranean sea.
• The Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined as a marginal sea, and also the Dead
Sea.

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 Important Trenches of the World

Oceanic Trench
Oceanic trenches are topographic depressions of the seafloor, relatively narrow in
width, but very long. These oceanographic features are the deepest parts of the ocean
floor. Oceanic trenches are a distinctive morphological feature of convergent plate
boundaries, along which lithospheric plates move towards each other at rates that vary
from a few millimeters to over ten centimeters per year.

A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend
beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island
arc, and about 200 km (120 mi) from a volcanic arc.

Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km below the level of the surrounding

oceanic floor. Ocean trenches have a highly specialized fauna. The greatest ocean
depth measured is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth
of 11,034 m (36,201 ft) below sea level.

The longest trench is the Peru-Chile Trench, which extends some 5,900 km (about
3,700 miles) along the west coast of South America.

Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about 3 km2/yr.

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Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km2 or
about 0.5% of the oceans. Trenches that are partially infilled are known as
“troughs” and sometimes they are completely buried and lack bathymetric expression.

Hadal zone

• The hadal zone, also known as the hadopelagic zone, is the deepest region of the
ocean, lying within oceanic trenches.
• The hadal zone is found from a depth of around 6,000 to 11,000 metres (20,000
to 36,000 ft), and exists in long but narrow topographic V-shaped depressions.
• Deep-sea trenches of the hadal depth zone (6-11 km) are hotspots for high
microbial activity because they receive an unusually high flux of organic matter,
made up of animal carcasses, and sinking algae, originating from the surrounding
shallower seabeds.
• Conditions in the hadalpelagic zone are extreme. No sunlight penetrates,
the temperature is a constant 4°C, and the pressure is 60–110 MPa.

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India’s Deep Ocean Mission

• Union Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India has also launched a ‘Deep
Ocean Mission’ for exploration of polymetallic nodules in Central Indian Ocean
Basin.
• Polymetallic nodules contain multiple metals like copper, nickel, cobalt,
manganese, iron, lead, zinc, aluminum, silver, gold, and platinum etc. in
variable constitutions and are precipitate of hot fluids from upwelling hot
magma from the deep interior of the oceanic crust.
• Of these, cobalt, copper, and nickel are of much importance and in great
demand in India as cobalt is used extensively in medical treatment and
nickel in batteries.
• It will reduce India’s dependence on imports of cobalt and other rare
earth metals.

Important Trenches of the World (Deepest oceanic trenches)

Trench Location

Aleutian Trench South of the Aleutian Islands, west of Alaska

Bougainville Trench South of New Guinea

Cayman Trench Western Caribbean

Cedros Trench
Pacific coast of Baja California
(inactive)

Hikurangi Trench East of New Zealand

Hjort Trench Southwest of New Zealand

Izu–Ogasawara Trench Near Izu and Bonin islands

Japan Trench East of Japan

Kermadec Trench Northeast of New Zealand

Kuril–Kamchatka
Near Kuril islands
Trench

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Manila Trench West of Luzon, Philippines

Mariana Trench Western Pacific Ocean; east of Mariana Islands

Eastern Pacific Ocean; off coast of Mexico, Guatemala, El

Middle America Trench
Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

New Hebrides Trench West of Vanuatu (New Hebrides Islands).

Peru–Chile Trench Eastern Pacific Ocean; off the coast of Peru & Chile

Philippine Trench East of the Philippines

Puerto Rico Trench The boundary of the Caribbean and Atlantic ocean

Puysegur trench Southwest of New Zealand

Ryukyu Trench Eastern edge of Japan’s Ryukyu Islands

South Sandwich Trench East of the South Sandwich Islands

Curves from south of Java to west of Sumatra and the Andaman and Nicobar
Sunda Trench
Islands

Tonga Trench Near Tonga

Yap Trench Western Pacific Ocean; between Palau Islands and Mariana Trench

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 Trench Ocean Lowest Point

Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean Challenger Deep

Tonga Trench Pacific Ocean Horizon Deep

Philippine Trench Pacific Ocean Emden Deep

New Britain Trench Pacific Ocean (Solomon Sea) Planet Deep

Puerto Rico Trench Atlantic Ocean Brownson Deep

South Sandwich Trench Atlantic Ocean Meteor Deep

Peru–Chile Trench or Atacama Trench Pacific Ocean Richards Deep

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Deepest Ocean trenches in the World [List]
Trench Maximum Depth

Mariana Trench 10,920 m (35,830 ft)

Tonga Trench 10,820 m (35,500 ft)

Philippine Trench 10,540 m (34,580 ft)

Kuril–Kamchatka Trench 10,542 m (34,587 ft)

Kermadec Trench 10,047 m (32,963 ft)

Izu–Bonin Trench (Izu–Ogasawara Trench) 9,810 m (32,190 ft)

New Britain Trench 9,140 m (29,990 ft)

Puerto Rico Trench 8,380 m (27,490 ft)

South Sandwich Trench 8,265 m (27,116 ft)

Peru–Chile Trench or Atacama Trench 8,055 m (26,427 ft)

Japan Trench 8,412 m (27,598 ft)

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Mariana Trench
• Mariana Trench is located in the western Pacific Ocean, the Marina Trench is
considered to be the deepest part of the Earth’s surface. In fact, it is
the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench that is known as the deepest point.
• Appears as a crescent-shaped scar, the trench measures around 2,550 km long,
69 km wide on average and has a maximum depth of 10.91 km at the Challenger
Deep. At the same time, some other efforts measured the deepest portion at
11.034 km.
• The deep holes in the Mariana trench were formed due to the collision of
converging plates of the oceanic lithosphere.

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Tonga Trench
• Located in the southwest Pacific Ocean and at the Kermadec Tonga Subduction
Zone’s northern end, the Tonga Trench lies around 10.882 km below sea level.
The deepest point in the Tonga trench, known as the Horizon Deep, is
considered to be the second deepest point on earth after the Challenger Deep
and the deepest trench of the Southern Hemisphere.
• Stretches at a distance of 2,500 km from New Zealand’s North Island northeast to
the island of Tonga, the Tonga trench was formed due to the subduction of the
Pacific plate by the Tonga plate.

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Philippine Trench
• The third deepest point in the world, the Galathea Depth in the Philippine
trench is 10.54 km below sea level. Also known as Mindanao Trench, this
submarine trench is located in the Philippine Sea, spreads in a length of 1,320km
and 30km width in the east of the Philippines.
• Prominent among other trenches in the Philippine Sea, this trench was formed
due to a collision between the Eurasian Plate and the smaller Philippine
plate. The other major trenches in the Philippine sea include Manila Trench East
Luzon Trench, Negros Trench, Sulu Trench, and Cotabato Trench.

Kuril- Kamchatka Trench

• Another deepest part of the ocean belonging to the Pacific Ocean, this trench lies
at a considerable depth of 10.5 km below sea level. Lying close to Kuril Island and
off the coast of Kamchatka, this trench is responsible for a number of oceans
bed volcanic activities in the region.
• The trench was formed due to the subduction zone that was developed in the
late Cretaceous, which created the Kuril island and the Kamchatka volcanic arcs.

Kermadec Trench
• Another submarine trench lies on the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, the
Kermadec Trench stretches around 1,000 km between the Louisville Seamount
Chain and the Hikurangi Plateau.
• Formed by the subduction of the Pacific plate under the Indo-Australian Plate,
the Kermadec Trench has a maximum depth of 1o.04 km.

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Izu-Ogasawara Trench
• Located in the western Pacific Ocean, the Izu-Ogasawara Trench has a
maximum depth of 9.78km. Also known as Izu-Bonin Trench, this deep trench
stretches from Japan to the northern section of the Mariana Trench and it is also
an extension of the Japan Trench.
• Apart from the Izu-Ogasawara Trench, the western Pacific Ocean houses the Izu
Trench and the Bonin Trench.

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Japan Trench
• Another deep submarine trench located east of the Japanese islands, the Japan
trench is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire in the northern Pacific Ocean.
• With a maximum depth of 9 km, the Japan trench stretches from the Kuril
Islands to the Bonin Islands and is also the extension of the Kuril-Kamchatka
Trench and the Izu – Ogasawara Trench to the north and south respectively.
• The trench was formed due to the subduction of the oceanic Pacific plate
beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. And, it’s the tsunamis and earthquakes
that lead to the movement on the subduction zone with the Japan Trench.

Puerto Rico Trench

• Located between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, the Puerto Rico
trench marks the deepest point in this region and the eighth deepest point found
on the earth’s surface.
• Lies at a depth of 8.64 km, spotted at Milwaukee Deep, and measures a length of
over 800 km, this trench has been responsible for many tragic tsunamis and
earthquake activities in this region.

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South Sandwich Trench
• The deepest trench in the Atlantic Ocean after Puerto Rico Trench, South
Sandwich Trench is at a depth of about 8.42 km, described as Meteor Deep, and
runs for over 956 km, making it one of the most noticeable trenches of the world.
• Located 100 km to the east of the South Sandwich Islands in the southern
Atlantic Ocean, this trench was formed by the subduction of the South
American Plate’s southernmost portion beneath the small South Sandwich
Plate.
• This South Sandwich Trench is also associated with an active volcanic arc.

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Peru–Chile Trench
• The Peru–Chile Trench (the Atacama Trench) is located around 160 km off
the coast of Peru and Chile in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
• The Atacama Trench has a maximum depth of 8.06 km below sea level. The
deepest point of the trench is known as Richards Deep.
• The Atacama Trench was formed as a result of a convergent boundary, between
the subducting Nazca and the South American Plates.

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 Important Peninsulas in the World
Peninsula – (paene “almost” and insula “island”) A peninsula is a landform surrounded
by water on most of its border (three sides) while being connected to a mainland
from which it extends. The surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous,
though not necessarily named as a single body of water.

Peninsulas are not always named as such; one can also be referred to as a headland,
cape, island promontory, bill, point, fork, or spit.

A river which courses through a very tight meander is also sometimes said to form a
“peninsula” within the (almost closed) loop of water.

Varying in sizes, they could range from the Arabian Peninsula, one of the largest
peninsulas in the world to much smaller ones.

Important Peninsulas in the World

The Arabian Peninsula:

• A peninsula of Western Asia, it is situated in the Northeast of Africa on

the Arabian plate. Being the largest peninsula on the earth, it features an area
of 1,250,000 square miles.
• The peninsula consists of Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
UAE, and parts of Jordan and Iraq.
• The peninsula is believed to have formed by the drifting of the Red Sea. Hence, it
is bordered by the Red Sea on the West and the Southwest, the Persian Gulf to
the Northeast, and the Indian Ocean to the Southeast. It is connected to
the Levant in the North.
• Largely unsuitable for agricultural activities, the peninsula holds geopolitical
significance owing to its vast resources of oil and natural gas.

The (Indian) Deccan Peninsula:

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 • Surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the West, the Bay of Bengal to the east, and
the Indian Ocean to the south, the Indian peninsula is the second largest
peninsula in the world.
• It is located in the Southern part of central India.
• Comprising of the Eastern and Western Ghats, the peninsula is rich in
biodiversity and is home to a tiger reserve of national importance.
• The climate in this region ranges from semi-arid to tropical type.
• It is inclusive of eight Indian states and the people largely indulge in agricultural
practices.

The Indo-china Peninsula:

• Also known as Mainland Southeast Asia, it is the continental portion of Southeast

Asia and lies east of India and south of China.
• The Indian Ocean bounds the region to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the
east. Projecting southwards from the Asian continent, it features several mountain
ranges like the Tibetan Plateau to the north.
• The peninsula includes Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand, and
Vietnam.
• Additionally, the southernmost part of the Indo-china peninsula protrudes to form
the Malay Peninsula, which regions Southern Thailand and peninsular Malaysia.

The Horn of Africa:

• Large extension of land protruding from the Eastern edge of the African
continent, the Horn of Africa is the fourth largest peninsula in the world.
• It comprises four countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia.
• Also called the Somali Peninsular, it is surrounded by the Gulf of Aden to the
north, the Indian Ocean to the east and extends into the Arabian Sea for
hundreds of miles.
• It hosts the highest number of reptiles, whereas the locals participate in livestock
herding and export coffee and bananas.

The Alaska Peninsula:

• Separating the Pacific Ocean from the Bristol Bay, which is an arm of the Bering
Sea, the peninsula extends about 497 miles to the Southwest from the mainland
of Alaska and ends at the Aleutian Islands.
• The term ‘Alaska Peninsula’ denotes the Northwestern projection of the North
American continent.
• It is surrounded by the Arctic Sea in the north, Bering Strait in the west, and
the Pacific Sea to the south.
• Running along the length of the peninsula, the Aleutian Range is a highly active
volcanic mountain range and is home to numerous wildlife refuges and national
parks.

The Labrador Peninsula:

• The peninsula in Eastern Canada.

