PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 1

PR1 Enrichment Activity

Mind Mapping & KWL Chart Weekly Topics
Week 7
25. Data Collection
26. Data Gathering Instrument
27. Data Analysis Procedures
28. Research Methodology

TOPIC#25: DATA COLLECTION

What is Data Collection?

Data collection refers to the process of gathering information. The data that you will collect should be able to answer the
questions that you posed in your statement of the problem. The data are collected, recorded, organized and translated to
measurement scales.

Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing specific information to proffer solutions to relevant
questions and evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all there is to a particular subject matter. Data is collected to
be further subjected to hypothesis testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon.

The core forms in which data can be collected are primary and secondary data. While the former is collected by a
researcher through first-hand sources, the latter is collected by an individual other than the user. 

Types of Data Collection Before broaching the subject of the various types of data collection. It is pertinent to note that
data collection in itself falls under two broad categories; Primary data collection and secondary data collection.

1. Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection by definition is the gathering of raw data collected at the source. It is a process of collecting the
original data collected by a researcher for a specific research purpose. It could be further analyzed into two segments;
qualitative research and quantitative data collection methods. 

1) Qualitative Research Method. The qualitative research methods of data collection does not involve the
collection of data that involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it is
based on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An example of such a
method is an open-ended questionnaire.

2) Quantitative Method. Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to
deduce. An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive at figures to be
calculated Mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and median.

2. Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection, on the other hand, is referred to as the gathering of second-hand data collected by an individual
who is not the original user. It is the process of collecting data that is already existing, be it already published books,
journals and/or online portals. In terms of ease, it is much less expensive and easier to collect.

Your choice between Primary data collection and secondary data collection depend on the nature, scope and area of your
research as well as its aims and objectives. 

Four Basic types of qualitative data collection procedures (Creswell, 2003): 1) Observations 2) Interviews 3) Documents
4) Audio and visual materials.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES:

1. Interview-in this method, research participants are prodded to talk about their experiences, feelings, beliefs, outlooks,
etc. The interview can take the form of informal conversations, open-ended interviews or in-depth discussions.
Interviews can be one time interviews, multiple interviews with the same participants, multiple interviews with
various participants, or group interviews. They can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured, in accordance with
the research design used.
1) Structured interviews use a set of questions prepared by the researcher. During the course of the interview, the
researcher or interviewer codes the responses.
2) Unstructured interviews-used open-ended questions which the interviewee or research participant answers freely.
3) Semi- structured interviews-use both closed and open-ended questions.
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 When interviewing face to face, the researcher and the participant engage in a conversation, which is usually
audio-recorded and the recording is transformed into written text, ready for analysis, through a process of
transcription.
 The same basic procedure applies for telephone interviews; virtual interviews via Skype have also been explored,
or via instant messaging chat.
 Interviews are ideally suited for experience type of research questions. Examples would be experiences of OCW’s,
college drop-outs, inventors, entrepreneurs, and the like.

 Interview protocol according to Creswell (2003) so that interview will remain focused, either face-to-face, or focused
group discussion: Interview protocol components:
 Heading
 Instruction to the interviewer such as opening statements
 The key research questions
 Probes to follow key questions
 Transition messages for the interviewer
 Space for recording the interviewee’s comments, and space in which the researcher records reflective notes

2. Participant observation-in this method, the researcher immerses himself in the natural setting of the research
participant. This can be a home, an office, an institution, etc. The researcher’s immersion in the natural setting of the
participants enables him/her to feel and experience the research participant’s daily life.

3. Focused group interview-6-8 persons participate in the interview. The advantage of this is that critical issues or
sensitive ones can be more freely discussed with a group. Because of the variety and depth of opinions, views,
perspectives expressed, this type of interview is a very rich source of data. Needless to say, the moderator or
researcher must be skilled in facilitating such group discussion, and stay focused on the goal and topic of the said
interview.

4. Observational evaluation-The researcher may or may not participate in the activities of the group being observed.
But mostly, observes and records both verbal and non-verbal behaviour of a person or group of persons. Some
researchers use especially designed evaluation instruments to collect data.

