RESEARCH PARADIGMS

RESEARH DESIGN
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
RESEARCH ETHICS
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RESEARCH PARADIGMS
1 Delineating your paradigmatic assumptions and perspectives

(how you view the world, how you view the research problem, research question of the research to be conducted)

2 DIFFERENT PARADIGMS
2.1 ONTOLOGICAL PARADIGM - ‘nature of our beliefs about reality’, is it singular, verifiable reality, and truth or socially constructed multiple realities

2.2 EPISTOMOLOGICAL PARADIGMS

2.2.1 – Knowledge – viewed in one of two ways, HARD, REAL and OBJECTIVE – POSITIVIST STANCE
- observer role, methods of natural science – QUANTITATIVE METHODS (example standardised tests)

2.2.2 – INTERPRETIVE, OR ANTIPOSITIVIST STANCE - -‘ participatory role , softer, more subjective kind).
QUALITATIVE METHODS (example interviews)

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE POSITIVIST STANCE AND ANTIPOSITIVIST STANCE

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 RESEARCH DESIGN
A STRATEGY FOR ANSWERING YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION

Making decisions on:

• aims and approach

• The type of research design
• sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• data analysis methods
What is the difference between research design and research method
Research design is a plan to answer your research question. A research method is a strategy used to
implement that plan. Research design and methods are different but closely related, because good research
design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your research question more effectively.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Paradigmatic assumptions and perspectives impact significantly on your

research design and methodological choices and demands a
consideration of different research methods

DEFINITIONS
1. According to Polit and Hungler (2004:233), methodology refers to ways of obtaining, organising and analysing data. Methodology
decisions depend on the nature of the research question. Methodology in research can be considered to be the theory of correct
scientific decisions (Karfman as cited in Mouton & Marais 1996:16).
2. According to Burns and Grove (2003:488), methodology includes the design, setting, sample, methodological limitations, and the data
collection and analysis techniques in a study. 
3. Henning (2004:36) describes methodology as coherent group of methods that complement one another and that have the ability to fit to

deliver data and findings that will reflect the research question and suit the researcher purpose .
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CONTINUED
WHICH RESEARCH METHOD SHOULD I CHOOSE
1. First, the researcher must decide how you will collect data.
• Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

2. Second, the researcher must decide how you will analyze the data.
• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

What other factors should I consider when choosing one method over another?
• Time available for data collection and analysis
• Balancing between strengths and weaknesses with each method
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. explanatory in nature and always seeks answers to
“What’s” and “How’s”
2. focuses on why the experiences and or why a specific theory exists and what would be the respondent’s answer
to it.
3. Case studies are mainly used in Qualitative Research Design in order to understand various social complexities. 
4. refers to inductive, holistic, emic, subjective and process- oriented methods used to understand, interpret, describe
and develop a theory on a phenomena or setting. It is a systematic, subjective approach used to describe life
experiences and give them meaning
5. Qualitative research is mostly associated with words, language and experiences rather than measurements, statistics
and numerical figures.
6. a person-centred and holistic perspective to understand the human experience,
ADVANTAGES
7. Is a means to understanding human experiences
8. Human experiences such as emotions are difficult to quantify – qualitative is effective
9. Design is flexible and unique 6
 QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
1. Definition
Quantitative research is a process that is systematic and objective in its ways of using numerical data from a selected subgroup of
a universe (or population) to generalize the findings to the universe that is being studied
(Kobus Maree: 2020)
Note the 3 main characteristics of the quantitative research
2. THE TWO DESIGNS
2.1 Experimental designs
Characteristics: Manipulation of participants, Has some control on some groups, Randomisation for grouping of
participants
2.2 Non – experimental designs
Used in descriptive studies, no manipulation of participants
Most commonly used one is surveys

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 MIXED DESIGNS
Do I have to choose either a quantitative or qualitative design?

No.  In fact, many researchers use a mixed design

A qualitative method like interviews can be useful as follow-up to a
quantitative method for certain respondents to surveys,
e.g., to further investigate their responses.
__________________________________________________________
WHAT DO THE THREE METHODS (QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND
MIXED METHOD) HAVE IN COMMON
All three are methods of data generation and analysis

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RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

These are the fact finding strategies

• tools for data collection: SUCH AS
Questionnaires, Interviews, Observations etc
• Instrument – vaild , reliable
Appropriatness of instrument – to collect expected results

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RESEARCH INSTRUMENT:
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
WHAT IS A QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Used for surveys
2. Prepared form, document
3. Inquiry document – systematically compiled – well organised series of questions to give insight of the PROBLEM /
QUESTION under study

