QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGNS
Professor Ted Mosby
 2 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 Experimental
 Post-test Only Design
 Pretest-Post-test Only Design
 Solomon Four Group Design
 Factorial Design
 Randomized Block Design
 Crossover Design
 Non-Experimental Designs
 Cross-sectional Study
 Case-Control Study
 Before-and-After Study
 Historical Controls (Retrospective)
 Surveys/Questionnaires
 Case Series
 Case Reports
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

 Descriptive Research Designs

 Descriptive research is research used to “describe” a situation, subject,
behavior, or phenomenon. It is used to answer questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular research question or problem.
Descriptive studies are often described as studies that are concerned with
finding out “what is”. It attempts to gather quantifiable information that can
be used to statistically analyze a target audience or a particular subject.
Description research is used to observe and describe a research subject or
problem without influencing or manipulating the variables in any way
 Could either be purely descriptive, correlational, or comparative
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

 Correlational Research
Designs
 Seeks to determine a
relationship between
variables
 There are 3 basic types of
correlations
 Positive correlation
 Negative correlation
 No correlation
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

 Comparative Research
Designs
 Seeks to determine a
difference between variables
Give me an example of a
research study that uses a
quantitative research
design
I will be calling somebody
and ask him/her to discuss
the study he/she found
SAMPLING
 SAMPLING

 Quantitative researchers seek

to select samples that will
allow them to achieve
statistical conclusion validity
and to generalize their results.
They develop a sampling plan
that specifies in advance how
participants are to be selected
and how many to include.
 BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

 A population is the entire

aggregation of cases in which a
researcher is interested.
 The accessible population is the
aggregate of cases that conform to
designated criteria and that are
accessible for a study.
 The target population is the
aggregate of cases about which the
researcher would like to generalize.
 BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

 A sample is a subset of population

elements, which are the most basic
units about which data are collected.
 A representative sample is one
whose key characteristics closely
approximate those of the
population.
 BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Sampling designs are either

probability or nonprobability
sampling
 Probability sampling involves
random selection of elements.
Everyone has an equal chance of
getting picked
 Greater confidence can be placed in
the representativeness of probability
samples
 BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Sampling designs are either

probability or nonprobability
sampling
 Nonprobability sampling uses
nonrandom methods to pick
samples. Everyone does not have an
equal chance of getting picked
 Sampling bias is very likely
 BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

 Sampling bias refers to the

systematic over-representation or
under-representation of a
population segment on a
characteristic relevant to the
research question.
 NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Convenience sampling entails using

the most conveniently available
people as participants.
 Snowball sampling (also called
network sampling or chain sampling)
early sample members (called
seeds) are asked to refer other
people who meet the eligibility
criteria
 NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

 A quota sample is one in which the

researcher identifies population
strata and determines how many
participants are needed from each
stratum. By using information about
population characteristics,
researchers can ensure that diverse
segments are represented in the
sample, preferably in the proportion
in which they occur in the
population.
 NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Consecutive sampling involves

recruiting all of the people from an
accessible population who meet the
eligibility criteria over a specific time
interval, or for a specified sample size.
 Purposive sampling or judgmental
sampling uses researchers’knowledge
about the population to select sample
members. Researchers might decide
purposely to select people who are
judged to be typical of the population
or particularly knowledgeable about
the issues under study
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 In simple random sampling,

researchers establish a sampling
frame, the technical name for the list
of elements from which the sample
will be chosen.
 In stratified random sampling, the
population is first divided into two or
more strata. Stratified sampling
designs subdivide the population
into homogeneous subsets from
which an appropriatenumber of
elements are selected at random.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Multistage Cluster Sampling is the

probability sampling technique wherein
the sampling is carried out in several
stages such that the sample size gets
reduced at each stage. The population
is divided into subgroups called as
clusters; then few clusters are chosen
randomly for the survey. The clusters
are formed out of the population, but
further, these clusters are sub-divided
into smaller targeting groups, i.e. sub-
clusters and then the subject from each
sub-clusters are chosen randomly.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Systematic sampling involves