• It consists of the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and the
province of Quebec.
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 • It is bound by the Hudson Bay to the west, the Hudson Strait to the north,
the Labrador Sea to the East, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the Southeast. It
connects to the mainland in the Southwest only.
• The peninsula features river valleys, mountain ranges, and national parks. The
peninsula, owing to being covered in the Canadian shield, has numerous lakes.

The Scandinavian Peninsula:

• A large promontory of northern Europe comprises Sweden, Norway, and the

Northwestern area of Finland.
• Deriving its name from the cultural region of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the
Scandinavian Peninsula is one of the largest peninsulas of Europe.
• It is bordered by the Barents Sea to the north, the Norwegian Sea to the west,
the North Sea, and the Baltic Sea to the south.
• A quarter of the peninsula lies north of the Arctic Circle, the climates vary from
tundra to subarctic with cool marine coastlines in the West.

The Balkan Peninsula:

• Rooting its name from the Balkans Mountain Range, the Balkan Peninsula is a
geographical region in Southeastern Europe. It is neighbored by the Adriatic
Sea on the northwest, the Ionian Sea on the southwest, the Aegean Sea on the
south and southeast, and the Black Sea on the east and the northeast.
• It spreads across 181,000 square miles of area, without a well-defined northern
boundary.
• It comprises Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece,
Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, and North
Turkey.

The Iberian Peninsula:

• Also referred to as Iberia, the peninsula is located in southwestern Europe.

• It is principally divided between the Spanish and Portugal territory, but also
includes Andorra and a small part of France as well as Gibraltar on its South
coast.
• With an expanse of 225,000 square miles, it is the second-largest European
peninsula, after the Scandinavian Peninsula.
• It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea on the Southeast and East and by
the Atlantic Ocean on the north, west, and southwest. It is in close proximity to
the northwest African coast, separated by the Strait of Gibraltar and the
Mediterranean Sea.

The Kamchatka Peninsula:

• The region is located in the Russian Far East.

• The eastern and the western Coastlines are made up by the Pacific Ocean and
the Sea of Okhotsk, respectively.
• The region features the volcanoes of Kamchatka, which is recognized as
a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

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 • The region faces moderately cool summers and stormy winters. Collectively,
the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Commander Islands, and the Karaginsky
Island constitute the Kamchatka Krai of the Russian Federation.

Korean Peninsula

• Korea, or the Korean Peninsula, is a region in East Asia.

• The peninsula extends southwards for about 1,100 km (680 mi) from
continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of
Japan (East Sea) to the east and the Yellow Sea (West Sea) to the west, the Korea
Strait connecting the two bodies of water.
• Since 1945 it has been divided into two parts which soon became the two
sovereign states: North Korea and South Korea.
• Korea consists of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and several minor islands near
the peninsula.
• Notable islands include Jeju Island, Ulleung Island, Dokdo.
• To the northwest, the Amnok River separates Korea from China, and to the
northeast, the Duman River separates it from China and Russia.

Floridan Peninsula

Baja California Peninsula

• The Baja California Peninsula is a peninsula in Northwestern Mexico. It separates

the Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California.
• The peninsula extends 1,247 km from Mexicali, Baja California in the north to Cabo
San Lucas, Baja California Sur in the south.

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Italian Peninsula

• The Italian Peninsula, also known as the Italic Peninsula or the Apennine
Peninsula, is a peninsula extending from the southern Alps in the north to
the central Mediterranean Sea in the south.

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Kola Peninsula

• The Kola Peninsula is a peninsula in the extreme northwest of Russia, and one of
the largest peninsulas of Europe.

Sinai Peninsula

• The Sinai Peninsula, or simply Sinai is a peninsula in Egypt and the only part of
the country located in Asia.
• Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula is a sparsely populated desert region between the Red Sea
and the Mediterranean Sea.

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Crimean Peninsula

• Crimea (or Tauric Peninsula) is a peninsula located on the northern coast of the
Black Sea in Eastern Europe that is almost completely surrounded by both the
Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov to the northeast.
• The Crimean peninsula is connected on the northwest to the mainland by
the “Perekop Isthmus”, a 5-mile- (8-km-) wide strip of land that has been the site
of numerous battles for the control of Crimea.
• The Crimean Peninsula was annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014 and since
then has been administered as two Russian federal subjects – the Republic of
Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol.

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Anatolian Peninsula

• Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the
westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent.
• The region is bounded by the Turkish Straits to the northwest, the Black Sea to
the north, the Armenian Highlands to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the
south, and the Aegean Sea to the west.
• The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean seas
through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace
on the Balkan peninsula of Southeast Europe.

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Tasman Peninsula

• The Tasman Peninsula / Turrakana is a peninsula located in southeast Tasmania,

Australia, approximately 75 km by the Arthur Highway, southeast of Hobart.
• The Tasman Peninsula / Turrakana lies south and west of Forestier Peninsula, to
which it connects via an isthmus called Eaglehawk Neck.

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Chukchi Peninsula

• The Chukchi Peninsula (also Chukotka Peninsula or Chukotski Peninsula) is

the easternmost peninsula of Asia.
• The Chukotka Mountains are located in the central/western part of the peninsula,
which is bounded by the Chukchi Sea to the north, the Bering Sea to the south,
and the Bering Strait to the east.

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Malay Peninsula

• The Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs
approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southernmost point of the
Asian mainland.
• The Malay Peninsula comprises South Myanmar (Burma), Southern Thailand,
Malaya, Singapore.

Yuctan Peninsula

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 • The Yucatán Peninsula, a northeastern projection of Central America, lying
between the Gulf of Mexico to the west and north and the Caribbean Sea to the
east.
• The peninsula comprises parts of Belize and Guatemala, as well as three separate
Mexican states: Yucatán, Quintana Roo, and Campeche.

Largest Peninsulas of World

Name of Peninsula Bordering Seas Countries

Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman,

Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Arabian Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden,
UAE, Yemen
Red Sea

Indian (Deccan) Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean,

South India
Peninsula Bay of Bengal

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Indo-china China Sea, Bay of Bengal,
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
Peninsula Malacca Strait,Indian Ocean

Horn of
Africa(Somali Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea Djibouti, Eritria, Ethiopia, Somalia
Peninsula)

Alaska Peninsula Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea United States

Hudson bay, Labradore Sea,

Labrador
Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Canada
Peninsula
Atlantic Ocean

Scandinavian Baltic Sea, North Sea,

Norway, Sweden, north Finland
Peninsula Norwegian Sea

Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bulgaria,

Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea,
Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia,
Balkan Peninsula Mediterranean Sea, Aegean
Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, North
Sea, Black Sea
Turkey

Atlantic Ocean,
Iberian Peninsula Andora, Portugal, Spain, France
Mediterranean Sea

East China Sea, Yellow Sea,

Korean Peninsula North Korea, South Korea
korean Strait

Gulf of Mexico, Florida Strait,

Floridan Peninsula United States (Florida state)
Atlantic Ocean

Baja California Pacific Ocean, Gulf of

Mexico
Peninsula California

Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea,

Italian Peninsula Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy, San Marino, Vatican City
Mediterranean Sea

Kola Peninsula Barents Sea, White Sea Russia

Suez Canal, Gulf of Aqaba,

Sinai Peninsula Egypt
Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea

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Crimean Peninsula Black Sea, Sea of Azov Ukraine (now Russia)

Fredrick Henry Bay, Storm

Tasman Peninsula Australia
Bay, Tasman Sea

Chukchi Sea, Bering Strait,

Chukchi Peninsula Russia
Bering Sea

Andamanese Sea, Strait of

Malay Peninsula South Thailand, South Myanmar, Malaysia
Malacca, South China Sea

Yuctan Peninsula Mexico Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean sea

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 Important Gulfs of the World

Gulfs
A gulf is a body of water that is connected to a sea or ocean and is surrounded or
penetrated by land. The gulf is almost completely surrounded by land. Gulfs vary
greatly in size, shape, and depth. They are generally larger and more deeply indented
than bays. Like bays, they often make excellent harbors. Many important trading centers
are located on gulfs.

• The world’s largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.

• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden (between the
Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and
Iran).
• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to world energy because petroleum is
transported through its waters in oil tankers.

1. Gulf of Mexico
(a) It is the largest gulf in the world.
(b) It is bordered by the United States, Mexico, and the island nation of Cuba.
(c) It has a coastline of about 5,000 km.

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2. Gulf of Oman
(a) Gulf of Oman connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then runs
to the Persian Gulf.
(b) The gulf borders Pakistan and Iran on the north, Oman on the south, and the United
Arab Emirates on the west.

3. Gulf of Aden
(a) Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen and Somalia.
(b) In the north-west, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait.
(c) The waterway is part of the important Suez canal shipping route between
the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean.

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4. Persian Gulf
(a) It is located in Western Asia between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.
(b) The Persian Gulf is an extension of the Indian Ocean (Gulf of Oman) through
the Strait of Hormuz.
(c) Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran,
Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq.

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5. Gulf of Carpentaria
(a) It is a large, shallow sea enclosed on three sides by northern Australia and bounded
on the north by the Arafura Sea. The Arafura Sea is the body of water that lies
between Australia and New Guinea.

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6. Gulf of Bothnia
(a) the Gulf of Bothnia is part of the Baltic Sea between Sweden and Finland.
(b) It is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea.

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7. Gulf of Riga
(a) the Gulf of Riga is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia.
(b) Gulf of Riga and the Baltic Sea is connected by the Irbe Strait.

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8. Gulf of Alaska
(a) The Gulf of Alaska is an arm of the Pacific Ocean.
(b) The entire shoreline of the Gulf is a rugged combination of forest, mountain, and a
number of tidewater glaciers.
(c) Alaska’s largest glaciers, the Malaspina Glacier and Bering Glacier spill out onto the
coastal plain along the Gulf of Alaska.

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9. Gulf of Finland
(a) Gulf of Finland is located between the southern coast of Finland and the northern
coast of Estonia in the Baltic Sea.
(b) It extends all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it.
The eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland belong to Russia
(c) The area of the gulf is 30,000 km2. The length from the Hanko Peninsula to Saint
Petersburg is 400 km.

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10. Gulf of Mannar
(a) Gulf of Mannar lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri
Lanka.
(b) It is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean.
(c) Adam’s Bridge, also called Ramsethu, which includes Mannar Island, separates the
Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north between India and Sri Lanka.
(d) In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and
Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its
10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.

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Q. Arrange the following locations from south to north.

1. Palk Bay
2. Palk Strait
3. Gulf of Mannar
4. Adam’s Bridge

Select the correct answer code:

a) 3-4-2-1
b) 3-4-1-2
c) 4-3-1-2
d) 4-3-2-1

Solution: b)

11. Gulf of Martaban

The Gulf of Martaban or the Gulf of Mottama is an arm of the Andaman Sea in the
southern part of Burma. The gulf is named after the port city of Mottama (formerly
known as Martaban). The Sittaung, Salween, and Yangon rivers empty into it.

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12. Gulf of Panama
(a) Gulf of Panama is a gulf in the Pacific Ocean, near the southern coast of Panama.
(b) It has a maximum width of 250 km, a maximum depth of 220 m, and a size of 2,400
km2.
(c) The Panama Canal connects the Gulf of Panama with the Caribbean Sea and
the Atlantic Ocean.

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13. Gulf of Suez
The Gulf of Suez is a gulf at the northern end of the Red Sea, to the west of the Sinai
Peninsula. Situated to the east of the Sinai Peninsula is the smaller Gulf of Aqaba.

14. Gulf of Thailand

(a) Gulf of Thailand was formerly known as the Gulf of Siam.
(b) The Gulf of Thailand is bordered by Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
(c) The northern tip of the gulf is the Bay of Bangkok at the mouth of the Chao Phraya
River.
(d) The gulf covers roughly 320,000 km2.

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15. Gulf of Gabes
(a) Gulf of Gabes is a gulf on Tunisia’s east coast in the Mediterranean Sea, off North
Africa.
(b) The gulf borders Libya and Tunisia.

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16. Gulf of Saint Lawrence
(a) Gulf of Saint Lawrence is the world’s largest estuary.
(b) The gulf is the outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint Lawrence River
into the Atlantic Ocean.
(c) The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is bounded on the north by the Labrador
Peninsula and Quebec, to the east by Newfoundland Island, to the south by the Nova
Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island, and to the west by the Gaspe Peninsula, New
Brunswick, and Quebec.

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17. Gulf of Aqaba
(a) The Gulf of Aqaba or Gulf of Eilat is a large gulf located at the northern tip of the Red
Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian mainland.
(b) Its coastline is divided between four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi
Arabia.
(c) The Gulf of Aqaba is one of the world’s premier sites for diving.

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18. Amundsen Gulf
(a) Amundsen Gulf is a gulf located in Canadian Northwest Territories, between Banks
Island and Victoria Island and the mainland.
(b) The gulf is 400 km in length.
(c) The Amundsen Gulf was explored by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen.

