WEEK 2: PRESENTING

THE DATA TO
ACHIEVE BUSINESS
COMPREHENSION
 Difference between quantitative
and qualitative research

Steps to design a study

LEARNING
OBJECTIVE Theory and research questions
in quantitative approaches

Mix method theory development

 Qualitative Research:
• Findings are not subject to
quantification or quantitative analysis
• Conclusions are not based on precise,
NATURE OF measurable statistics
• Based on more subjective
RESEARCH observations and analysis
Quantitative Research:
• Uses mathematical analysis
• Typically research analysis is done
using measurable, numeric standards
QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Quantitative research questions
QUANTITATIVE • About the relationships among
variables that the investigator seeks
RESEARCH to know

QUESTIONS AND Quantitative hypotheses

HYPOTHESES • Predictions about the expected
relationships among variables
• Estimates of population values based
on data from a sample

5
HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH PROJECT
 We often talk about concepts such as
corruption, loyalty, and corporate social
responsibility, but it’s necessary to clarify what
we mean by these concepts in order to draw
meaningful conclusions about them.
Conceptualization is the process through which
we specify what we will mean when we use
CONCEPTUALIZATION particular terms.

For example, suppose we want to find out

whether women are more compassionate than
men. What do we mean by the term
compassionate? We need to define in term of
the study.
OPERATIONALIZATION
Operationalization is the development of
specific research procedures that will
result in empirical observations
representing those concepts in real world.
Reduction of abstract concepts to render
them measurable in a tangible way is
called operationalization the concepts.
 There are 3 main steps for
operationalization:

Identify the main concepts you

are interested in studying.
OPERATIONALIZATION
Choose a variable to represent
each of the concepts.

Select indicators for each of

your variables.
EXAMPLE

Research question example:

Is there a relation between sleep and social media behavior in teenagers?

There are two main concepts in your research question:

•Sleep
•Social media behavior
EXAMPLE

Concept Variables Choose a variable to represent

each of the concepts.
Sleep Amount of sleep
Quality of sleep

Social media behavior Frequency of social media use

Social media platform preferences

Night-time social media use

SAMPLING
 A group of potential participants to
whom you want to generalize the
result of a study

Study: We want to understand how the

pandemic has impacted household
shopping behavior in Toronto, Canada.
POPULATION
What is the population?
 A subset of the population

Sampling is the process of selecting

observations.

Sampling allow a researcher to make relatively

SAMPLE few observations and generalize from those
observation to a much wider population.

Specific sampling techniques allow us to

determine and/or control the likelihood of
specific individuals being selected for study.
 Sampling in social research has developed hand in
hand with political polling.
Let’s see how incorrect random sampling can create
THE HISTORY OF problems in our results:

SAMPLING 1936 election between Landon and President

Roosevelt. Literary Digest predicted that Landon would
win by 57% to 43% over Roosevelt; however,
Roosevelt ended up winning a second term that year.
What was the problem with the sampling?
 The reason for using a sample, rather than collecting
REASONS FOR data from the entire population, are self-evident.
Why?
SAMPLING
 In research investigation involving several hundreds
and even thousands of elements, it would be
practically impossible to collect data from, or test, or
examine every element.
Even if it were possible, it would be prohibitive in
REASONS FOR terms of time, cost, and other human resources.
Study of a sample rather than the entire population is
SAMPLING also sometimes likely to produce more reliable results.
This is mostly because fatigue is reduced and fewer
errors; therefore, result in collecting data, especially
when a large number of elements is involved.
NORMALITY OF
DISTRIBUTION
Attributes or characteristics of
the population are generally
normally distributed.
 The sampling distribution of a statistic is the distribution
CENTRAL of values we would expect to obtain for that statistics
if we drew an infinity of samples from the population
LIMIT in question and calculated the statistics on each
sample.
THEOREM
 Central Limit Theorem specifies the nature of the
sampling distribution of the mean.
The Central limit theorem is one of the most important
CENTRAL theorems in statistics.