5. Biography/autobiography-personal biographies offer a rich source of data or evidence that can shed light or provide
tentative answers to research questions. Perhaps even diaries can be added here, just like the Diary of Anne Frank that
offered much information or evidence on Nazi atrocities. Another example is Victor Frankl’s “Man’s Search for
Meaning,” which also provided much insight on the horrors of the Nazi death camps where the author, Dr. Frankl,
spent years as a prisoner in Auschwitz and other concentration camps.

6. Questionnaire- A questionnaire is an instrument for collecting data. It consists of a series of questions that
respondents provide answers to a research study.

Data gathering procedure steps:

1. Get permit and approval from head of agency where the subjects are.
2. Administers the questionnaire to the subject of the study.
3. The subjects are given enough time to answer the questionnaire to have reliable and valid information.
4. Retrieves the questionnaire.
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SAMPLE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Research Topic: Lived Experience of the G11 ABM learners on Modular Distance Learning Modality

Qualitative Descriptive Research Design Questions: (Exploratory, Explanatory, and Descriptive)

The meaning, exploration, explanation, description of the topic, event, situation or phenomenon.

General qualitative questions to ask:

Genuinely open-ended alternatives
Actual questions asked and answers given with richer responses
[Probing and follow-up questions]

1. What do you mean by the ________ (the topic,

event, and situation)?

2. What is your opinion, feeling, or attitude towards

this situation, event, thing or person?

3. What is the situation you are experiencing now?

4. Describe the situation that you are experiencing

now?

5. Why you experience such situation?

6. How do you manage to face the situation?

7. What is the problem you encountered

in__________________?

8. What is the cause of the problem?

9. What is the effect of the problem?

10. How do you cope up with the problem?

11. Do you think the way you cope up with the

problem effective? Why?

12. What have you learned from the situation/

problem?
PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 4
TOPIC#26: DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT

What is a Data Collection Tool? Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a
paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews, Observation
sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in different ways and for different
purposes. The objective behind data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation
of convincing and credible answers to the questions that have been posed.

The objective behind data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of
convincing and credible answers to the questions that have been posed 

INSTRUMENTATION. An important part of the research study is the instrument in gathering the data because the
quality of research output depends to a large extent on the quality of research instruments used . Instrument is the generic
term that researchers used for a

measurement device like survey, test questionnaire, and many others. To distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action which is the process of
developing, testing and using the device. Researchers can choose the type of instruments to use based on their research
questions or objectives. Two broad categories of instruments:

Researcher-completed instruments Subject-completed instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitudes scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklist Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices

A critical portion of the research study is the instrument used to gather data. The validity of the findings and conclusions
resulting from the statistical instruments will depend greatly on the characteristics of your instruments.

How to construct research instrument/s? In constructing researcher-made instrument, i.e., the items are based on the
specific questions as shown in the statement of the problem in Chapter 1 of a research paper. The title of the study is
placed at the middle heading of the questionnaire.

Instrument Validity
Validity is the degree to which the research instrument measures what it purports to measure. Validity means truthfulness
or veracity of information. Valid in a sense that their answer is correct or true. Reliable because their answer is consistent.
A valid test is always valid, but a reliable test is not always valid.

Testing the validity of the research instrument

Before testing the validity of the research instrument, the researcher must choose experts align with the field to validate.
In validation of the questionnaire, at the end of every item, the options 3, retain; 2 revise; and 1, delete are presented. Then
the weighted mean is computed to find out if the items be retained, revised, or be deleted.

Instrument reliability- Reliability means consistency of information. The information can be both reliable and valid for
it is consistent and correct. But sometimes not all information is true but it is consistent. Hence, the information is not
valid but reliable. It is reliable for being consistent but not valid due to incorrect information. [In effect, validity has
something to do with the questions and reliability has something to do with the answers].

The most popular method in testing the reliability of a good research instrument
1. Test-retest method- the most common method used by researcher. The same research instrument is administered
twice to the same group of respondents from pilot sample.