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19. Gulf of Tonkin
(a) The Gulf of Tonkin is a gulf at the northwestern portion of the South China Sea,
located off the coasts of Tonkin and South China.
(b) The gulf receives the Red River, and its main ports include Ben Thuy and Haiphong in
northern Vietnam and Beihai (Pakhoi) in China.

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20. Gulf of Kutch
It is situated on the coast of the state of Gujrat near the Kutch region. It is an inlet into
the Arabian Sea from the west coast of India. The maximum depth of the Gulf of Kutch
is 402 ft and its width is around 150 to 160 Kms. The First Coral garden will be set up in
the Gulf of Kutch.

21. Gulf of Khambhat

This is located south of the Gulf of Kutch and is also an extension of the Arabian sea
along the western coast of India around the state of Gujrat’s Kathiawar region. India’s
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major east-flowing rivers – Narmada and Tapti flow into the Gulf of Khambhat. It also is
known as the Gulf of Cambay.

22. Gulf of Guinea

The Gulf of Guinea is the north-easternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean.

• The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian (zero degrees latitude and
longitude) is in this gulf.
• Among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger and the
Volta.

Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea:

• Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea affects a number of countries in West Africa as well as
the wider international community making it becoming an issue of global
concern.
• Pirates here are often part of heavily armed criminal enterprises, who employ
violent methods to steal oil cargo.
• The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) has recently described the Gulf of Guinea
as the most dangerous area in the world for shipping.
• According to its estimations, 73 percent of all sea kidnappings and 92 percent of
hostage-takings occur there, with pirates normally taking sailors for ransom.

Causes of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea:

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 • Youth unemployment and widespread poverty are one of the main triggering
factors for piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, and as admitted by the UN Security
Council during a meeting set to discuss a mission to the region ‘any
comprehensive anti-piracy strategy might also need to take into account root
causes, including high levels of youth unemployment’.
• Severe political disputes are considered another reason contributing to the rise
of piracy in the area, and in some cases directly feeding into the piracy activity
itself.
• Of particular relevance are the activities of the Movement for the Emancipation of
the Niger Delta, in the south of Nigeria; this organization has publicly stated to
steal and smuggle oil ‘as a form of re-appropriation of wealth and as a form of
protest’.
• Another major and relevant controversy has involved the governments of
Cameroon and Nigeria; the two countries have been in dispute about the
sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula, which has caused a lack of cooperation
between the governments resulting in poor control over illegal activities.
• Corruption is another major contributing factor, especially with regards to the
case of Nigeria. Attention has been called towards the political protection that
some of those who attack installations and personnel of oil companies, especially
in the Niger Delta, enjoy protection from certain local authorities.

Difference between gulfs and bays

A gulf is said to be a large body of water that is surrounded by land and having only a
narrow entrance along a strait. A bay is also a large body of water that is surrounded by
land but not as enclosed as a gulf.

Bays –

• A bay is a small body of water that is set off from a larger body of water generally
where the land curves inward.
• In simple words, bay is a water body surrounded on three sides by land with the
fourth side (mouth) wide open towards oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).
• A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
• Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
• An example of a bay at a river’s mouth is New York Bay, at the mouth of
the Hudson River (Hudson Estuary).

Guantánamo Bay

• Guantánamo Bay is a sheltered inlet within the Caribbean Sea.

• During the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States gained access to the
outer harbor of Guantánamo Bay.
• Through an agreement signed with Cuba in 1903, the United States obtained the
right to maintain a naval base at Guantánamo Bay.
• In 1934, a treaty reaffirmed the U.S. right to lease the site. The treaty gave the
United States a perpetual lease on Guantánamo Bay.
• The most infamous Guantánamo Bay prison is here.

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 227
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 Important Rivers of the World
1. Nile
Sources: Tributaries of Lake Victoria, Africa
Outflow: Mediterranean Sea
Approx. Length (km): 6,690

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2. Amazon
Sources: Glacier-fed lakes, Peru
Outflow: Atlantic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 6,296

3. Mississippi-Missouri-Red Rock
Sources: Source of Red Rock, Montana
Outflow: Gulf of Mexico
Approx. Length (km): 5,970

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4. Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
Source: Tibetan plateau, China
Outflow: China Sea (East China Sea)
Approx. Length: 5,797 Km

• It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains, in the northern part of the Tibetan
Plateau, and flows in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea.
• It is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest river in the world, and the longest
river to flow entirely in one country.
• The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze is the largest hydroelectric power station
in the world.
• The Jinsha River is the name for 2,308 km (1,434 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin
upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai.
• Yangtze River has seen half of the unique species to its waters go extinct.

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Tributaries

• Left: Yalong, Min, Tuo, Jialing, Han

• Right: Wu, Yuan, Zi, Xiang, Gan, Huangpu

231
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5. Ob
Sources: Altai Mts., Russia
Outflow: Gulf of Ob
Approx. Length (km): 5,567

232
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6. Huang He (Yellow)
Sources: Eastern part of Kunlun Mts., West China
Outflow: Gulf of Chihli
Approx. Length (km): 4,667

233
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7. Yenisei
Sources: Tannu-Ola Mts., western Tuva, Russia
Outflow: Arctic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 4,506

The Yenisey, also romanised as Yenisei, Enisei, or Jenisej, is the fifth-longest river
system in the world, and the largest to drain into the Arctic Ocean.

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8. Parana
Sources: Confluence of Paranaiba and Grande rivers
Outflow: Río de la Plata
Approx. Length (km): 4,498

235
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9. Irtysh
Sources: Altai Mts., Russia
Outflow: Ob River
Approx. Length (km): 4,438

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 237
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10. Zaire (Congo)
Source: Confluence of Lualab and Luapula rivers, Congo
Outflow: Atlantic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 4,371

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11. Heilong (Amur)
Sources: Confluence of Shilka (Russia) and Argun (Manchuria) rivers
Outflow: Tatar Strait
Approx. Length (km): 4,352

12. Lena
Sources: Baikal Mts., Russia
Outflow: Arctic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 4,268

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13. Mackenzie
Sources: Head of Finlay River, British Columbia, Canada
Outflow: Beaufort Sea (Arctic Ocean)
Approx. Length (km): 4,241

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 241
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14. Niger
Sources: Guinea
Outflow: Gulf of Guinea
Approx. Length (km): 4,184

242
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15. Mekong
Sources: Tibetan highlands
Outflow: South China Sea
Approx. Length (km): 4,023

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 244
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16. Mississippi
Sources: Lake Itasca, Minnesota
Outflow: Gulf of Mexico
Approx. Length (km): 3,779

17. Missouri
Sources: Confluence of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers, Montana
Outflow: Mississippi River
Approx. Length (km): 3,726

245
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18. Volga
Sources: Valdai plateau, Russia
Outflow: Caspian Sea
Approx. Length (km): 3,687

246
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19. Madeira
Sources: Confluence of Beni and Maumoré rivers, Bolivia–Brazil boundary
Outflow: Amazon River
Approx. Length (km): 3,238

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20. Purus
Sources: Peruvian Andes
Outflow: Amazon River
Approx. Length (km): 3,207

21. Sao Francisco

Sources: Southwest Minas Gerais, Brazil
Outflow: Atlantic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 3,198

248
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22. Yukon
Sources: Junction of Lewes and Pelly rivers, Yukon Territory, Canada
Outflow: Bering Sea
Approx. Length (km): 3,185

249
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23. St. Lawrence
Sources: Lake Ontario
Outflow: Gulf of St. Lawrence
Approx. Length (km): 3,058

250
[Link]
24. Rio Grande
Sources: San Juan Mts., Colorado
Outflow: Gulf of Mexico
Approx. Length (km): 3,034

251
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25. Brahmaputra
Sources: Himalayas
Outflow: Ganges River
Approx. Length (km): 2,897

252
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26. Indus
Sources: Himalayas
Outflow: Arabian Sea
Approx. Length (km): 2,897

253
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27. Danube
Sources: Black Forest, Germany
Outflow: Black Sea
Approx. Length (km): 2,842

254
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28. Euphrates
Sources: Confluence of Murat Nehri and Kara Su rivers, Turkey
Outflow: Shatt-al-Arab
Approx. Length (km): 2,799

255
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29. Darling
Sources: Central part of Eastern Highlands, Australia
Outflow: Murray River
Approx. Length (km): 2,739

30. Zambezi
Sources: 11°21’S, 24°22’E, Zambia
Outflow: Mozambique Channel
Approx. Length (km): 2,736

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31. Tocantins
Sources: Goias, Brazil
Outflow: Para River
Approx. Length (km): 2,699

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 258
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32. Murray
Sources: Australian Alps, New South Wales
Outflow: Indian Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 2,589

33. Nelson
Sources: Head of Bow River, western Alberta, Canada
Outflow: Hudson Bay
Approx. Length (km): 2,575

259
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34. Paraguay
Sources: Mato Grosso, Brazil
Outflow: Parana River
Approx. Length (km): 2,549

260
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35. Ural
Sources: Southern Ural Mts., Russia
Outflow: Caspian Sea
Approx. Length (km): 2,533

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36. Ganges
Sources: Himalayas
Outflow: Bay of Bengal
Approx. Length (km): 2,506

37. Amu Darya (Oxus)

Sources: Nicholas Range, Pamir Mts., Turkmenistan
Outflow: Aral Sea
Approx. Length (km): 2,414

262
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38. Japura
Sources: Andes, Colombia
Outflow: Amazon River
Approx. Length (km): 2,414

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39. Salween
Sources: Tibet, south of Kunlun Mts.
Outflow: Gulf of Martaban
Approx. Length (km): 2,414

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 265
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40. Arkansas
Sources: Central Colorado
Outflow: Mississippi River
Approx. Length (km): 2,348

41. Colorado
Sources: Grand County, Pennsylvania
Outflow: Mississippi River
Approx. Length (km): 2,348

42. Dnieper
Sources: Valdai Hills, Russia
Outflow: Black Sea
Approx. Length (km): 2,284

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43. Ohio-Allegheny
Sources: Potter County, Pennsylvania
Outflow: Mississippi River
Approx. Length (km): 2,102

44. Irrawaddy
Sources: Confluence of Nmai and Mali rivers, northeast Burma
Outflow: Bay of Bengal
Approx. Length (km): 2,092

267
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45. Orange
Sources: Lesotho
Outflow: Atlantic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 2,092

268
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46. Orinoco
Source: Serra Parima Mts., Venezuela
Outflow: Atlantic Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 2,062

269
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47. Pilcomayo
Sources: Andes Mts., Bolivia
Outflow: Paraguay River
Approx. Length (km): 1,999

48. Xi Jiang (Si Kiang)

Sources: Eastern Yunnan Province, China
Outflow: China Sea
Approx. Length (km): 1,989

270
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49. Columbia
Sources: Columbia Lake, British Columbia, Canada
Outflow: Pacific Ocean
Approx. Length (km): 1,983

271
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50. Don
Sources: Tula, Russia
Outflow: Sea of Azov
Approx. Length (km): 1,968

51. Sungari
Sources: China-North Korea boundary
Outflow: Amur River
Approx. Length (km): 1,955

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52. Saskatchewan
Sources: Canadian Rocky Mts.
Outflow: Lake Winnipeg
Approx. Length (km): 1,939

53. Peace
Sources: Stikine Mts., British Columbia, Canada
Outflow: Great Slave River
Approx. Length (km): 1,923

54. Tigris
Sources: Taurus Mts., Turkey
Outflow: Shatt-al-Arab
Approx. Length (km): 1,899

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55. Thames
The River Thames is only 215 miles long, but it’s the longest river in England.

The river’s modern name, Thames, is pronounced “tems.”

The famous London Bridge stretches across part of the Thames, along with more than
200 other bridges and over 20 underwater tunnels.

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56. Rhine river
The Rhine River flows from the Swiss Alps to the Netherlands, then into the North Sea.
The 764-mile long river is the second longest in Central and Western Europe.

It passes through six countries: Switzerland, Principality of Liechtenstein, Austria,

Germany, France and the Netherlands.

As the Rhine enters Germany, it forms the border between Germany and France.

