Module - Two

What is a Research Problem?

It is a statement regarding an area of concern
A circumstance to be improved upon
A difficulty to be eliminated (or)
A troubling question that needs meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation
Research problem
Research problem triggers the research process

Defining the research problem is a critical activity

A thorough understanding of the research problem is a must for achieving

success in the research process

Defining the research problem begins with identifying the basic dilemma that
prompts the research

It can be further developed by progressively breaking down the original

dilemma into more specific and focus-oriented objectives
Features of the Research Problem
It should be of great interest to the Researcher

The problem should be significant

The problem should be delineated

Researcher should be able to obtain the information required

The researcher should be able to state the problem clearly and

concisely

Researcher should be able to draw conclusions related to the problem

Criteria for selecting the research
problem
Subject of research should not be normally chosen as there will not be a new
dimension to reveal

Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided

Should be familiar with the subject (knowledge, qualification and training )

Time, money efforts, and manpower requirements should be taken into

account

Related material or sources of research should be obtained easily

The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study The

subject The subject
Source of Research Problem
Observation
Literature reviews
Professional conferences
Discussions with experts
Extension of previous work
External Agency, e.g. Industry, Research Organization, etc.
Operational Definition of Concepts
An operational definition is a procedure agreed upon for the translation of a
concept into measurement of some kind-
W . Edwards Deming

Operational definitions define concepts and labels by the way they are
measured
Ex. An operational definition of weight could be: how much a spring
stretches when you hang something from it
Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis:
❖ Research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that
will be tested by research
❖ A research hypothesis is the statement created by researchers when
they speculate upon the outcome of a research or experiment
❖ A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between
two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction
about what you expect to happen in your study
❖ A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or
disproven by valid and reliable data
Formulation of hypothesis
A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis

A hypothesis may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between

two or more variables, expressed in the form of a testable statement

Relationship is proposed by using a strong logical argumentation

This logical relationship may be part of the theoretical framework of the

study
Types of hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis: A descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable
thereby it is also called a univariate hypothesis. Researchers usually use
research questions rather than descriptive hypotheses.

EX: What is the level of commitment of officers in your organization?

Relational hypothesis: These are propositions that describe a relationship

between two variables. The relationship could be non-directional or
directional, positive or negative, casual or simply correlation.

EX: There is a positive relationship between the level of commitment of officers

and the level of efficiency
Correlational hypothesis: Correlation hypotheses test correlations between
two variables, for example, height and body weight.

For example:

The taller a person is, the heavier he is.

The more horsepower a car has, the higher its fuel consumption.

The better the math grade, the higher the future salary.

Explanatory (Casual) hypothesis: This implies the existence of, or a change

in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable.

Ex: The lower the level of commitment of officers, the lesser the level of
efficiency
Null hypothesis:

It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher.

It shows that there is no relationship between the variables or the relationship between
the variables is “zero”.

Rejection of the null hypothesis leads to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis

Ex: There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of
efficiency

Alternative hypothesis: The alternative( to the null) hypothesis simply states that
there is a relationship between the variables under study.

Ex: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of
efficiency
sampling
Sampling involves selecting a relatively small number of elements from a
large defined group of elements and expecting that the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the large group.

The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a

population, the conclusion about the entire population is drawn
Population and sample
Meaning of Sampling
It is the selection of some part of an aggregate on the basis of
which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is
made.
Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all responses,
measurements, or counts that
are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
Defining the Target Population
It is critical to the success of the research project to clearly define the target
population

The population should be defined in connection with the objectives of the

study
The Language of Sampling

• Population: A collection, or set of individuals objects, or

events whose properties are to be analyzed
• Sample: A set of cases that are drawn from a larger pool and
used to make generalizations about the population
• Sampling Frame: Listing of population from which a sample
is chosen
• Parameter: numerical characteristic of a population
• Statistic: numerical characteristic of a sample
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average age of
faculty.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might select 100
faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty at the college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
Purpose of sampling

• Lower cost

• Greater accuracy of results

• Greater speed of data collection

• Availability of population element

Essentials of sampling
• It must be representative

• Homogeneity

• Adequate samples

• optimization
Features of the sampling method
Economy

Reliability

Detailed study

Scientific base

Greater suitability in most situations

Accuracy
Sampling Techniques
Probability (Random) Sampling
Ensures that every unit in the population has an equal likely chance of being selected

Such chance is known as probability

A sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected if each member of

the population has an equal chance (probability) of being selected

Example: If a sample frame has a list of 100 students, in a simple random sampling each

student 1/100th chance of being selected

Some Key Terms in Sampling
N = Number of units in the population
n = Number of units in the sample
Simple Random Sample
Every subset of a specified size from the population has an equal chance of
being selected
Equal probability of selection for every member
Draw numbers using
Lottery method
A table of random numbers
A Computer
Simple Random Sample

Advantages

All elements of the population have an equal chance of being selected

Easiest to apply

Easy to understand

Doest not require prior knowledge of the true composition of the population

Disadvantages

It is impractical, because of the non-availability of a population list

Numbering of population and preparation of chits is often time-consuming

Does not ensure proportionate representation of various groups

Sampling error is high compared to other methods

Example
A bank wants to do a study on the customers’ perception of its service
quality in the last 12 months with regard to the savings bank account holders.