TOPIC#27: DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

1. Coding –the research analyst reads the data, and marks the segments within the data; each segment is labelled with a
code-usually a code or a phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives.
When coding is complete, the analysts prepares reports via a mix of summarizing the prevalence of codes,
discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original sources/context, or comparing the
relationship between one or more codes. Ex:
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Examples of line-by-line coding
Shifting symptoms, having inconsistent days If you have lupus, I mean one day it’s my liver; one day
it’s my joints; one day it’s my head and…
Avoiding disclosure It’s like you don’t want to say anything because people
are going to start thinking, you know, God, don’t go near
Predicting rejection her…
Source: Charmza 1995, as cited by Braun and Clarke, 2013

2. Recursive abstraction-some qualitative sets are analysed without coding; instead, recursive abstractions are used.
Datasets are summarized then further summarized, and so on. The end result is more compact summary.
3. Content or discourse analysis-the most basic technique is counting the words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens
within the data. Other similar techniques are the analyses of phrases and exchanges in conversational analyses
4. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software-includes MAXQDA, QDA MINER, ATLAS, Dedoose
(mixed methods) and N Vivo.

Generic steps to follow in data analysis (Creswell, 1998):

1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis-involves transcribing interviews, optically scanning material, typing
up field notes.

2. Read through all the data-obtain the general sense of the information and reflect on its over-all meaning: what
general ideas the participants are saying? What is the tone of the ideas? Write marginal notes or starts recording
general thoughts about the data at this stage.

3. Begin detailed analysis with coding process. Code is defined as the process of organizing material into “chunks.”
It involves taking text data or pictures, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs) or images into categories, and labelling
those categories with a term, often a term based on the actual language of the participant ((called in vivo term).

4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or themes for
analysis- description involves a detailed rendering of information about people, places, or events in a setting. This
analysis is useful in designing detailed descriptions for case studies, ethnographies and narrative research projects.
Then, use the coding to generate a small number of themes or categories-about five to seven categories. These
themes are the ones that appear as the major findings in qualitative studies and are stated under separate headings in
the findings sections of the study.

5. Decide how the description and themes will be presented-one approach is to use a narrative passage to convey
the finding of the analysis and detailed discussion of themes and sub-themes or interconnecting themes. The
following are used as adjuncts to the discussion: visual, figures or tables.

6. A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation of data, that is, “Lessons learned”
These lessons could be:
1) The researcher’s personal interpretations, expressed in the individual understanding that the researcher’s brings
to the study from his/her own culture, history and experiences.
2) A meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information gleaned from literature or extant
theories.
3) Suggestions for new questions that need to be asked-questions the researcher had not foreseen earlier in the
study.

Thus, interpretation in qualitative research can take many forms, be adapted for different types of designs, and be flexible
to convey personal, research-based and action meanings.

Data analysis according to research design. Creswell (1998) says that analysis/interpretation must be closely linked to
the research design chosen.
1. Grounded theory: has a systematic step to follow:
 Generating categories of information (open coding)
 Selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a theoretical model (axial coding)
 Explicating a story from the interconnection of these categories (selective coding)
 In ideal cases, initial codes and broad themes coalesce into a grounded theory
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2. Case study and ethnographic research-involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by
analysis of the data for themes or issues

3. Narrative research employs restorying the participants’ stories, using structural elements such as plot, setting,
activities, climax and denouement.

---------------

Qualitative data analysis involves the identification, examination, and interpretation of patterns and themes in
textual data and determines how these patterns and themes help answer the research questions at hand. … Likely to
change and adapt as the study evolves and the data emerges.

Qualitative Data Analysis. Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview transcripts, notes, video
and audio recordings, images and text documents. Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the following five
categories:

1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioral data to classify, summarize and
tabulate the data.
2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by respondents taking into account
context of each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is the revision of
primary qualitative data by researcher.
3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written text.
4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several stages such as familiarization,
identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an analysis of a single case to formulate a
theory. Then, additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the theory.
 
Qualitative data analysis can be conducted through the following three steps:
 
Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes. Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a
short phrase that represents a theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide range of non-
quantifiable elements such as events, behaviours, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.
There are three types of coding:
1) Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to make sense of it.
2) Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories of codes.
3) Selective coding. Formulating the story through connecting the categories.