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 277
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 278
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Top 50 longest Rivers in the world

Length
No. River Names Outflow Countries Sharing Drainage Basin
(km)

Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Uganda,

Nile– White-Nile –Kagera –
Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi,
1. Nyabarongo –Mwogo – 7,088 Mediterranean
Egypt, the Democratic Republic of the
Rukarara
Congo, South Sudan

Amazon–Ucayali–Tambo– Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia,

2. 6,992 Atlantic Ocean
Ene–Mantaro Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana

Yangtze(Chang Jiang; Long

3. 6,418 East China Sea China
River)

Mississippi–Missouri–
4. Jefferson–Beaverhead–Red 6,275 Gulf of Mexico United States (98.5%), Canada (1.5%)
Rock–Hell Roaring

5. Yenisei–Angara–Selenge–Ider 5,539 Kara Sea Russia (97%), Mongolia (2.9%)

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6. Yellow River(Huang He) 5,464 Bohai Sea China

7. Ob–Irtysh 5,410 Gulf of Ob Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia

Brazil (46.7%), Argentina (27.7%),

Río de la Plata–Paraná–Rio
8. 4,880 Río de la Plata Paraguay (13.5%), Bolivia (8.3%),
Grande
Uruguay (3.8%)

Democratic Republic of the Congo,

Central African Republic, Angola,
9. Congo–Chambeshi(Zaïre) 4,700 Atlantic Ocean
Republic of the Congo, Tanzania,
Cameroon, Zambia, Burundi, Rwanda

Amur–Argun–Kherlen(Heilong
10. 4,444 Sea of Okhotsk Russia, China, Mongolia
Jiang)

11. Lena 4,400 Laptev Sea Russia

China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand,

12. Mekong(Lancang Jiang) 4,350 South China Sea
Cambodia, Vietnam

Mackenzie–Slave–Peace–
13. 4,241 Beaufort Sea Canada
Finlay

Nigeria (26.6%), Mali (25.6%), Niger

(23.6%), Algeria (7.6%), Guinea
14. Niger 4,200 Gulf of Guinea (4.5%), Cameroon (4.2%), Burkina
Faso (3.9%), Côte d’Ivoire, Benin,
Chad

India (58.0%), China (19.7%), Nepal

15. Brahmaputra–Tsangpo 3,848 Ganges (9.0%), Bangladesh (6.6%), Disputed
India/China (4.2%), Bhutan (2.4%)

Murray–Darling–Culgoa–
16. 3,672 Southern Ocean Australia
Balonne–Condamine

Atlantic Ocean,
17. Tocantins–Araguaia 3,650 Brazil
Amazon

18. Volga 3,645 Caspian Sea Russia

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19. Indus–Sênggê Zangbo 3,610 Arabian Sea Pakistan (93%), India and China

Shatt al-Arab–Euphrates– Iraq (60.5%), Turkey (24.8%), Syria

20. 3,596 Persian Gulf
Murat (14.7%)

Madeira–Mamoré–Grande–
21. 3,380 Amazon Brazil, Bolivia, Peru
Caine–Rocha

22. Purús 3,211 Amazon Brazil, Peru

United States (59.8%), Canada

23. Yukon 3,185 Bering Sea
(40.2%)

24. São Francisco 3,180 Atlantic Ocean Brazil

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,

25. Syr Darya–Naryn 3,078 Aral Sea
Tajikistan

China (52.4%), Myanmar (43.9%),

26. Salween(Nu Jiang) 3,060 Andaman Sea
Thailand (3.7%)

Saint Lawrence–Niagara–
Detroit–Saint Clair–Saint Gulf of Saint Canada (52.1%), United States
27. 3,058
Marys–Saint Louis–North Lawrence (47.9%)
(Great Lakes)

United States (52.1%), Mexico

28. Rio Grande 3,057 Gulf of Mexico
(47.9%)

29. Lower Tunguska 2,989 Yenisei Russia

Romania (28.9%), Hungary (11.7%),

Austria (10.3%), Serbia (10.3%),
Danube–Breg (Donau, Dunăre,
30. 2,888 Black Sea Germany (7.5%), Slovakia (5.8%),
Duna, Dunav, Dunaj)
Bulgaria (5.2%), Croatia (4.5%),
Ukraine (3.8%)

Irrawaddy River–N’Mai River–

31. Dulong River–Kelaoluo–Gada 2,727 Andaman Sea China, Myanmar
Qu

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 Zambia (41.6%), Angola (18.4%),
Mozambique Zimbabwe (15.6%), Mozambique
32. Zambezi(Zambesi) 2,693
Channel (11.8%), Malawi (8.0%), Tanzania
(2.0%), Namibia, Botswana

33. Vilyuy 2,650 Lena Russia

34. Araguaia 2,627 Tocantins Brazil

Ganges–Hooghly–Padma
35. 2,620 Bay of Bengal India, Bangladesh, Nepal
(Ganga)

Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan,

36. Amu Darya–Panj 2,620 Aral Sea
Afghanistan

37. Japurá (Rio Yapurá) 2,615 Amazon Brazil, Colombia

38. Nelson–Saskatchewan 2,570 Hudson Bay Canada, United States

39. Paraguay (Río-Paraguay) 2,549 Paraná Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina

East Siberian
40. Kolyma 2,513 Russia
Sea

41. Pilcomayo 2,500 Paraguay Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia

42. Upper Ob–Katun 2,490 Ob Russia

43. Ishim 2,450 Irtysh Kazakhstan, Russia

44. Juruá 2,410 Amazon Peru, Brazil

45. Ural 2,428 Caspian Sea Russia, Kazakhstan

46. Arkansas 2,348 Mississippi United States

Gulf of
47. Colorado (western U.S.) 2,333 United States, Mexico
California

48. Olenyok 2,292 Laptev Sea Russia

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49. Dnieper 2,287 Black Sea Russia, Belarus, Ukraine

50. Aldan 2,273 Lena Russia

283
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 Important Waterfalls in India & the World

Waterfalls
A waterfall is an area where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops
in the course of a stream or river. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the
edge of a tabular iceberg or ice shelf.

Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river where lakes flow into
valleys in steep mountains.

A plunge pool (or plunge basin or waterfall lake) is a deep depression in a stream bed
at the base of a waterfall or shut-in. It is created by the erosional forces of cascading
water on the rocks at the formation’s base where the water impacts.

Waterfalls are an important factor in determining the distribution

of lotic organisms such as fish and aquatic invertebrates, as they may restrict dispersal
along streams. The presence or absence of certain species can have cascading
ecological effects, and thus cause differences in trophic regimes above and below
waterfalls. Certain aquatic insects also specialize in the environment of the waterfall
itself.

Types of Waterfalls

• Ledge waterfall: Water descends vertically over a vertical cliff, maintaining partial
contact with the bedrock.
• Cataract: A large, powerful waterfall.
• Horsetail: Descending water maintains some contact with bedrock.
• Plunge: Fast-moving water descends vertically, losing contact with the bedrock
surface.
• Block: Water descends from a relatively wide stream or river.
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 • Multi-step: A series of waterfalls one after another of roughly the same size each
with its own sunken plunge pool.
• Segmented: Distinctly separate flows of water form as it descends.
• Cascade: Water descends a series of rock steps.
• Punchbowl: Water descends in a constricted form and then spreads out in a
wider pool.
• Tiered: Water drops in a series of distinct steps or falls.
• Fan: Water spreads horizontally as it descends while remaining in contact with
bedrock.
• Moulin: A moulin is a waterfall in a glacier.

There is no standard way to measure the height or width of a waterfall. No ranking of

waterfalls should be assumed because of the heights or widths provided in the list. Many
numbers are estimated and measurements may be imprecise.

List of Highest Waterfalls in India

GK Facts

• Kunchikal Falls in Shimoga District Karnataka is the highest waterfall in

India with a height of 1493 feet.
• The highest waterfall in India (Kunchikal Falls) is formed by the Varahi River.
• Dudhsagar falls is known as the ‘Sea of milk’, it is formed from the Mandovi River.
• Ranchi, the capital city of Jharkhand is known as the city of waterfalls in India.
• Nohkalikai Falls located near Cherrapunji is the tallest plunge waterfall in
India. Its height is 1115 feet (340 metres) and is one of the wettest places on Earth.
• The Western Ghats are known as the Cherrapunji of South India.
• Nohsngithiang Falls (also known as the Seven Sisters Waterfalls or Mawsmai
Falls) is a seven-segmented waterfall located 1 kilometre south of Mawsmai village
in East Khasi Hills district in the Indian state of Meghalaya.

Waterfalls in India Location Feature

Tiered, Highest waterfall in

Kunchikal Falls Shimoga district, Karnataka
India

Barehipani Falls Mayurbhanj district, Odisha 2 tiered waterfalls

Nohkalikai Falls East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya tallest plunge type waterfalls

Nohsngithiang Falls or
East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya segmented type waterfalls
Mawsmai Falls

Dudhsagar Falls Karnataka and Goa 4 tiered waterfalls

Kynrem Falls East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya 3 tiered waterfalls

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 3 tiered waterfalls/
Meenmutty Falls Wayanad district, Kerala
segmented type

Batlagundu, Dindigul district, Tamil

Thalaiyar Falls horsetail type waterfalls
Nadu

3 tiered, 2nd tallest plunge

Vajrai Falls Satara district, Maharashtra
type waterfall

Barkana Falls Shimoga district, Karnataka tiered waterfalls

Jog Falls (Gersoppa

Shimoga district, Karnataka cascade waterfalls
Falls)

Kendujhar district & Sundergarh

Khandadhar Falls Horse tail type falls
district, Odisha

Vantawng Falls Serchhip district, Mizoram 2 tiered waterfalls

Kune Falls Pune district, Maharashtra 3 tiered waterfalls

Soochipara Falls, Wayanad district, Kerala, Satara

3 tiered waterfalls
Thoseghar Waterfalls district Maharashtra

2 tiered/Segmented
Magod Falls Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka
waterfalls

Joranda Falls Mayurbhanj district, Odisha plunge type waterfalls

Hebbe Falls Chikkamagaluru district, Karnataka 2 tiered waterfalls

the border of Koraput (Odisha) and

Duduma Falls plunge type waterfalls
Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh)

Palani Falls Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh Surge waterfalls

Lodh Falls Latehar district, Jharkhand 2 tiered waterfalls

Rajrappa is a Hindu pilgrimage

Rajrappa Waterfalls Ramgarh district, Jharkhand
centre

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 Mauganj, Rewa district, Madhya 2 tiered waterfalls, tallest
Bahuti Falls
Pradesh waterfall in madhya Pradesh

Bishop Falls East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya 3 tiered waterfalls

on bihad river, comes down

Chachai Falls Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh
from Rewa Plateau

Keoti Falls Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh segmented type waterfall

Kalhatti Falls Chikkamagaluru district, Karnataka –

3 tiered waterfall, twin of

Beadon Falls East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya
Bishop Falls

Keppa Falls Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka fan type waterfall

Koosalli Falls Udupi, Karnataka 6 tiered waterfall

Dabbe falls Shivamogga, Sagar, Karnataka –

Pandavgad Falls Thane, Maharashtra Plunge waterfall

Rajat Prapat Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh horsetail type waterfall

Bundla Falls kaimur district bihar –

Vantawng Falls Serchhip district, Mizoram 2 tiered waterfalls

Shivanasamudra Falls Chamarajanagar District, Karnataka segmented type

Lower Ghaghri Falls Latehar district, Jharkhand cascade waterfalls

Hundru Falls Ranchi district, Jharkhand segmented type

Sweet Falls East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya horsetail type

Agaya Gangai Namakkal, Tamil Nadu 1 tiered/segmented waterfalls

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Coutrallam Falls
Tenkasi district, Tamil Nadu Chittar River
(Kutralam)

Gatha Falls Panna district, Madhya Pradesh –

Teerathgarh Falls Baster district, Chhattisgarh Block type Waterfall

Kiliyur Falls Yercaud, Tamil Nadu fan type waterfall

Kudumari Falls Udupi district, Karnataka horsetail type waterfall

Muthyala Maduvu Falls Bangalore rural district, Karnataka –

located on the Ghataprabha

Gokak Falls Belagavi district of Karnataka
River

Chunchanakatte Falls Mysore district, Karnataka on the Kaveri River

Tirathgarh Falls Bastar district, Chhattisgarh horsetail type waterfall

Langshiang Falls West Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya –

highest waterfall in andhra

Talakona falls Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh
pradesh

Kakolat Falls Nawada district, Bihar cataract waterfall

Block/Segmented type
Athirappilly Falls Thrissur district, Kerala
waterfall

Chuliya Waterfall Rajasthan Chambal River

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Kunchikal Waterfalls

• Kunchikal Falls is located in Nidagodu village near Masthikatte in Shimoga

district of state Karnataka.
• Kunchikal falls cascades down rocky boulders and a total height of fall is 455
meters according to the world waterfall database.
• Highest waterfall in India
• Kunchikal falls is formed by the Varahi river.

Athirappally Waterfalls

• The famous Athirappally Waterfalls is located on the Chalakudy River in Thrissur

district of Kerala.
• It originates from the upper reaches of the Western Ghats at the entrance to the
Sholayar ranges.
• It is the largest waterfall in Kerala, which stands tall at 80 feet and is
nicknamed “The Niagara of India”.

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 • Controversy about a state-proposed hydroelectric dam on the Chalakudy River
above the waterfalls began in the 1990s and continued through 2021.