LIMIT It not only tells use what the mean and the variance of
the sampling distribution of the sample mean must be

THEOREM for any given sample size, but it also states that a N
increases, the shape of the sampling distribution
approaches normal, whatever the shape of the parent
population.
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Population distribution Sample distribution

 WHY Sampling is considered statistically sound

SAMPLES ARE A census is expensive and time-consuming

It may be impossible to find an accurate, up-to-
ACCEPTABLE date sample frame for a full census

IN RESEARCH: Fewer opportunities for errors / biases to impact

data
 Probability Sampling (also known as random
sampling) is a technique that involves the selection of
a random sample from a list containing the names of
everyone in the population you’re interested in
studying.
TYPES OF Since 1948 this approach has been used more
SAMPLING frequently
Today, probability sampling remains the primary
method for selecting large, representative samples for
social science research.
 At the same time, many research situations often make
probability sampling impossible or inappropriate.
Therefore, we have to use non-probability sampling
TYPES OF (also know as non-random sampling).
A sample selected in some fashion other than any
SAMPLING suggested by probability theory.
 The choice of the sampling procedure is a very
important one.

What is the relevant target population of focus

to the study?

DETERMINING What exactly are the parameters we are

interested in investigating?
THE SAMPLING
DESIGN What kind of a sampling frame is available?

What costs are attached to the sampling design?

How much time is available to collect the data

from the sample?
 Is a sample size of 40 large enough?
500? 1000?

Below is a list of factors affecting the

decision on sample size:
DETERMINING • The research objective
THE SAMPLE • The extent of precision desired (the confidence
intervals)

SIZE • The acceptable risk in predicting that level of

precision
• The cost and time constraints
• In some cases, the size of the population itself

We will discuss this issue later, once we

examine sampling design
SAMPLING METHODS
 Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number
of the right elements from the population, so that a
study of the sample and an understanding of its
properties or characteristics make it possible for us to
generalize such properties or characteristics to the
population elements.
THE SAMPLING The major steps in sampling include:

PROCESS 1. Define the population

2. Determine the sample frame
3. Determine the sampling design
4. Determine the appropriate sample size
5. Execute the sampling process
NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
 Research is often conducted in situations where you
NON- can’t select the kinds of probability samples used in
large-scale social surveys.
PROBABILITY Suppose you wanted to study homelessness: there is no
list of all homeless individuals, nor are you likely to
SAMPLING create such a list.
So, many situations call for nonprobability sampling.
 NON- We’ll examine four types in this section:
1. Reliance on available subjects
PROBABILITY 2.
3.
Purpose or judgmental sampling
Snowball sampling
SAMPLING 4. Quota sampling
 Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people
at a street corner or some other location.

RELIANCE ON Convenience:
 A sample based on using people who are easily accessible, such
AVAILABLE as mall intercepts or other high-traffic locations
 “Person on the street”

SUBJECTS This method extremely risky sampling. Why?

This sampling approach is justified only if the
researcher wants to study the characteristics of
people passing the sample point at specific times or
if less risky sampling methods are not feasible.
 Even when this method is justified on grounds of
RELIANCE ON feasibility, you must exercise great caution in
generalizing from your data.
AVAILABLE Also, you should alert readers to the risks associated
SUBJECTS with this method.
  Sometimes it’s appropriate for you to select your sample on the
basis of your own knowledge of the population, its elements, and

PURPOSIVE OR
the nature of your research aims: in short, based on your
judgment and the purpose of the study.
 Selection criteria based on researcher’s personal judgment about
JUDGMENTAL representativeness of the population under study
 The researcher selects who should be in the study based on
SAMPLING observed cues such as gender, age, and usage of product.
PURPOSIVE OR Although the study findings would not represent any
meaningful population, the test run might effectively
JUDGMENTAL uncover any peculiar defects in your questionnaire. This
situation would be considered a pretest, however,
SAMPLING rather than a final study.
 Respondents are selected based on referrals from
initial respondents
Used when sample unit characteristics are quite rare
or very difficult to find
SNOWBALL This form of sampling is used often in qualitative