Coding can be done manually or using qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo,  Atlas ti 6.0,  HyperRESEARCH
2.8,  Max QDA and others.

When using manual coding you can use folders, filing cabinets, wallets etc. to gather together materials that are examples
of similar themes or analytic ideas. Manual method of coding in qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as labour-
intensive, time-consuming and outdated.

In computer-based coding, on the other hand, physical files and cabinets are replaced with computer-based directories and
files. When choosing software for qualitative data analysis you need to consider a wide range of factors such as the type
and amount of data you need to analyze, time required to master the software and cost considerations.

Moreover, it is important to get confirmation from your dissertation supervisor prior to application of any specific
qualitative data analysis software.

The following table contains examples of research titles, elements to be coded and identification of relevant codes:
Research title Elements to be coded Codes
Born or bred: revising The Great Man Born leaders
theory of leadership in the 21st century Leadership practice Made leaders
Leadership effectiveness
A study into advantages and Wholly-owned subsidiaries
disadvantages of various entry strategies Joint-ventures
to Chinese market Market entry strategies Franchising
Exporting
Licensing
Impacts of CSR programs and initiative Philanthropy
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on brand image: a case study of Coca- Supporting charitable courses
Cola Company UK. Activities, phenomenon Ethical behaviour
Brand awareness
Brand value
An investigation into the ways of Viral messages
customer relationship management in Customer retention
mobile marketing environment Tactics Popularity of social networking sites

Qualitative data coding

 
Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships. Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there
are no universally applicable techniques that can be applied to generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking skills of
researcher plays significant role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative study can be repeated to
generate the same results.

Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify common themes, patterns and relationships within
responses of sample group members in relation to codes that have been specified in the previous stage.

Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data interpretation include the following:
 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and phrases most commonly used by
respondents, as well as, words and phrases used with unusual emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of interview/focus group/observation/any
other qualitative data collection method with the findings of literature review and discussing differences between
them;
 Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the issue was not mentioned by
respondents, although you expected them to be mentioned;
 Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to phenomena from a different area and
discussing similarities and differences.
 
Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage you need to link research findings to hypotheses or research aim and
objectives. When writing data analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order to highlight
major themes within findings and possible contradictions.

It is important to note that the process of qualitative data analysis described above is general and different types of
qualitative studies may require slightly different methods of data analysis.
------------------------

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods 101:

The “Big 6” Methods + Examples
By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (D.Tech) | May 2020

The Qualitative Data Analysis Methods “Big 6”

There are many different types of qualitative data analysis (QDA for short), all of which serve different purposes and
have unique strengths and weaknesses. We’ll start by outlining the analysis methods and then we’ll dive into the details
for each one.
The 6 most popular QDA methods – or at least the ones we see at Grad Coach – are:
1. Qualitative content analysis
2. Narrative analysis
3. Discourse analysis
4. Thematic analysis
5. Grounded theory (GT)
6. Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)

Let’s take a look at them…

QDA Method #1: Qualitative Content Analysis. Content analysis is possibly the most common and straightforward
QDA method. At the simplest level, content analysis is used to evaluate patterns within a piece of content (for example,
PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 8
words, phrases or images) or across multiple pieces of content or sources of communication. For example, a collection of
newspaper articles or political speeches.

With content analysis, you could, for instance, identify the frequency with which an idea is shared or spoken about – like
the number of times a Kardashian is mentioned on Twitter. Or you could identify patterns of deeper underlying
interpretations – for instance, by identifying phrases or words in tourist pamphlets that highlight India as an ancient
country.
Because content analysis can be used in such a wide variety of ways, it’s important to go into your analysis with a very
specific question and goal, or you’ll get lost in the fog. With content analysis, you’ll group large amounts of text into
codes, summarise these into categories, and possibly even tabulate the data to calculate the frequency of certain concepts
or variables. Because of this, content analysis provides a small splash of quantitative thinking within a qualitative
method.

Naturally, while content analysis is widely useful, it’s not without its drawbacks. One of the main issues with content
analysis is that it can be very time consuming, as it requires lots of reading and re-reading of the texts. Also, because of
its multidimensional focus on both qualitative and quantitative aspects, it is sometimes accused of  losing important
nuances in communication.