Jog Falls

• The highest untiered (Single Plunge ) falls (253m) of India, located on the Sharavati
River in the Shimoga District of Karnataka
• Also called as Gersoppa or Jogda Guindi
• Famous tourist attraction
• An HEP Project has been eastablished near it

Dhuandhar

• Located on the Narmada River at Bheraghat town , just 20 km away from Jabalpur

Rajrappa

• Located in the Hazaribagh District where Bhairve (Bhera) joins the river Damodar,
falling from a height of 30 ft.
• In the vicinity lies a famous temple called Chinnamasta Temple
• There are some impressive rock formations in this area

Hundroo

• Located in the Ranchi district

• Panoramic view of it is enahanting and attracts many tourists
• 320 feet falls on the Subarnarekha highest waterfalls of Jharkhand
• 45 km from the city of Ranchi

Hogenkkal

• Located on the Cauvery in the Dharampuri District of Tamil Nadu , near the
Karnataka border
• The most beautiful fall in southern India
• Downstream of it we have the Stanley Reservoir and the Mettur Dam.

Kamtee

• Located in the Mussoorie Valley just 15 kms. from the Mussoorie city.

Chitrakoot

• Located near Jagdalpur in Chhattisgarh on the Indravati River

• 29m high
• Called as ‘Niagara of India’
• Falls for the full stretch of the river
• Look majestic in the monsoon season
• A place of Hindu pilgrimage

Teerathgarh

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 • A waterfall at Kanger Ghati on the Kanger River, just 35 km south–west of
Jagdalpur in Chhattisgarh.
• Plunge for 91m in a single drop
• Highest waterfalls of Chhattisgarh

Rakim Kund

• Located on the Gayghat River, a tributary of the Ausane River

• At the edge of the Rohtas Plateau where a series of waterfalls is formed
• Located in Bihar

Shivasamudram (Cauvery falls)

• Second biggest waterfalls of India

• Located in the Mandya District of Karnataka
• Gardens and parks developed in it add to its beauty.
• The falls are surrounded by the Kaveri Wildlife Sanctuary

Kapildhara

• Waterfalls located on the Narmada River , in Madhya Pradesh , where it descends

from the Amarkantak Hill
• A distance of 8 kms from the origin of river Narmada, the river falls from a height
of 100 feet creating a fall. It is believed that the Kapil Rishi meditated here.

Gokak

• Waterfalls located on the Ghatprabha River in Belgaum district of Karnataka

• 52m high, resembles the Niagara Falls on a smaller scale
• Horse-shoe shaped at the crest
• Power generation is being done nearby it.

Kutralam

• Located on the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 167m in Tirunelveli district

of Tamil Nadu
• It has nine falls
• Nicknamed as ‘the Spa of the South India’ as its water is believed to have medical
properties

Keoti

• Located on the Mahana River, a tributary of the Tons, in the Rewa district of
Madhya Padesh
• It’s a knick point fall at the edge of the Rewa Plateau
• 98m high
• Segmented type of waterfall with a single drop

Johna / Gautamdhara

• Situated at the edge of the Ranchi Plateau, it is a hanging valley fall

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 • The Gunga River hangs over its master stream, Raru River, and forms the falls
• Drops from a height of 43 meters
• An example of a nick point falls caused by rejuvenation.

Chachai

• Located in the Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh on the Bihad River, a tributary of
the Tons
• Comes down from the Rewa Plateau for 130m.
• It is an example of a nick point falls caused by rejuvenation

Dudma

• 157 m high waterfalls on the Machhkund River in Orissa

• Supports a large hydro electric project
• An important place of pilgrimage
• It is called Matsya Tirth

Dudhsagar

• A tired waterfall on the Mandovi River, located in Goa near the border with
Karnataka
• 60 km from Panaji
• 310m high – four tiered
• During the monsoon season it forms one of the most spectacular natural scene

Vajrai Waterfalls

• These are located just 27km away from Satara in Maharashtra, over Sahyadris.
• These are the highest waterfalls in India.

Kunohikal

• These are located in the Shimaga district in Karnataka.

• These are the highest waterfalls in India.
• These are the second highest waterfalls in India after Vajrai falls (Maharashtra).

List of Highest Waterfalls in the World

Famous Waterfalls in the World

• Iguazu Falls – forms a border between Argentina and Brazil. It is the largest
waterfall system in the world.
• Niagara Falls – share the international border of Canada and the United
States and lie in the states of new york and province of Ontario. It is a collective
name of three waterfalls.

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 • Victoria Falls – One of the Seven natural wonders of the world by CNN. It is in
South Africa on the Zambezi river and shares the border of Zimbabwe and
Zambia.
• Kaieteur Falls – is in Guyana. It is twice as high as Victoria Falls and 5 times
higher than Niagara Falls.
• Angel Falls – are the world’s highest uninterrupted waterfalls, on the Churún
River, a tributary of the Caroní river.
• Paulo Afonso Falls – is a series of waterfalls on the São Francisco River in the
north-east of Brazil.
• Livingstone Falls – are a succession of enormous rapids on the lower course of
the Congo River in west equatorial Africa, downstream from Malebo Pool in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
• Boyoma Falls (Stanley Falls) – Boyoma Falls, formerly known as Stanley Falls, is
a series of seven cataracts, along a curve of the Lualaba River between the river
port towns of Ubundu and Kisangani in the Orientale Province of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Beyond the cataract the Lualaba becomes the Congo
River.
• Tugela Falls – Tugela Falls is a complex of seasonal waterfalls located in the
Drakensberg of Royal Natal National Park in KwaZulu-Natal Province, Republic of
South Africa.
• Utigord Falls – in Norway, also known as Ramnefjellsfossen or Utigardsfossen is
unofficially listed as the third-highest waterfall in the world.
• Alexandra Falls – is located on the Hay River in Canada.
• Idaho Falls – on the Snake River, United States.
• International Falls – on the south bank of Rainy River, Minnesota, United States.
• Browne Falls – is a waterfall above Doubtful Sound, which is located in Fiordland
National Park, New Zealand.

Waterfalls in the Height –

Locality Country
World Metres/Feets

979 metres (3,212 Canaima National Park,

Angel Falls Venezuela
ft) Bolívar

948 metres (3,110

Tugela Falls KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
ft)

914 metres (2,999

Tres Hermanas Falls Otishi National Park, Junin Peru
ft)

900 metres (2,953

Olo’upena Falls Molokai, Hawaii United States
ft)

896 metres (2,940

Yumbilla Falls Amazonas Peru
ft)

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 860 metres (2,822
Vinnufossen Møre og Romsdal Norway
ft)

850 metres (2,789

Balåifossen Hordaland Norway
ft)

840 metres (2,756

Pu’uka’oku Falls Hawaii United States
ft)

840 metres (2,756

James Bruce Falls British Columbia Canada
ft)

836 metres (2,743 Doubtful Sound,

Browne Falls New Zealand
ft) Southland

820 metres (2,690

Strupenfossen Sogn og Fjordane Norway
ft)

818 metres (2,684

Ramnefjellsfossen Sogn og Fjordane Norway
ft)

792 metres (2,598

Waihilau Falls Hawaii United States
ft)

788 metres (2,585

Colonial Creek Falls Washington United States
ft)

773 metres (2,536

Mongefossen Møre og Romsdal Norway
ft)

771 metres (2,530

Gocta Cataracts Amazonas Peru
ft)

762 metres (2,500

Mutarazi Falls Manicaland Zimbabwe
ft)

755 metres (2,477

Kjelfossen Sogn og Fjordane Norway
ft)

739 metres (2,425

Yosemite Falls California United States
ft)

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Cascades de Trou de 725 metres (2,379
Réunion France
Fer ft)

720 metres (2,362 Norway (Tallest Waterfall in

Olmaafossen Møre og Romsdal
ft) Norway)

719 metres (2,359

Manawainui Falls Hawaii United States
ft)

715 metres (2,346

Kjeragfossen Rogaland Norway
ft)

707 metres (2,320

Avalanche Basin Falls Montana United States
ft)

707 metres (2,320

Harrison Basin Falls Montana United States
ft)

700 metres (2,297

Haloku Falls Hawaii United States
ft)

700 metres (2,297

Chamberlain Falls Southland New Zealand
ft)

700 metres (2,297

Alfred Creek Falls British Columbia Canada
ft)

700 metres (2,297

Døntefossen Møre og Romsdal Norway
ft)

698 metres (2,290

Brufossen Hordaland Norway
ft)

690 metres (2,264

Spirefossen Sogn og Fjordane Norway
ft)

680 metres (2,231

Lake Unknown Falls Otago New Zealand
ft)

674 metres (2,211

Kukenam, Salto Bolívar Venezuela
ft)

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 671 metres (2,201
Yutaj, Salto Amazonas Venezuela
ft)

590 metres (1,936

La Chorrera Falls Cundinamarca Colombia
ft)

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World’s highest Waterfalls (Artificial Waterfalls)
Height
Artificial Waterfall in the world Country
Metres/Feet

Cascata Delle Marmore (Created by Ancient

165 metres
Romans) tallest man-made waterfall in the Parco Fluviale del NeraItaly
(541 ft)
world

Liebian Waterfall (largest artificial waterfall in

108 metres
the world, tallest waterfall included in a Liebian International Plaza China
(354 ft)
building)

40 metres (131
Rain Vortex – Largest Indoor Waterfall Jewel Changi Airport Singapore
ft)

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 35 metres (115 Cloud Forest, Gardens by the
Cloud Forest Indoor Waterfall
ft) Bay Singapore

30 metres (98
Jurong Falls Jurong Bird Park Singapore
ft)

24 metres (79
Viktoriapark Waterfall Viktoriapark Germany
ft)

18.2 metres (60 Aqua Mall, Lotte Department Store

Lotte Music Fountain
ft) (Busan) South Korea

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 Important Lakes of India & World

Important Lakes of India

• Lake is a surface water body that is surrounded by land. Rivers will be outlet or
inlet to the lakes i.e. lakes take the water from rivers or act as a source of water.
• Lakes are found in various landscapes like Hilly areas, plains, plateaus, rift zones,
etc.
• There are various types of lakes that can be classified based on different criteria –
They are
• Fresh Water Lakes,
• Salt Water lakes,
• Natural Lakes,
• Artificial Lakes,
• Oxbow lake, (Formed by river deposits)
• Crater Lake, etc. (formed due to volcanic activity)
• Lakes have various applications like drinking water, irrigation, navigation, water
storage, livelihood (fishing, etc.), impact on microclimate, etc.

Subglacial Lake

• A subglacial lake is a body of liquid water located in between an ice sheet and
the continental landmass.
• The water remains liquid because the ice sheet above the water acts as an
insulator and traps geothermal heat from the Earth’s crust.
• Lake Vostok is the largest of Antarctica’s almost 400 known subglacial
lakes. Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold, beneath Russia’s
Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet,
which is at 3,488 m above mean sea level.

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Important Facts related to Lakes of India
• Largest freshwater lake in India – Wular Lake, Jammu and Kashmir
• Largest Saline water lake in India – Chilka Lake, Orissa
• Highest lake in India (Altitude) – Cholamu lake, Sikkim
• Longest Lake in India – Vembanad lake, Kerala
• Largest Artificial Lake in India – Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)
• Dhebar Lake is India’s second-largest artificial lake, after Govind Ballabh Pant
Sagar. It is located in the Udaipur District of Rajasthan.