selecting every kth case from a list

 Randomization eliminates bias in

sampling
 ASK THE EXPERT
I will be picking a student and that
student must act as an expert and
answer questions from his/her
classmates. If nobody asks a question, I
will be the one to ask a question.
 SAMPLE SIZE

 a general recommendation, you should

use the largest sample possible. The larger
the sample, the more representative of the
population it is likely to be.
 If the sample size it too small, it will not
yield valid results. An appropriate sample
size can produce accuracy of results.
Moreover, the results from the small
sample size will be questionable. A sample
size that is too large will result in wasting
money and time.
 SAMPLE SIZE

 Common formulas for calculation of

sample size are:
 Slovin’s formula
 n = N / (1 + N e2)
 Krejcie and Morgan formula
 http://www.kenpro.org/sample-size-
determination-using-krejcie-and-morgan-
table/
 SAMPLE SIZE

 Free Sample Size Calculator

 http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
COLLECTING THE DATA
 COLLECTING THE DATA

 Data collection is the process

of gathering and measuring
information on variables of
interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
 COLLECTING THE DATA

 Accurate data collection is

essential to maintaining the
integrity of research. Both the
selection of appropriate data
collection instruments
(existing, modified, or newly
developed) and clearly
delineated instructions for their
correct use reduce the
likelihood of errors occurring.
 COLLECTING THE DATA

 Consequences from improperly

collected data include inability to
answer research questions
accurately inability to repeat and
validate the study distorted
findings resulting in wasted
resources misleading other
researchers to pursue fruitless
avenues of investigation
compromising decisions for public
policy causing harm to human
participants and animal subjects
 COLLECTING THE DATA

 Once preliminary decisions

have been made about the
data collection methods,
researchers should determine if
there are instruments available
for measuring study variables
 COLLECTING THE DATA

 Potential data collection

instruments should then be
assessed. The primary
consideration is conceptual
relevance: Does the instrument
correspond to your conceptual
definition of the variable?
Another important criterion is
whether the instrument will
yield high-quality data.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Resources. Resource
constraints sometimes prevent
the use of the highest-quality
measures. There may be some
direct costs associated with the
measure (e.g., some
psychological tests must be
purchased), but the biggest
cost involves compensation to
data collectors if you cannot do
it single-handedly—that is, if
you have to hire interviewers or
observers.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Availability and familiarity. You
may need to consider how
readily available or accessible
various instruments are,
especially biophysiologic ones.
Similarly, data collection
strategies with which you have
had experience are usually
preferable to new ones because
administration is usually
smoother and more efficient in
such cases.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Population appropriateness.
Instruments must be chosen
with the characteristics of the
target population in mind.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Norms and comparisons. It may
be desirable to select an
instrument that has relevant
norms. Norms indicate the
“normal” values on the
measure for a specified
population, and thus offer a
built-in comparison. it may be
advantageous to select an
instrument because it was used
in other similar studies, thus
providing useful information
for interpreting study findings.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Administration issues. Some
instruments have special
requirements that need to be
considered. For example,
obtaining information about the
developmental status of children
sometimes requires the skills of a
professional psychologist.
Another administration issue is
that some instruments require or
assume stringent conditions with
regard to the time of
administration, privacy of the
setting, and so on.
 ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT YOUR
DECISIONS IN SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT ARE
AS FOLLOWS:
 Reputation. Instruments
designed to measure the same
construct often differ in the
reputation they enjoy among
specialists in a field, even if
they are comparable with
regard to documented quality.
Thus, it may be useful to seek
the advice of knowledgeable
people, preferably ones with
personal, direct experience
using the instruments.
 RESEARCHER-MADE QUESTIONNAIRES

 Researcher-made
questionnaires need to undergo
validity and reliability before
they can be used in a research
study.
 Let’s answer the
Friendship
Relationship Quotient