Content analysis also tends to concentrate on a very specific timeline and doesn’t take into account what happened before
or after that timeline. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing though – just something to be aware of. So, keep these factors in
mind if you’re considering content analysis. Every analysis method has its drawbacks, so don’t be put off by these –
just be aware of them!

QDA Method #2: Narrative Analysis 

As the name suggests, narrative analysis is all about listening to people telling stories and analysing what that means.
Since stories serve a functional purpose of helping us make sense of the world, we can gain insights into the ways that
people deal with and make sense of reality by analysing their stories and the ways they’re told.

You could, for example, use narrative analysis to explore whether how something is being said is important. For instance,
the narrative of a prisoner trying to justify their crime could provide insight into their view of the world and the justice
system. Similarly, analysing the ways entrepreneurs talk about the struggles in their careers or cancer patients telling
stories of hope could provide powerful insights into their mindsets and perspectives. In other words, narrative analysis is
about paying attention to the stories that people tell – and more importantly, the way they tell them.

Of course, the narrative approach has its weaknesses, just like all analysis methods. Sample sizes are generally quite
small due to the time-consuming process of capturing narratives. Because of this, along with the multitude of social and
lifestyle factors which can influence a subject, narrative analysis can be quite difficult to reproduce in subsequent
research. This means that it’s difficult to test the findings of some of this research.
Similarly, researcher bias can have a strong influence on the results here, so you need to be particularly careful about the
potential biases you can bring into your analysis when using this method. Nevertheless, narrative analysis is still a very
useful qualitative method – just keep these limitations in mind and be careful not to draw broad conclusions.

QDA Method #3: Discourse Analysis . Discourse is simply a fancy word for written or spoken language or debate. So,
discourse analysis is all about analysing language within its social context. In other words, analysing language – such as
a conversation, a speech, etc – within the culture and society it takes place in. For example, you could analyse how a
janitor speaks to a CEO, or how politicians speak about terrorism.
To truly understand these conversations or speeches, the culture and history of those involved in the communication is
important. For example, a janitor might speak more casually with a CEO in a company that emphasises equality among
workers. Similarly, a politician might speak more about terrorism if there was a recent terrorist incident in the country.
So, as you can see, by using discourse analysis, you can identify how culture, history or power dynamics (to name a
few) have an effect on the way concepts are spoken about. So, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding
culture or power dynamics, discourse analysis can be a powerful method.
Because there are many social influences in how we speak to each other, the potential use of discourse analysis is vast. Of
course, this also means it’s important to have a very specific research question (or questions) in mind when analysing
your data and looking for patterns and themes, or you might land up going down a winding rabbit hole.
Discourse analysis can also be very time consuming as you need to sample the data to the point of saturation – in other
words, until no new information and insights emerge. But this is, of course, part of what makes discourse analysis such
a powerful technique. So, keep these factors in mind when considering this QDA method.
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QDA Method #4: Thematic Analysis. Thematic analysis looks at patterns of meaning in a data set – for example, a set of
interviews or focus group transcripts. But what exactly does that… mean? Well, a thematic analysis takes bodies of data
(which are often quite large) and groups them according to similarities – in other words, themes. These themes help us
make sense of the content and derive meaning from it.
Let’s take a look at an example.

With thematic analysis, you could analyse 100 reviews of a popular sushi restaurant to find out what patrons think about
the place. By reviewing the data, you would then identify the themes that crop up repeatedly within the data – for
example, “fresh ingredients” or “friendly wait staff”.

So, as you can see, thematic analysis can be pretty useful for finding out about people’s experiences, views,
and opinions. Therefore, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding people’s experience or view of
something, thematic analysis can be a great choice.

Since thematic analysis is a bit of an exploratory process, it’s not unusual for your research questions to develop, or
even change as you progress through the analysis. While this is somewhat natural in exploratory research, it can also be
seen as a disadvantage as it means that data needs to be re-reviewed each time a research question is adjusted. In other
words, thematic analysis can be quite time-consuming – but for a good reason. So, keep this in mind if you choose to use
thematic analysis for your project and budget extra time for unexpected adjustments.