SAMPLING research
Snowball sampling is appropriate when the members
of a special population are difficult to locate. It thus
might be appropriately used to find a sample of
homeless individuals, migrant workers, undocumented
immigrants, and so on.
 This procedure is implemented by collecting data on
the few members of the target population you can
locate, and then asking those individuals to provide the
information needed to locate other members of that
population whom they happen to know.
SNOWBALL Snowball sampling refers to the process of
accumulation as each located subject suggests other
SAMPLING subjects.
Because this procedure also results in samples with
questionable representativeness, it’s used primarily for
exploratory purpose.
 Quotas, based on demographic or classification
factors selected by the researcher, are established for
population subgroups
Quota sampling addresses the issue of
QUOTA representativeness, although the tow methods
approach the issue quite differently.
SAMPLING Quota sampling can be considered a form of
proportion stratified sampling, in which predetermined
proportion of people are sample from different
groups, but in a convivence basis.
 Example: we want to examine the attitudes of blue collar
workers and white collar workers in the workplace.
Their proportion in the workplace is as follows:
1. Blue collar 60%
2. White collar 40%
QUOTA
SAMPLING Total population is 500 workers (300 are blue collar and
200 white collar)
Sample size = 100
Our quota would be as follows: 60 blue collar and 40
white collar
We will select these in a non-random approach
 How to apply quote sampling?
1. Begins with a matrix or table describing the
characteristics of the target population. Here you need
to know what proportion of the population is male or
female, and what proportion of each gender fall into
various age categories, educational levels, ethnic
QUOTA 2.
groups, and so forth.
Once the matrix or table have been created and
SAMPLING relative proportion assigned to each cell in the matrix or
table, you collect data from people having all the
characteristics of a given cell. All the people in a given
cell are then assigned a weight appropriate to their
proportion of the total population. When all sample
elements are so weighted, the overall data should
provide a reasonable representation of the total
population.
 Quota sampling has several inherent problems.
1. The quota frame must be accurate, and it is often
QUOTA difficult to get up-to date information for this
purpose.
SAMPLING 2. Biases may exists in the selection of sample
elements within a given cell – even though its
proportion of the population is accurately
estimated.
DEVELOPING
A SAMPLING
PLAN
 Step One: Define the Population of Interest
 Target audience
 Demographics, geographics, behavioural characteristics,
awareness, etc.
 Used for screening respondents for “fit” to complete survey

DEVELOPING A Step Two: Choose a Data-Collection Method

SAMPLING PLAN  Survey method: mail, Internet, telephone, mall-intercept, etc.

Step Three: Identify a Sampling Frame

 A list of the selected population
 People from the list will become sample units
 Step Four: Select a Sampling
Method
• Probability sampling:
DEVELOPING A Every element of the population
SAMPLING PLAN has a known likelihood of selection
for the survey
• Non-probability sampling:
• Specific elements from the population
have been selected in a non-random
manner
 Determine the Sample Size
Step •Based on factors such as:
•Level of accuracy you want to achieve
Five •Time and money you have to complete survey study
•Sampling collection method

DEVELOPING A Step
Develop Operational Procedures
•Plan to conduct probability or non-probability sampling

SAMPLING PLAN
•Determine the phases of the sample selection process
Six •Multi-stage sampling involves combining sampling methods

Execute the Sampling Plan

Step •The execution phase of the research
•Administering the questionnaire
Seven
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
 Selection is determined by
chance

RANDOM Everyone in the population

SAMPLING has an equal chance of
(PROBABILITY) being selected
The sample is truly
representative of the
population
 With this method, each member of the population has
an equal and independent chance of being selected.
This is the most common type of sampling
Let us say there are 1000 elements in the population,
and we need a sample of 100. Suppose we were to
drop pieces of paper in a hat, each bearing the name
of one of the elements, and draw 100 of those from
SIMPLE the hat with our eyes closed.

RANDOM We know that the first piece draw will have 1/1000
chance of being drawn, the next one a 1/999 change
SAMPLING of being drawn, and so one.
 Define
• Define the population Determine your
sample size
List
FOUR STEPS FOR • List all of the members in the population
SIMPLE Assign
RANDOM • Assign a number to each member of the
SAMPLING population
Select
• Select the sample you want
 Define population: Consumers in Toronto ( 10,000)

WE WANT TO Sample = 370

UNDERSTAND Create the sample frame –

10000/370 = 27
Sample interval =

CONSUMER 1. name

SHOPPING 2. name
3. name
BEHAVIOR IN
TORONTO
10,000. name
 A company wants to investigate the initial reaction of
LET’S PRACTICE heavy soft-drink users to a new “all natural” soft drink
(population = 10,000)
 The systematic sampling design involves drawing every
nth element in the population starting with a randomly
chosen element between 1 and n.
The procedure is exemplified below.
SYSTEMATIC If the list contains 10,000, you select every tenth
SAMPLING element for your sample.
The sampling interval is the standard distance between
elements selected in the sample.
𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
Sampling Interval =
𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Steps for using this approach:

