PracRe1 Lec10

Populations and Samples

 In the terminology of research
design, the large group of interest to
a researcher is called the population.
 The small set of individuals who
participate in the study is called the
sample.
 A target population is the group
defined by the researcher’s specific
interests.
Most researchers select their samples
from accessible populations.
Representative Samples
 How accurately we can generalize the results from a given sample to the population
depends on the representativeness of the sample.
 The degree of representativeness of a sample refers to how closely the sample
mirrors or resembles the population.
 To generalize the results of a study to a population, the researcher must select a
representative sample.

Sample Size
 The goal is to obtain a sample that is representative of the population.
 One fundamental question in reaching this goal is determining how large the sample
should be to be representative.
 The law of large numbers and states that the larger the sample size, the more likely
it is that values obtained from the sample are similar to the actual values for the
population.
Sampling Basics
 The process of selecting individuals for a study is called sampling.
 Sampling methods fall into two basic categories: probability sampling and
nonprobability sampling.
 In probability sampling, the odds of selecting a particular individual are known and
can be calculated.
 In nonprobability sampling, the researcher does not use an unbiased method of
selection
 In general, nonprobability sampling has a greater risk of producing a biased sample
than does probability sampling.
 Notice that probability sampling requires extensive knowledge of the population.
Probability Sampling
1. Simple random Sampling
  The basic requirement for random sampling is that each individual in the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
 Equality means that no individual is more likely to be chosen than another.
 A second requirement that is sometimes added is that each selection is
independent of the others.
 The process of simple random sampling consists of the following steps:
1. Clearly define the population
2. List all the members
3. Use a random process to select
Strengths and weaknesses?

2. Systematic Sampling

 Systematic sampling begins by listing all the individuals in the population, then
randomly picking a starting point on the list.
 The sample is then obtained by moving down the list, selecting every nth name.
Strengths and weaknesses?

3. Stratified random Sampling

 Often, a researcher’s goal for a representative sample is to ensure that each of the
different subgroups is adequately represented.
 One technique for accomplishing this goal is to use stratified random sampling.
 To obtain this kind of sample, we first identify the specific subgroups (or strata) to
be included in the sample.
 Then we select equal-sized random samples from each of the pre-identified
subgroups, using the same steps as in simple random sampling.
 Finally, we combine the subgroup samples into one overall sample.
Strengths and weaknesses?

4. Proportionate Stratified random Sampling

  Occasionally, researchers try to improve the correspondence between a sample and
a population by deliberately ensuring that the composition of the sample matches
the composition of the population.
 As with a stratified sample, we begin by identifying a set of subgroups or segments
in the population.
 Next, we determine what proportion of the population corresponds to each
subgroup.
 Finally, a sample is obtained such that the proportions in the sample exactly match
the proportions in the overall population.
5. Cluster Sampling

 All of the sampling techniques we have considered so far are based on selecting
individual participants, one at a time, from the population.
 Occasionally, however, the individuals in the population are already clustered in
pre-existing groups, and a researcher can randomly select groups instead of
selecting individuals.
 This procedure is called cluster sampling and can be used whenever well-defined
clusters exist within the population of interest.
Strengths and weaknesses?

6. Combined-Strategy Sampling

 Occasionally, researchers combine two or more sampling strategies to select

participants.
 For example, a superintendent of schools may first divide the district into regions
(e.g., north, south, east, and west), which involves stratified sampling. From the
 different regions, the superintendent may then select two third-grade classrooms,
which involves cluster sampling.
 Selection strategies are commonly combined to optimize the chances that a sample
is representative of a widely dispersed or broad-based population such as in a wide
market survey or a political poll.
Strengths and weaknesses?

Non Probability Sampling

1. Convenience Sampling

 The most commonly used sampling method in behavioral science research is

probably convenience sampling.
 In convenience sampling, researchers simply use as participants those individuals
who are easy to get. People are selected on the basis of their availability and
willingness to respond.
 Convenience sampling is considered a weak form of sampling because it does not
require knowledge of the population and does not use a random process for
selection.
 The researcher exercises very little control over the representativeness of the
sample and, therefore, there is a strong possibility that the obtained sample is
biased.
Strengths and weaknesses?
2. Quota Sampling

 One method for controlling the composition of a convenience sample is to use some
of the same techniques that are used for probability sampling.
 In the same way that we used stratified sampling to ensure that different subgroups
are represented equally, quota sampling can ensure that subgroups are equally
represented in a convenience sample.
Strengths and weaknesses?

3. Purposive Sampling

 Purposive sampling represents a group of different non-probability sampling techniques.

 Also known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, purposive sampling relies on

the judgment of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units (e.g., people,
cases/organizations, events, pieces of data) that are to be studied. Usually, the sample being
investigated is quite small, especially when compared with probability sampling techniques.
4. Snowball Sampling

 Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other participants for a test or study.
 It is used where potential participants are hard to find. It’s called snowball sampling because (in
theory) once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way and becomes larger
and larger. Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method. It doesn’t have
the probability involved, with say, simple random sampling (where the odds are the same for any
particular participant being chosen). Rather, the researchers used their own judgment to choose
participants.
 Snowball sampling consists of two steps:

1. Identify potential subjects in the population. Often, only one or two subjects can be found
initially.
2. Ask those subjects to recruit other people (and then ask those people to recruit. Participants
should be made aware that they do not have to provide any other names.

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