Prepare sampling frame (500 account holders)

Select Sample (50 account holders)

Systematic Random Sampling

Units are drawn from the population at regular intervals clearly defined

Steps
- Compute k =(N/n) and take integer value. k is called sampling interval
- Select a random number between 1 and k
- Starting with this number, select every kth number until all the ‘n’ units
are selected
Example

Suppose in a market survey, you have to select 5 households out of 50

households in a block.

- Number of units in the population N = 50

- Number of units in the sample n = 5

- Sampling Interval k = (N/n) = 50/5 = 10

- Select a random number between 1 and 10

Suppose the selected random number is 5. Starting with 5, select every 10th
unit.
Systematic Sample

Every kth member ( for example: every 10th person) is selected from a
list of all population members.
Systematic Sample
Advantages:
It is simpler than simple random sampling
It is easy to instruct the field investigators to use this method
Requires less time and much cheaper than simple random sampling
Sample is spread evenly over the population
Disadvantages:
Each item does not have equal chance of being selected
Sometimes give biased sample
 Stratified Random Sampling Contd.

Advantages:
More representative sample: representation of all sub groups
Much easier to carry out
Administrative convenience

Disadvantages
Prior knowledge of the composition and distribution of the
population characteristics
Expensive and time consuming
If the stratifications are faulty, the results will be biased
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
❖When the population elements are scattered over a wider area
❖The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families.
❖A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups and then all
members of the cluster selected are surveyed.
Steps in Cluster Sampling
Based on the division of population into a number of clusters, Select a
random sample of clusters from this population of clusters

Either measure all units within the randomly chosen clusters or do further
random sampling in each cluster

Ideally, we have to measure all the units in the selected cluster. Suppose, if
we do further sampling in the chosen cluster, it becomes multi-stage
sampling
A dairy corporation that home delivers milk in a city would like to estimate
the average milk consumption per household per month.

If it picks up at random three of its fourteen delivery routes and obtains the
relevant information for each household within these three routes, which
type of sampling techniques has been adapted?

Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling
Section 1
Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
Cluster sampling

Advantages:
Easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are studies or
large geographical areas are covered
Flexible (As it is possible to employ different types of sampling)
Convenient in case where the list of population concerned is not available
Convenient for field interviews

Disadvantages:
Cluster size may vary and this might increase the bias of the sample
Adjacent units of the study tend to have similar characteristics and this may
affect the representativeness of the sample
Area Sampling
This is an important form of cluster sampling
In larger field surveys, clusters consisting of specific
geographical areas like districts, talukas, villages or blocks in the
city are randomly drawn.
As the geographical areas are selected as sampling units in
such cases, their sampling is called area sampling
It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster
sampling
Multi-stage Sampling
In this method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages
The population is regarded as being composed of a number of first stage
sampling units
Each of them is made up of a number of second stage units and so forth
That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling unit of
the subsequent stage
First, a sample of the first stage sampling unit is drawn, then form each
of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage
sampling unit is drawn.
The procedure continues down to the final sampling
Appropriate random sampling is used at every stage
Multi-stage Sampling
Advantages:

It results in concentration of field work in compact small areas

More convenient and efficient

Disadvantages:

Procedure of estimating sampling error is complicated

Non-probability Sampling
❖Non-probability sampling is a data selection method that uses subjective judgment
to choose samples.
❖It's used when the population characteristics are unknown or can't be individually
identified.
❖Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method that depends on the
researcher's expertise.
❖It's often more vulnerable to discrepancies than probability-based methods.
❖Non-probability sampling is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way of obtaining data.
❖It doesn't require a complete survey frame.
❖
Non-probability sampling
Convenience Sample
Selection of whichever individuals are easiest to reach

It is done at the “convenience” of the researcher

 Convenience Sample
It may be used for simple purposes testing ideas or gaining a rough
impression about the subject of interest

Advantages:
Cheapest and simplest
Does not require a list of the population
Does not require statistical expertise

Disadvantages:
Highly biased
Least reliable sampling method
Findings cannot be generalized
 Judgment or purposive Sampling
❖Judgmental sampling is a type of non-probability sampling.

❖In this method, the researcher selects participants for a study based on
specific criteria that they have predetermined.

❖The researcher uses their own existing knowledge or professional

judgment to select the units to be sampled.