Define Determine Create Sampling Select

Population sample sample Interval sample
size frame
 A company wants to investigate the initial reaction of
heavy soft-drink users to a new “all natural” soft drink
LET’S PRACTICE (population = 10,000)
 There is one danger involved in
systematic sampling. The arrangement
of elements in the list can make
systematic sampling unwise.
SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING Such an arrangement is usually known
as periodicity. If the list of elements is
arranged in a cyclical pattern that
coincides with the sampling interval, a
grossly biased sample may be drawn.
A WWII study, the researchers selected a systematic sampling approach. In the study they
selected a systematic sample from unit rosters.
Every tenth soldier on the roaster was selected for the study. The rosters, however, were
arranged in a table of organizations: sergeants first, then corporals, and privates, squad by
squad.
Each squad had a ten members.
Therefore, every tenth person on the roaster was a squad sergeant. The systematic sampling
selected contained only sergeants.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING: EXAMPLE

 In the two preceding section, we discussed two methods
of sample selection from a list: random and systematic.
Stratification is not an alternative but rather a possible
modification in their use.
Simple random sampling and systematic sampling both
insure a degree of representativeness and permit an
STRATIFIED estimate of the error present.

SAMPLING Stratified sampling is a method for obtaining a

greater degree of representativeness – decreasing
the probable sample error.
Before discussing this type of sampling, let’s have a
short discussion about sample error.
 Sampling error is reduced by two factors in the sample
design:
1. A large sample produces a smaller sampling error than
a small sample.
2. A homogeneous population produces samples with
smaller sampling errors than does a heterogeneous
population.
STRATIFIED
SAMPLING Example: if 99 percent of the population (homogeneous
population) agrees with a certain statement, it’s extremely
unlikely that any probability sample will greatly
misrepresent the extent of agreement. If the population is
split 50-50 on the statement, then the sampling error will be
much greater.
Reason why this method is very important
 Study: Agree or disagree with NATO’s decision
[Population 50/50] = 1,000 sample size = 269
WHY SIMPLE Sample Frame:

RANDOM 1. name
agreed, 30% disagreed
Sample – 70%

SAMPLING IS 2. name

NOT RIGHT HERE

1000. name
895, 456, 12, etc
 The ultimate function of stratification, then, is to
organize the population into homogeneous subsets
(with heterogeneity between subsets) and to select
appropriate number of elements from each.
So, we can’t use the 2 previous methods because the
STRATIFIED individuals in the population are not equal.
Therefore, we want to ensure that the profile of the
SAMPLING sample matches the profile of the population.
Strata are like different layers representing different
characteristics.
 Here’s the key to this approach:
 If the factors that distinguish population members from on
another, such as race and gender, are related to what you are
studying and hypothesis.
STRATIFIED  Than this approach is important
 This creates assurance of equal distribution and representation of
SAMPLING population (improve external validity)
 Examine attitudes towards abortion
Since gender is important here, we want a sample that
reflects this difference in the population (50).

STRATIFIED Process:
1. Define the population and determine simple size
SAMPLING: 2.
3.
Create two sample frame – Male (30) and Female (20)
Male are 60% of the population and female are 40% of
EXAMPLE 4.
the population
Create the table or give each a number (put on board)
 A company wants to investigate the initial reaction of
heavy soft-drink users to a new “all natural” soft drink
LET’S PRACTICE (population = 10,000). What if genders have
different views.
 A marketer wants to generate some ideas on how
women differ from men in acquiring product
knowledge about cars. (population size is 10,000)
EXAMPLES:
A hospital administrator wants to find out if the
singles parents working in the hospital have a higher
rate of absenteeism than parents who are not single.
(population size is 1,000)
 Cluster sampling may be used when it’s
either impossible or impractical to compile
an exhaustive list of the elements
composing the target population.

CLUSTER Clusters are groups that occur together.

SAMPLING
Here unit of individuals are selected rather
than individuals themselves
 For example, you might be doing a survey of
parent’s attitudes towards immunization.

CLUSTER
SAMPLING Rather than randomly assign individual parents
to 2 groups [those who will be sent information
and those who will not], you could just identify
30 pediatricians offices in the city and then,
using a table of random numbers, select 15 for
one group and designate 15 for the second
group.
 Cluster sampling is a great time saver,
but you must be sure that the units (in
this case the people who use each
pediatrician) are homogenous enough
such that any differences in the unit
CLUSTER itself might not contribute to a bias.

SAMPLING
For example, if one of the pediatrician
refuses to immunize children before a
certain age, that would introduce a
bias you want to avoid.