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Lakes of India
Type of
Name State District Facts/Description
Lakes

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 It encompasses
Pulicat Lake Bird
Andhra Brackish
Pulicat Lake Sullurpet Sanctuary;
Pradesh Water
Satish Dhawan Space
Centre located here

Andhra Home to migratory

Kolleru Lake Vijayawada Freshwater
Pradesh birds

Artificially
Andhra
Nagarjuna Sagar Nalgonda Freshwater constructed;
Pradesh
Krishna river

Andhra
Cumbum Lake — — —
Pradesh

Haflong Lake Assam Silchar Freshwater High altitude lake

Under Ramsar
DeeporBeel Assam Kamrup Freshwater
Convention

Freshwater
Largest wetland in
Son Beel Assam Karimganj (Tectonically
Assam
formed)

Migratory Birds
(winter);
Chandubi lake Assam Kamrup Freshwater
formed by 1897
earthquake

Arunachal
Sala Lake —- —- —–
Pradesh

Sangestar Tso (Madhuri Arunachal

Tawang —- —-
Lake) Pradesh

Ganga Lake (Geker Arunachal

Itanagar —- —-
Sinying) Pradesh

Asia’s largest
Oxbow
Kanwar Lake Bihar Begusarai freshwater oxbow
(freshwater)
lake;

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 Nal Sarovar Gujarat

Situated in centre of
Hamirsar lake Gujarat Kutch Artificial
Bhuj

During 14th century

Kankaria lake Gujarat Ahmedabad Artificial by Muhammed Shah
II

Artificial Pilgrimage site for

Narayan Sarovar Gujarat Kutch
freshwater Hindus

Constructed for
Thol Lake Gujarat Mehsana Lentic lake
irrigation purpose

Narmada River;
Vastrapur Gujarat Ahmedabad Freshwater
Picnic spot

Sursagar Lake Gujarat

Lakhota Lake Gujarat

Badkhal Lake Haryana Faridabad Freshwater Man made

Migratory Birds,
Blue Bird Lake Haryana Hisar Freshwater
Wetland Habitat

Ancient water pool

Brahma Sarovar Haryana Thaneswar Freshwater
sacred to Hinduism

Constructed by British
Damdama Lake Haryana Sohna Freshwater government for
Rainwater Harvesting

Connected to great
Karna Haryana Karnal Freshwater
epic Mahabharata

Freshwater Located inside Tilyar

Tilyar Haryana Rohtak
(canal inflow) Zoo

Surajkund Lake Haryana Faridabad

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 Himachal Sweetwater
Chandra Taal Lahul and Spiti Ramsar wetland site
Pradesh lake

Freshwater
Himachal
Suraj Taal Lahul and Spiti (High Bhaga River inflow
Pradesh
Altitude)

Himachal
MaharanaPratapSagar Kangra Freshwater Ramsar site
Pradesh

Himachal Holomitic
Prashar lake Mandi It has a floating Island
Pradesh (Freshwater)

Himachal It is designated as the

Renuka lake Sirmaur Freshwater
Pradesh Ramsar site

Himachal
Nako Lake Kinnaur
Pradesh

Warm Remnants of past

Dal lake J &K Srinagar
monomitic glacial period

Endorheic
Pangong Tso J &K Ladakh Lake (saline Indo-China Border
water)

Tectonic lake Largest freshwater

Wular lake J &K Bandipora
(fresh water) lake in India

TsoMoriri J &K Ladakh Saltwater High altitude lake

Anchar Lake J &K

Manasbal Lake J &K

Gadsar Lake J &K

Gangabal Lake J &K

Vishansar Lake J &K

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 Mansar Lake J &K

Marsar Lake J &K

Tarsar Lake J &K

Sheshnag J &K

Tulian lake J &K

Located in the
Agata lake Karnataka Bangalore Freshwater southwest part of the
city

Bellandur Lake Karnataka Bangalore Freshwater –

Karachi lake Karnataka Mysore – Butterfly park

Ulsoor lake Karnataka Bangalore Stale water It has several islands

Kukarahalli lake Karnataka Mysore Freshwater Recreational

Holy lake, place for

Honnamana Karnataka Kodagu Freshwater
various festivals

Pampa Sarovar Karnataka Hampi Freshwater Tungabhadra river

Hebbal Lake Karnataka — — —

Brackish
Ashtamudi Kayal Kerala Kollam Ramsar wetland site
water

Alappuzha, Backwater paddy

Kuttanad Kerala
Kottayam cultivation

Brackish Ramsar wetland; boat

Vembanad Kerala –
water race

Shashtamkotta Kerala Kollam Freshwater Ramsar wetland

Vellayani Lake Kerala Thiruvananthapuram

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 Madhya. Ramsar site; largest
Bhojtal Bhopal Freshwater
Pradesh artificial lake in India

Salim Ali Lake Maharashtra Aurangabad Freshwater Birdwatching

Shivsagar Maharashtra Satara Freshwater Koyna dam

National Geo-Heritage
Lonar lake Maharashtra Buldhana Crater lake
monument

Gorewada Lake Maharashtra

Pashan Lake Maharashtra

Powai Lake Maharashtra

Rankala Lake Maharashtra

Venna Lake Maharashtra

Tulsi Lake Maharashtra

Vihar Lake Maharashtra

Ramsar wetland;
Lenticular Phumdis (Floating
Loktak lake Manipur –
freshwater Islands); Multipurpose
project

Famous for cycling

Umiam Meghalaya Shillong Freshwater
and boating

Tam Dil Mizoram Saitual Freshwater –

India’s largest
Brackish
Chilika lake Orissa Puri brackish water lake;
water
lagoon

Wetland of national
Kanjia lake Orissa Bhubaneswar Freshwater
importance

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 On the left bank of
Anshupa Lake Orissa Cuttack Freshwater
the Mahanadi river

Harike Punjab Ferozepur Freshwater Ramsar wetland site

Manmade riverine
Rupar Punjab Rupnagar Freshwater
lake

Kanjli Punjab Kapurthala Freshwater Ramsar wetland site

Ramsar wetland;
Sambhar lake Rajasthan Sambhar Lake-town Saltwater largest inland
saltwater lake in India

Rajsamand Rajasthan Rajsamand Freshwater –

Dhebar Lake Rajasthan

Kaylana Lake Rajasthan

Nakki Lake Rajasthan

Pachpadra Lake Rajasthan

Man Sagar Lake Rajasthan

Didwana Lake Rajasthan

Lunkaransar Salt Lake Rajasthan

Anasagar Lake Rajasthan

Talwara Lake Rajasthan

Tsomgo lake Sikkim East Sikkim Freshwater Winter frozen

Sacred lake for Hindus

Khecheoplari Sikkim West Sikkim Freshwater
and Buddhists

north of the
Gurudongmar Lake Sikkim — —
Kanchendzonga range

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 Ooty lake Tamilnadu Nilgiris Freshwater Boat House

Chembarambakkam Tamilnadu Chennai Artificial lake –

Boat club, boathouse,

Kodaikanal Lake Tamilnadu Dindigul Artificial lake
and boat service

Coastal lake
Kaliveli Lake Tamil Nadu Viluppuram —
and lagoon

Kolavai Tamil Nadu — — —

Puzhal lake (Red Hills

Tamil Nadu — — —
Lake)

Sholavaram lake Tamil Nadu

Berijam Lake Tamil Nadu

Veeranam Lake Tamil Nadu

Artificial Gibraltar
Hussain Sagar Telangana Hyderabad Artificial lake
rock-island

Badrakali lake Telangana Warangal Freshwater Artificial lake

Osman Sagar Telangana — — —

Himayat Sagar Telangana — — Artificial lake

Pakhal Lake Telangana — — Artificial lake

Shamirpet Lake Telangana — — Artificial lake

Saroornagar Lake Telangana — — Artificial lake

Durgam Cheruvu Telangana Rangareddy

Govind Ballabh Pant Man-made

Uttar Pradesh Sonbhadra Rihand dam
Sagar lake

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 Belasagar Uttar Pradesh Kulpahar Freshwater Irrigation lake

Bhimtal Uttarakhand Nainital Freshwater Medium altitude lake

Brackish
East Calcutta wetlands West Bengal Calcutta Ramsar wetland
water

Q. Consider the following statement with respect to Wular Lake

a. It is located in Kashmir
b. It was created by Tectonic activity
c. It is fed by the river Jhelum

Select the correct option

1. a only
2. b and c only
3. a and c only
4. a b and c

Q. Which one of the following is an artificial lake? (2018)

(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

(b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

(c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

(d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

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Important Lakes of World

Note:

• Black Sea is not a lake since Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits connect it to
the Mediterranean Sea. Many big rivers fall into the Black Sea, making the
salinity of its surface water half that of the ocean: 17‰.
• Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea are lakes. The surface and shores of the Dead
Sea are 423 meters below sea level, making it Earth’s lowest elevation on
land.
• While writing facts about lakes, people ignore the Caspian Sea because for them
it is too big to be considered a lake. But it is still a lake.
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 • Just like everybody else, even I have ignored the Caspian Sea while stating the
below facts.

Lake Baikal – Deepest Lake

• Lake Baikal is a rift lake located in southern Siberia, Russia.

• It is the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world, containing 22 to 23% of
the world’s fresh surface water.
• It is the seventh-largest lake in the world by surface area.
• Maximum depth: 1,642 m (5,387 ft)
• It is the world’s oldest (25–30 million years) and deepest lake.
• It has a long, crescent shape.
• The region to the east of Lake Baikal is referred to as Transbaikalia or as the Trans
baikal.
• The loosely defined region around the lake itself is sometimes known as Baikalia.
• UNESCO declared Lake Baikal a World Heritage Site in 1996.
• Baikal-GVD (Gigaton Volume Detector)
• Russian scientists launched one of the world’s biggest underwater neutrino
telescopes called the Baikal-GVD (Gigaton Volume Detector) in the waters of
Lake Baikal.
• It is one of the three largest neutrino detectors in the world along with the
IceCube at the South Pole and ANTARES in the Mediterranean Sea.
• It seeks to study in detail the elusive fundamental particles called
neutrinos and to possibly determine their sources.

Lake Tanganyika – Longest Lake

• The longest lake in the world. [660 kilometres long]

• It is also the second largest by volume.
• It is the second deepest lake in the world, after lake Baikal.

World’s Highest and Lowest Lakes

• The world’s highest lake, if size is not a criterion, may be the crater lake of Ojos del
Salado, at 6,390 metres. It is in Andes.
• The highest large lake in the world is the Pumoyong Tso (Pumuoyong Tso), in the
Tibet Autonomous Region of China. [5,018 metres above sea level]
• The world’s highest commercially navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru and
Bolivia border at 3,812 m. It is also the largest lake in South America.
• The world’s lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 metres
below sea level. It is also one of the lakes with highest salt concentration.

The Largest Lakes (surface area) by Continent

• Australia – Lake Eyre (salt lake)

• Africa – Lake Victoria, also the third-largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one of
the Great Lakes of Africa.
• Antarctica – Lake Vostok (subglacial)
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 • Asia – Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is considered a lake, it is the largest in
Eurasia, but is divided between the two geographic continents)
• Europe – Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both located in northwestern
Russia.
• North America – Lake Superior.
• South America – Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest navigable body of water
on Earth at 3,812 metres above sea level. The much larger Lake Maracaibo is a
contiguous body of water with the sea, so it is ignored. ,

Great Lakes

• Great Lakes of North America are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes

which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
• Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario [in the order of
west to east]. Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario [In the order of largest
to smallest].
• Lake Superior is the largest continental lake in the world by area, and
Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.

Shipping

• The Great Lakes are today used as a major water transport corridor for bulk goods.
• The Great Lakes Waterway connects all the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence
Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic oceans.

Dead Sea

• Also called the Salt Sea.

• Lake bordering Jordan to the east, and Palestine and Israel to the west.
• It Earth’s lowest elevation on land.

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Aral Sea

• It was a lake lying between Kazakhstan in the north and Uzbekistan, in the south.
• Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were
diverted by Soviet irrigation projects.

African Great Lakes

• Series of lakes constituting the part of the Rift Valley lakes in and around the East
African Rift.
• They include Lake Victoria, the second-largest freshwater lake in the world, and
Lake Tanganyika, the world’s second-largest in volume as well as the second
deepest.

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Largest Lakes by Surface Area
[Caspian Sea Excluded in all facts]

1. Lake Superior – North America

2. Lake Victoria – Africa
3. Lake Huron – North America
4. Lake Michigan – North America

Largest Lakes by Volume

1. Baikal – Asia
2. Tanganyika – Africa
3. Superior – North America

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Deepest Lakes in the World

1. Lake Baikal – Asia

2. Lake Tanganyika

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 Important Islands of the World

Islands
• An island or isle is any piece of subcontinental land that is surrounded by water.
• Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be
called islets, skerries, cays or keys.
• An island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island
off the coast may be called a holm.
• Sedimentary islands in the Ganges delta are called chars.
• A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands, such as
the Philippines, is referred to as an archipelago.

List of the Major Islands of the World

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[Link]
Greenland
• Greenland is the world’s largest island, located between the Arctic and Atlantic
oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is an autonomous
territory within the Kingdom of Denmark.

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New Guinea
• New Guinea is the world’s second-largest island and the largest island in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• New Guinea is an island to the north of the Australian mainland, south of the
equator.
• Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, it is separated by the
150 km wide Torres Strait from the Australian continent.

Borneo
• Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia.
• East Kalimantan is located over 1,400 km from Jakarta, on the island of Borneo.
• Mineral-rich East Kalimantan was once almost completely covered by
rainforests.
• It’s known for its beaches and ancient, biodiverse rainforest, home to wildlife
including orangutans and clouded leopards.

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Madagascar
• Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar is an island country in the
Indian Ocean, approximately 400 kilometres off the coast of East Africa across
the Mozambique Channel.
• Madagascar is the world’s second-largest island country.

Baffin
• Baffin Island, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut, is the largest island in
Canada and the fifth-largest island in the world.

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Sumatra & Java

Honshu & Hokkaido

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Kyushu

Cyprus

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Victoria Island

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Great Britain

Ellesmere

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Sulawesi (Celebes)
• Sulawesi, an Indonesian island east of Borneo, comprises several long peninsulas
radiating from a mountainous center.
• It’s known for coral reefs and dive sites such as Bunaken National Park, the
Togian Islands, and Wakatobi National Park.
• Sulawesi is island is one of the four Greater Sunda Islands.
• It is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao
and the Sulu Archipelago. The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of
the island and separates the island from Borneo.
• Within Indonesia, it is smaller than Sumatra and larger than Java Island.
• Sulawesi Cave Paintings
• Archaeologists have discovered the world’s oldest known cave art which is
a life-sized picture of a wild pig that was painted at least 45,500 years ago
in Indonesia.