❖Judgmental sampling is also known as Purposive sampling or

authoritative sampling.
Judgement sampling
Advantages:
Less costly and more convenient
Guarantees the inclusion of relevant units

Disadvantages:
Does not representativeness of the sample
Findings cannot be generalized
Requires prior extensive information about the population
Quota Sampling
It is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota
groups of sampling units such as age, religion, gender, etc.

It is Stratified sampling in which selection within the strata is non-

random

It is used in studies like market surveys, opinion polls, etc.

Quota sample
Quota sampling
Advantages:
Less costly and takes less time
Does not require a list of the population
Fieldwork can be easily organized

❖Disadvantages:
May not yield a representative sample
Representatives tend to choose the most accessible person
Strict control of fieldwork is difficult
 Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method used in
qualitative research. It's also known as:

❖ Chain-referral sampling
❖ Referral sampling
❖ Network sampling

In snowball sampling, existing study subjects recruit future subjects

from among their acquaintances. The sample group is said to grow like a
rolling snowball.
Snowball sampling
Advantages:
Useful in studying social groups
Useful for smaller populations where there are no frames available

Disadvantages:
Does not allow the use of probability statistical methods
It is difficult to apply the method when the population is large
Findings cannot be generalized
Sample size
Sample size is the number of observations used for
calculating estimates of a given population .
Factors influencing sample size
Size of the universe
Availability of resources
Degree of accuracy or precision desired
Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the universe
Nature of the study
Method of sampling adopted
Nature of respondents
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors…
Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken
from a population

Sampling error and Non-sampling error

Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process as a

result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole
population.
Non-sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection process
as a result of factors other than taking a sample.
Non-sampling errors have the potential to cause bias in polls, surveys or
samples.
Sampling Error…
• Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and
the population that exist only because of the observations that
happened to be selected for the sample

Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error

Non-sampling Error…
• Non-sampling errors are more serious and are due to mistakes
made in the acquisition of data or due to the sample
observations being selected improperly.

Three types of non-sampling errors:

Errors in data acquisition,
Nonresponse errors, and
Selection bias
Note: Increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of
error.
Research design
A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analysing the data

Research design is a blueprint of action

The research design is a plan of action indicating the specific steps that are
necessary to provide answers to those questions, test the hypothesis and
thereby achieve the research purpose that helps choose among the decision
alternatives to solve the management problem
Features of research design
Objectivity

Reliability

Validity

Generalizability
Characteristics of a good research design
Simplicity

Economical

Reliability

Workability

Flexibility

Accuracy
Nature of research design
A research design is a plan for comprehensive data collection to answer
research questions and/or test research hypothesis

It is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem

It is the framework that has been created to seek answers to research

questions

Research design is different from the method by which data are collected

The design of a study defines the study type and sub-type, research
question, hypothesis, independent and dependent variables, data
collection methods and statistical analysis plan
 Process of research design preparation/
steps in research design
Step 1: Selection and definition of a problem

Step 2: Sources of data

Step 3: Nature of study

Step 4: Object of study

Step 5: Social-cultural context

Step 6: Temporal context

Step 7: Dimension

Step 8: Basis of selection

Types of research design

Exploratory research design

Conclusive research design
Experimental research design
 Exploratory research design
Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher does
not know how and why certain phenomenon occurs.

Here the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and

evaluated by the decision-maker

EX: Evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel

Conclusive research design
Conclusive research design is typically more formal and
structured than exploratory research

Conclusive research is designed to assist the decision maker

in determining , evaluating and selecting the best course of
action to take in a given situation

Conclusive research is again classified into:

Descriptive research

Casual research
Descriptive research
Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher
desires to know the characteristics of certain groups such as
age , gender, occupation, income or education

The objective of descriptive research is to answer the “who ,

what , where , and how” of the subject under study/
investigation

EX: To predict the pattern of behavioural characteristics of

consumers
Casual research
Casual research investigates the cause and effect
relationship between two or more variables

This design measures the extent of relationship between the

variables
Experimental research design
Experimental research studies generally require testing of
hypothesis for casual relationship amongst the variables

Experimental design develops a framework of experiments

based on thumb or statistical procedures
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Five components of research design are:
Research study’s questions
Study propositions
Unit(s) of analysis
Linking data to propositions
Interpreting a study’s findings
Research Proposal
Research problem
Introduction
Need for the Study
Review of Literature
Research objectives
Scope of research
Hypotheses
Definitions
Methodology
Data Collection
Sample Design
Data Analysis

Limitations
Research design highlights decisions which
include:
The nature of the study
The purpose of the study
The location where the study would be conducted
The nature of data required
From where the required data can be collected
What time period the study would cover
The type of sample design that would be used
The techniques of data collection that would be used
The methods of data analysis that would be adopted
The manner in which the report would be prepared