There are several types of surveys, including:

Phone , Face-to-Face , Paper and Pencil , Online (Web-based): e.g., SurveyMonkey, Qualtrics

WHO ARE THE POPULATION SAMPLES TO COMPLETE THE SURVEY

The population are called RESPONDENTS
While population for INTERVIEWS are called PARTICIPANTS
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

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ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questionnaires can be used to collect data quite quickly.
• Very cost effective compared to face to face interviews.
• Very familiar with people, almost everyone has completed one so no strict
guidance is needed.
• They can be completed easily and quickly.
• All participants can be given the opportunity to provide feedback.
• Feedback is generally anonymous, which encourages openness and honesty.
• Easy to reply
• Structured questionnaire data can be processed by software packages such as
Excel and SPSS.

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Disadvantages of using questionnaires
• Questionnaires also invite people to lie and answer the questions very vaguely which they would
not do in an interview.
• If the researcher forget to ask a question, they cannot go back to respondents, especially if they
are anonymous.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.
• Can be seen as a spam at times (for online surveys).
• People may read differently into each questions and therefore reply based on their own
interpretation of the question.
• There is a level of researcher imposition.
• It could be difficult to motivate potential respondents to complete questionnaires .

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 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT:
2. INTERVIEWS
1 WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW
An interaction in which oral questions are posed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from the interviewee.
Interviews are designed to collect a richer source of information from a small number of people
about:
Attributes, behaviour, preferences, feelings, atitudes, opinions, knowledge
2. NEED TO IDENTIFY POTENTIAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION TO BE THE SAMPLE POPULATION
sample population for INTERVIEWS are called PARTICIPANTS
3. WAYS TO CONDUCT INTERVIEW
Face – to – face , Phone , video conferencing technology
4. KINDS OF INTERVIEWS
(a) the structured interview; (b) the unstructured interview; (c)the non-directive interview; and (d) the focus
interview.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
Describe the advantages of questionnaires and interviews as research instruments

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Advantages of interviews
• Easy correction of speech.
• Selection of suitable candidate.
• Collection of primary information.
• Sufficient information.
• Less costly if interviews are conducted in one area.
• Increasing knowledge.
• Explore cause behind the problem.
• In depth analysis.
• Flexible.

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Disadvantages of interviews
• Time consuming: Time constrain is one of the major limitations of the interview process. Preparation for the
interview, taking interviews and interpretation of the responses required much time, which makes the interview
method time consuming.

• Biases of interviewer: Always there is a possibility that the interview process can be influenced by the biases of the
interviewer.

• Costly: Generally interview method is expensive.

• Inefficiency of the interviewer: Interview is a systematic process of data collection. The success of an interview
depends on the efficiency of the interviewer. This inefficiency of an interviewer can lead to misleading results..

• Not suitable for personal matters: Personal matters may not be revealed by interview method and may be seen
intrusive to the respondents

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1. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.1 Protection of participants 1.2 confidentiality 1.3 anonomity 1.4 safeguarding of collected data

2. Ethical Procedures PRIOR TO COLLECTION OF DATA

GATEKEEPERS PERMISSION TO AN ORGANISATION
A letter of information regarding the research and a request for consent to be obtained from the organisation for conducting research on employees

TO THE PARTICIPANTS OR RESPONDENTS

An information letter regarding the research and an invite to participate/respond in the research to be given to sample population .
Full consent from the organisation and sample population should be obtained from the participants prior to the study.

3. Ethical procedures DURING data collection

• Researchers need to arrange for support if participants experience harm during the research

4. Ethical procedures to be conducted AFTER THE COLLECTON OF DATA from sample population
• Verifying of participants data, when transcribing the data
• storage of collected data – minimum 3 years in an inaccessable cupboard.
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• deletion of collected data after 3 years of storage
TASKS FOR LECTURE 3
• A WHICH RESEARCH METHOD WILL I NEED
Refer to slide 5 and decide how you will collect data
• is your data to be collected quantifiable (-quantitative) or not (in the form of rich deep data of lived
experiences (words) – qualitative)

Refer to slide 8 to decide if its mixed methods

 is the data to be collected both quantitative and qualitative
________________________________________________________________________________________
B What instruments will I need to collect my data

Refer to slides 9, 10 and 11

________________________________________________________________________________________
C Discuss ethical considerations for quantitative and qualitative methods with particular reference to the
research site , the administering of your instruments and post collection of data
Refer to slide 12 17