South Island
• The South Island of New Zealand is renowned for its mountains, lakes, and
glaciers.
• The Southern Alps, home to 3,724m-high Aoraki Mt. Cook, run along the entire
length of the island. In the southwest is Fiordland National Park, with steep-sided
Milford Sound.
• In the north is Abel Tasman National Park, known for its trails and ocean kayaking.
Queenstown is famed for adventure sports like bungee jumping and skiing

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North Island
• The North Island of New Zealand is known for its volcanic activity, national parks
and cosmopolitan cities.

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Cuba
• Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba, as
well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos.
• Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of
Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean meet.

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• The country was a point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet
Union and the United States, and a nuclear war nearly broke out during
the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

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Newfoundland

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Long island

Map of Long Island

Luzon

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Iceland

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Mindanao

Ireland

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Sakhalin (Karafuto)

Hispaniola

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Banks Island

Tasmania
• Tasmania is an island state of Australia. It is located 240 km to the south of the
Australian mainland, separated by the Bass Strait.

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Stewart Island
• Stewart Island / Rakiura, commonly known as Stewart Island, is New Zealand’s
third-largest island, located 30 kilometers south of the South Island, across the
Foveaux Strait.

Tierra del Fuego

• Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago at South America’s southernmost tip, shared
by Chile and Argentina.
• In shape, the main island, separated from the mainland by the Strait of
Magellan, is a triangle with its base on Beagle Channel.

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 335
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Falkland island

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Axel Heiberg

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Southampton

Galapagos Islands

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Natuna Islands

Kuril Islands

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Disputed islands in south china sea
The Paracel Islands are claimed by China, Taiwan and Vietnam.

The Spratly Islands are claimed by China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Brunei and Philippines.

The Scarborough Shoal is claimed by Philippines, China and Taiwan.

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Disputed islands in east china sea
Senkaku Islands or Diaoyu Islands

• Japan and China claim the uninhabited islands, known as the Senkaku in
Japan and Tiaoyu in China, as their own, but Japan has administered them since
1972.
• The Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands were formally claimed by Japan in 1895. After Japan’s
defeat in World War II, the island chain was controlled by the US until 1971 before
its return. Since then, Japan has administered the island chains.
• China began to reassert claims over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands in the 1970s,
citing historic rights to the area. However, Japan does not recognize Chinese
claims.
• More recently, there has been a flare-up in the region. The Japanese government
had protested to China regarding a set of names recently assigned by Beijing to
seabed zones in the East China Sea, including the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands.

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Disputed islands between Russia and Japan
Kuril Islands dispute

• The Kuril Islands dispute, known in Japan as the Northern Territories dispute, is
a territorial dispute between Japan and the Russian Federation over the
ownership of the four southernmost Kuril Islands.
• The Kuril Islands are a chain of islands that stretch between the Japanese
island of Hokkaido at their southern end and the Russian Kamchatka
Peninsula at their northern end. The islands separate the Sea of Okhotsk from
the Pacific Ocean.
• The four disputed islands, like other islands in the Kuril chain that are not in
dispute, were annexed by the Soviet Union following the Kuril Islands landing
operation at the end of World War II.
• The disputed islands are under Russian administration as the South Kuril
District of the Sakhalin Oblast. They are claimed by Japan, which refers to them
as its Northern Territories or Southern Chishima, and considers them part of
the Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaido Prefecture.
• The islands in dispute are:
• Iturup
• Kunashir
• Shikotan
• Habomai Islands

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 Grasslands of the World

What are Grasslands?

A grassland ecosystem is a dry area of land dominated by grasses. Huge trees and
shrubs are very rarely found in these regions, which is mainly because of the climatic
conditions and other environmental factors, which do not withstand the plant’s
requirements.

Grasslands are also called transitional landscape. In a grassland ecosystem, the

vegetation is dominated by herbs and grass. These ecosystems are mainly found in
regions, where there is a scarcity of water and not enough and regular rainfall to
support the growth of plants and forests. The grassland ecosystem lies between the
deserts and the forest ecosystems.

Savanna grasslands and temperate grasslands are some examples of grassland

ecosystems. There are many other types of grassland around the world, which go by
many names. Grasslands of South America are known as pampas and central Eurasian
grasslands are referred to as steppes and so on.

Types of Grasslands
Grasslands are subdivided into two types, namely:

Tropical Grasslands
Tropical grasslands have dry and wet seasons that remain warm all the time. These
regions are warm throughout the year, followed by dry and wet seasons. Tropical
Grasslands are the ones which receive 50 cm to 130 cm rain.

Also, the tropical grasslands contain quite short plants which makes it an excellent
hunting ground. For instance, the African savanna is one of the tropical grasslands.

In conclusion, the tropical grassland is a home for elephants, giraffes, lions, cheetahs,
zebras, and other spectacular species.

Tropical Grasslands are:

• East Africa- Savanna

• Brazil- Campos
• Venezuela- Llanos

Temperate Grasslands
These grasslands are similar to tropical grasslands, except for the climatic
conditions. They have cold winters and warm summers with 25 cm and 75 cm. of
annual rainfall. Shrublands are the best example of temperate grasslands.

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Moreover, these grasslands suffer extreme climates. In the cold season, the temperature
can reach up Flooded Grasslands to 0 degrees Fahrenheit. While in the summer season
it reaches up to 90 degrees in some areas. The precipitation in these grasslands is mostly
in the form of dew and snow.

For instance, some vegetation that grows here are, cacti, sagebrush, perennial grasses,
buffalo grass clovers, and wild indigos, etc.

Temperate Grasslands are:

• Argentina- Pampas
• America- Prairie
• South Africa- Veld
• Asia- Steppe
• Australia- Down

Grasslands of the World

Grasslands Region

Steppe Europe and North Asia

Pustaz Hungary

Prairies USA

Pampas Argentina

Veld South Africa

Downs Australia

Canterbury New Zealand

Savannah Africa and Australia

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Taiga Europe and Asia

Grassland Major Economic Activity

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 Wheat Granaries
Prairies
Extensive Ranching

Rich black soil

Abundant wheat production
Pustaz Sugar from Sugar beet [Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose root contains a high
concentration of sucrose]
Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania, etc.

Alfalfa: nutrient-rich grass.

Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
Pampas
Extensive wheat-producing region
Economy depends on wheat and beef export

Downs and Sheep and Cattle rearing,

Canterbury Merino sheep: wool production

Maize farms
Veldts
Sheep and Cattle rearing

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 Important Dams in India (River Valley Projects)

Dam
A dam is a barrier that stops the flow of water and results in the creation of a
reservoir. Dams are mainly built in order to produce electricity by using water. This form
of electricity is known as hydroelectricity.

Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities
such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.

Based on the structure the types of dams are as mentioned below:

1. Arch Dam: An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in the plan. It
is designed so that the hydrostatic pressure (force of the water against it) presses
against the arch, causing the arch to straighten slightly and strengthening the
structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments. An arch dam is most
suitable for narrow canyons or gorges with steep walls of stable rock to support
the structure and stresses.
2. Gravity Dam: Dams constructed from concrete or stone masonry are Gravity
dams. They are designed to hold back water by using only the weight of the
material and its resistance against the foundation to oppose the horizontal
pressure of water pushing against it. These are designed in such a way that each
section of the dam is stable and independent of other section.
3. Arch-Gravity Dam: This dam has the characteristics of both an arch dam and a
gravity dam. It is a dam that curves upstream in a narrowing curve that directs
most of the water pressure against the canyon rock walls. The inward compression
of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam.
4. Barrages: A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a
number of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of
water passing through. This allows the structure to regulate and stabilize river
water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
5. Embankment Dams: An embankment dam is a large artificial dam. It is typically
created by the placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of
various compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock. It has a semi-pervious waterproof
natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious core.
6. Rock-Fills Dams: Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining
granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high
percentage of large particles, hence the term “rock-fill”.
7. Concrete-face rock-fill dams: A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill
dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design provides the concrete
slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without
concern for uplift pressure.
8. Earth-fill dams: Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or
simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well-compacted
earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of
material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water.

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Highlights on some important Dams in India:

Highest Dam in India Tehri Dam(Uttarakhand) River: Bhagirathi River

Longest Dam in India Hirakud Dam (Odisha) River: Mahanadi

Oldest Dam in India Kallanai Dam(Tamil Nadu) River: Kaveri

Significance of Dams
• Source of Clean Energy: Dams are the sources of clean power. Many countries
have embraced dams as a way to reduce reliance on expensive fossil fuels.
• Irrigation: Dams and waterways store and provide water for irrigation so farmers
can use the water for growing crops.
• In areas where water and rain are not abundant (like the desert), irrigation
canals from rivers and dams are used to carry water.
• Prevent Flooding: Dams, if planned well, help in preventing floods. They catch
extra water so that it doesn’t run wild downstream.
• Source of Drinking Water: Since the water stored in dams is freshwater, it can
also be used as drinking water.

Dams and Destruction

While dams can benefit society in many ways, they are also one of the biggest menaces
to river ecology, wildlife, the aquatic habitat of fish, and ultimately humans.

• Affect the Aquatic Life: Dams prevent fish migration and limit their ability to
access spawning habitat, seek out food resources, and escape predation.
• Aquatic organisms depend on steady flows to guide them while stagnant
reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and can significantly increase the
duration of their migration.
• Dams block Rivers: Dams and reservoirs are physical barriers to the flow of water
bodies as they fragment them and reservoirs, which impact their seasonal flow.
• They also change the way rivers function and trap sediment, burying rock
riverbeds where fish spawn.
• Gravel, logs, and other important food and habitat features can also become
trapped behind dams. This negatively affects the creation and maintenance
of more complex habitats downstream.
• A Hazardous Infrastructure: Large dams, even if structurally sound, are regarded
as “high hazard” infrastructure because of the potential for a massive loss of
human lives, livelihoods, and destruction in the event of failure.
• In the most recent Uttarakhand flash floods, experts say the incident was
induced by the effect of global warming on melting glaciers but the effect
was worsened by the construction of infrastructure (Hydroelectric Power
Projects, HEPs).

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 • HEPs which use large-scale blasting, tree felling, and tunneling, most
certainly added to the proportion of the impact. They became a force
multiplier in the destruction.
• The construction was against the recommendation of the Chopra
Committee which submitted a detailed report warning that a glacial retreat
in the state of Uttarakhand, coupled with structures built for hydroelectricity
generation and dams, could lead to large-scale disasters downstream.
• Reservoir Induced Seismicity: There is a strong relationship between the
earthquakes and the loading and unloading of water from the dam. The Koyna
and Warna region is possibly the best example of reservoir-induced seismicity
(RIS).
• The Koyna and Warna reservoirs are responsible for the earthquakes in the
south Maharashtra region which has experienced many earthquakes in five
decades.
• This series of earthquakes have occurred post the construction of
dams in the region.
• Displacement of People: The land submergence and large-scale displacement of
people due to the construction of large dams is one prevailing issue which is often
overlooked by the authorities.
• Construction of dams such as Hirakud, Bhakra Nangal, and Tehri had
displaced a number of families many of which were not rehabilitated at all.
• Even after rehabilitation, lack of livelihood opportunities and poor
living conditions are still observed.
• Sardar Sarovar Dam, the largest structure on the Narmada river, has
displaced over 3 lakh families.
• Older Dams are Greater Hazard: Older dams pose greater safety risks, cost higher
in terms of maintenance, and have declining functionality due to sedimentation,
stated
• Globally, over 1,115 large dams will be about 50 years old by 2025.
• China, the US, and India top the list of countries with a significant number of
large dams.
• China alone hosts 40% of the world’s large dams (numbering 23,841),
their average age being 45 years.
• India has 4,407 large dams of which more than 1,000 would be 50 years or
older by 2025, a new study has shown.
• India has 209 dams that are over 100-year-old, built when design
practices and safety were far below current norms.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Particularly in tropical regions, hydropower reservoirs
emit significant amounts of greenhouse gases.
• The water gathers behind the dam, creates an unnatural, stagnant lake that
often kills off a lot of the existing ecosystem. Bacteria in the water
decompose these plants and generate carbon dioxide and methane (potent
greenhouse gas).
• Methane from reservoirs accounts for more than 4% of all human-caused
climate change comparable to the climate impact of the aviation sector.
• In some cases, hydropower projects are producing higher emissions than
coal-fired power generating the same amount of electricity plants.

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Major Dams in India State River

Bhavani Sagar dam Tamil Nadu Bhavani

Tungabhadra Dam Karnataka Tungabhadra

Rihand Dam Uttar Pradesh Rihand

Maithon Dam Jharkhand Barakar

Koyna Dam Maharashtra Koyna

Bisalpur Dam Rajasthan Banas

Mettur Dam Tamil Nadu Kaveri

Krishnarajasagar Dam Karnataka Kaveri

Indira Sagar Dam Madhya Pradesh Narmada

Cheruthoni Dam Kerala Cheruthoni

Sardar Sarovar Dam Gujarat Narmada

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Telangana Krishna

Hirakud dam Odisha Mahanadi

Punjab-Himachal Pradesh
Bhakra Nangal Dam Sutlej
Border

Thein Dam project Punjab Ravi

A joint venture of Punjab,

Beas Project (Sharda Sahayak Project) Haryana, and Rajasthan, Beas
Uttar Pradesh

Tehri Dam Uttarakhand Bhagirathi

Dulhasti project Jammu and Kashmir Chenab

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Salal project Jammu and Kashmir Chenab

Banasagar project M.P., Bihar, and U.P. Son

Rihand Scheme Reservoir Uttar Pradesh Rihand

Damodar valley multipurpose project four dams:

West Bengal (also shared
Tilaiya and Maithon (on the Barakar River), Konar Damodar
by Jharkhand).
(Konar River), and Panchet (Damodar River).

Mayurakshi project West Bengal Mayurakshi

Poochampad Project Andhra Pradesh Godavari

Jayakwadi Project Maharashtra Godavari

Upper Krishna Project Karnataka Krishna

Andhra Pradesh and Ghatprabha (A

Ghatprabha project
Karnataka. tributary of Krishna)

Malprabha project Karnataka Malprabha

Bima project Maharashtra Bhima

Shivasamudram Scheme Karnataka On Cauvery Falls

Kundah project Tamil Nadu Kundah

Sharavati (near Jog

Sharavati Project Karnataka
falls)

Chambal project(Gandhi Sagar Dam (M.P.), Rana

Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Chambal
Pratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar Dam or Kota Dam.

Kakrapara Project Gujarat Tapi

Ukai Project Gujarat Tapi

Tawa (A tributary of
Tawa project Madhya Pradesh
Narmada.

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Mahi Project (Jamnalal Bajaj Sagar) Gujarat Mahi

Uttar Pradesh, Madhya

Matatila Project Betwa
Pradesh

Dams in News State River

Edamalayar Dam Kerala Idamalayar (a tributary of the Periyar River)

Idukki dam Kerala Periyar River

Cheruthony Dam Kerala Periyar River

Peppara Dam Kerala Karamana River

Kakki dams Kerala Kaki River (a tributary of the Pampa)

Anathode dams Kerala Anathode river (a tributary of Pamba River)

Sholayar Dam Kerala Chalakkudi River

Kallarkutty Dam Kerala Muthirapuzha river

Kundala Dam Kerala Muthirapuzha River (a tributary of Periyar River)

Pampa Dam Kerala Pampa river

Malankara Dam Kerala Thodupuzha river

Nanak Sagar Dam Uttarakhand Deoha river

Mullaperiyar Dam
• The Mullaperiyar Dam, a gravity dam in Kerala is a 126-year-old barrage that has
dangerously outlived its 50 years of life.
• The dam is located in the Western Ghats, adjacent to the Periyar wildlife
sanctuary, built during the British colonial period.
• A gravity dam is one that is designed to withstand water by its own
weight and resistance.

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 • The weight and width of the base prevent the dam from overturning
when subjected to the force of impounded water.
• The dam is considered hazardous, not only because of its age but also for
its location in an acknowledged seismic zone (zone-III).
• Decommission of the Dam: The government of Kerala carried out hydrological
review studies between 2006 and 2011 that concluded that the Mullaperiyar Dam
is unsafe for passing the estimated probable maximum flood limit.
• Both IIT-Roorkee and IIT-Delhi have deemed the dam to be fit to be
decommissioned.
• However, decommissioning Mullaperiyar is strongly opposed by Tamil
Nadu state, which inherited a lease agreement between the former
princely state of Travancore (now Kerala) and the British government.
• The lease allows Tamil Nadu to operate the dam and divert 640
million cubic metres of water annually for irrigation and power
generation through a tunnel bored into the Western Ghat mountains
that form a wall between the two states.

Daudhan Dam
• A 77 metre high dam, namely Daudhan is proposed across river Ken, about 2.5
km upstream of the existing Gangau Weir on Ken river.
• Construction of the Daudhan dam will result into the submergence of 10% of the
critical tiger habitat of MP’s Panna Tiger Reserve that will adversely affect the
tiger conservation efforts.
• Submergence by Daudhan and Makodia reservoirs will result
into the displacement of 20,000 people of the Bundelkhand region and will give
rise to rehabilitation issues.
• Ken Betwa Link Project: two phases
• Under Phase-I, one of the components — Daudhan dam complex and its
appurtenances like Low-Level Tunnel, High-Level Tunnel, Ken-Betwa link
canal, and Powerhouses — will be completed.
• While in Phase-II, three components — Lower Orr dam, Bina complex
project, and Kotha barrage — will be constructed.

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Polavaram Irrigation Project
• Polavaram Project is located in Andhra Pradesh on the river Godavari, near
Polavaram village.
• It is a multi-purpose irrigation project as the project once completed will
provide Irrigation benefits and will generate Hydroelectric Power. In addition,
this project will also supply drinking water.
• It will facilitate an inter-basin transfer to the Krishna river basin through its
Right canal.
• Its reservoir spreads in parts of Chhattisgarh and Orissa States also.
• It will also provide indirect benefits such as the development of Pisciculture
(breeding and rearing of fish), tourism, and urbanization.
• The Project has been accorded national project status by the union government
in 2014 (under Section-90 of Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2014).
• Kolam tribes, Kondareddis tribes
• Six other projects in Andhra Pradesh
• Vamsadhara-Phase 2 [River Vamsadhara or River Banshadhara]
• Vamsadhara-Nagavali link [Vamsadhara and Nagavali rivers]
• Owk tunnel-2
• Velugonda-Phase 1
• Nellore

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• Sangam barrages

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 Important Ports of the World

Port
• A port is a maritime facility which may comprise one or more wharves where
ships may dock to load and discharge passengers and cargo. Although usually
situated on a sea coast or estuary, some ports, such as Hamburg, Manchester, and
Duluth, are many miles inland, with access to the sea via river or canal.
• Ports are extremely important to the global economy, responsible for 70% of
global merchandise trade by value.
• Today, by far the greatest growth in port development is in Asia, the continent
with some of the world’s largest and busiest ports, such as Singapore and the
Chinese ports of Shanghai and Ningbo-Zhoushan.
• As of 2020, the busiest passenger port in the world is the Port of Helsinki in
Finland. However, ports can also be very small and only serve local fishing or
tourism.

Important Ports of the World

• Shanghai, China
• Singapore
• Shenzhen, China
• Ningbo-Zhoushan, China
• Guangzhou Harbor, China
• Busan, South Korea
• Hong Kong, S.A.R, China
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• Qingdao, China
• Tianjin, China
• Jebel Ali, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
• Rotterdam, The Netherlands
• Port Klang, Malaysia
• Antwerp, Belgium
• Kaohsiung, Taiwan, China
• Xiamen, China
• Dalian, China
• Los Angeles, U.S.A
• Tanjung Pelepas, Malaysia
• Hamburg, Germany
• Long Beach, U.S.A.
• Laem Chabang, Thailand
• Keihin Ports, Japan
• Tanjung Priok, Jakarta, Indonesia
• New York-New Jersey, U.S.A.
• Colombo, Sri Lanka
• Hambantota, Sri Lanka
• Yingkou, China
• Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
• Hanshin Port, Japan
• Manila, Philippines
• Jawarharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva), India
• Piraeus, Greece
• Algeciras, Spain
• Lianyunguang, China
• Tokyo, Japan
• Mundra, India
• Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
• Santos, Brazil
• Rizhao, China
• Dongguan, China
• Fuzhou, China
• Nanjing, China
• Tanger Med, Morocco
• Vancouver, Canada
• Salalah, Oman
• Duqum Port, Oman
• Khasab Port, Oman
• Bandar Abbas, Iran
• Bandar Anzali, Iran
• Bandar Khomeini, Iran
• Bandar Mahshahr, Iran
• Bandar Noshahr, Iran
• Bandar Taheri, Iran
• Bushehr, Iran
• Chabahar, Iran
• Port of Bassein, Myanmar
• Port of Mergui, Myanmar

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• Port of Moulmein, Myanmar
• Port of Rangoon, Myanmar
• Port of Sittwe, Myanmar
• Port of Thilawa, Myanmar
• Port of Yangon, Myanmar
• Port of Chittagong, Bangladesh
• Port of Mongla, Bangladesh
• Port of Payra, Bangladesh
• Matarbari Port, Bangladesh
• Port of Karachi, Pakistan
• Port Muhammad Bin Qasim, Pakistan
• Keti Bunder Sea Port, Pakistan
• Gwadar Port, Pakistan
• Lamu port, Kenya
• Hodeidah Port, Yemen
• Saleef Port, Yemen
• Ras Isa Oil Terminal, Yemen
• Mokha Port, Yemen
• Aden Port, Yemen
• Maalla Wharf, Yemen

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 Important Boundaries Lines in the World
• The line which demarcates two countries (areas of property) is known as the
Boundary Line.
• For example, the Line Of Control (LOC) is the boundary line between India
(Kashmir) and Pakistan.
• The Mason-Dixon Line is a boundary line between the 4 states of the United
States of America.
• International boundaries are the geographical borders of political or legal
jurisdictions such as countries, customs territories, and sovereign states. The
process of the creation of a border is called boundary delimitation. Some
international borders such as those within a free movement area like
the European Union are thinly guarded or completely open.
• Others such as the India-Pakistan border or the North Korea-South Korea border
may be heavily patrolled with access controlled through designated crossings.

Important International Borders

Name of
Between Features/ Description
Lines/Boundaries

Namibia &
16th Parallel North The border line between Namibia & Angola.
Angola

The 17th latitude from the equator divided erstwhile North and
South Vietnam South Vietnam.
17th Parallel and North It was demarcated based on the 1954 Geneva Accords.
Vietnam The 17th parallel became irrelevant after the unification of
Vietnam in 1976.

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 Name of
Between Features/ Description
Lines/Boundaries

Libya and It is located at the 20th northern latitude which is used as the
20th Parallel
Sudan border between Sudan and Libya.

Egypt and The 22nd latitude north of the equator marks a major portion of
22nd Parallel
Sudan the Sudan-Egypt border.

Mauritania and The northernmost section of the Mali-Mauritania border is

25th Parallel
Mali marked using this line.

The 31st northern latitude marks the border between Iraq and
Iran.
31st Parallel Iran and Iraq
It also demarcates the border between the US states of Louisiana
and Mississippi.

Military Demarcation Line.

South Korea The Military Demarcation Line (MDL), sometimes referred to as
38th Parallel and North the Armistice Line.
Korea The 38th parallel is used to demarcate the central part of the
Demilitarized zone between North and South Korea.

It is located 49 degrees north of the equator.

USA and Demarcated after the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 and
49th Parallel
Canada the Oregon Treaty of 1846, it forms the international border
between the northern USA (Excluding Alaska) and Canada.

Delimited by Sir Mortimer Durand with the agreement of the

Pakistan and
Durand Line erstwhile Amir of Afghanistan in 1893.
Afghanistan
Present-day Afghanistan does not recognize the Durand line.

It was a German Defensive line in French territory during World

Poland and
Hindenburg Line War I
Germany
It was rendered irrelevant by the treaty of Versailles in 1919.

It was drawn by Sir Henry McMahon in consultation with Tibetan

China and representatives in 1914.
McMahon Line
India China disputes the legal status of this line but it is the de facto
border between India and China.

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 Name of
Between Features/ Description
Lines/Boundaries

It was a defensive line at the French border towards Germany

Germany and before World War II. The Maginot line was rendered obsolete
Maginot Line
France following the successful invasion of France by Germany following
the outbreak of World War II

Russia and Finland built this as a defensive line against the Soviet Union for
Mannerheim Line
Finland the Winter War during World War II.

It runs along the rivers Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers.

Poland and It demarcates the Polish-German border according to the
Oder-Neisse Line
Germany Potsdam Conference. It was recognized by a unified Germany in
1990.

It was demarcated by Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the Partition of India

India and
Radcliffe Line and the formation of East and West Pakistan.
Pakistan
It includes present-day India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

It was built as an extension of the Hindenburg defensive line on

France and
Siegfried Line the western front of World War I by the Weimar Republic and
Germany
later the Third Reich of Germany in the 1930s.

Border demarcation between Lebanon and Israel was published

Lebanon and
Blue Line by the United Nations on 7 June 2000 for the purposes of
Israel
determining whether Israel had fully withdrawn from Lebanon.

GreenLine / Attila The Republic of A demilitarized zone, patrolled by the United Nations
Line / UN Buffer Cyprus and Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), that was established in
Zone Turkish Cyprus 1964 and extended in 1974 after the ceasefire of 16 August 1974.

The Purple Line was the ceasefire line between Israel and Syria
Purple Line Israel and Syria
after the 1967 War.

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