QDA Method #5: Grounded theory (GT) 

Grounded Theory is powerful qualitative analysis method where the intention is to create a new theory (or theories)
using the data at hand, through a series of “tests” and “revisions.” For example, you could try to develop a theory about
what factors influence students to read watch a YouTube video about qualitative analysis… The important thing with
grounded theory is that you go into the analysis with an open mind and let the data speak for itself – rather than
dragging existing hypotheses or theories into your analysis.  In other words, your analysis must develop from
the ground up (hence the name)…

In Grounded Theory, you start with a general overarching question about a given population – for example, graduate
students. Then you begin to analyse a small sample – for example, five graduate students in a department at a university.
Ideally, this sample should be reasonably representative of the broader population. You’d then interview these students to
identify what factors lead them to watch the video.

After analysing the interview data, a general hypothesis or pattern could emerge. For example, you might notice that
graduate students are more likely to read a post about qualitative methods if they are just starting on
their dissertation journey, or if they have an upcoming test about research methods.

From here, you’ll look for another small sample – for example, five more graduate students in a different department –
and see whether this pattern or this hypothesis holds true for them. If not, you’ll look for commonalities and adapt your
theory accordingly. As this process continues, the theory develops. What’s important with grounded theory is that the
theory develops from the data – not from some preconceived idea. You need to let the data speak for itself.
So, what are the drawbacks of grounded theory? Well, some argue that there’s a tricky circularity to Grounded Theory.
For it to work, in principle, you should know as little as possible regarding the research question and population, so that
you reduce the bias in your interpretation. However, in many circumstances, it’s also thought to be unwise to approach a
research question without knowledge of the current literature. In other words, it’s a bit of a “chicken or the egg”
situation.

Regardless, grounded theory remains a popular (and powerful) option. Naturally, it’s a very useful method when you’re
researching a topic that is completely new or has very little existing research about it, as it allows you to start from
scratch and work your way from the ground up.

QDA Method #6:  

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Interpretive. Phenomenological. Analysis. IPA. Try saying that three
times fast… Let’s just stick with IPA, okay? IPA is designed to help you understand the personal experiences of a
subject (for example, a person or group of people) concerning a major life event, an experience or a situation. This event
or experience is the “phenomenon” or phenomena that makes up the “P” in IPA. These phenomena may range from
relatively common events – such as motherhood, or being involved in a car accident – to those which
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are extremely rare – for example, someone’s personal experience in a refugee camp. So, IPA is a great choice if your
research involves analysing people’s personal experiences of something that happened to them.

It’s important to remember that IPA is subject–centred. In other words, it’s focused on the experiencer. This means that,
while you’ll likely use a coding system to identify commonalities, it’s important not to lose the depth of experience or
meaning by trying to reduce everything to codes. Also, keep in mind that since your sample size will generally
be very small with IPA, you often won’t be able to draw broad conclusions about the generalisability of your findings.
But that’s okay as long as it aligns with your research aims and objectives.

Another thing to be aware of with IPA is personal bias. While researcher bias can creep into all forms of research, self-
awareness is critically important with IPA, as it can have a major impact on the results.

For example, a researcher who was a victim of a crime himself could insert his own feelings of frustration and anger into
the way he interprets the experience of someone who was kidnapped. So, if you’re going to undertake IPA, you need to be
very self-aware or you could muddy the analysis.

Keep these limitations and pitfalls in mind though, and you’ll have a powerful analysis tool in your arsenal!

How to choose the right analysis method

Now, you’re probably asking yourself the question, “how do you choose the right one?”
Well, selecting the right qualitative analysis method largely depends on your research aims, objectives and questions. In
other words, the best tool for the job depends on what you’re trying to build. For example:
1. Perhaps your research aims to analyse the use of words and what they reveal about the intention of the
storyteller and the cultural context of the time.
2. Perhaps your research aims to develop an understanding of the unique personal experiences of people
that have experienced a certain event.
3. Or perhaps your research aims to develop insight regarding the influence of a certain culture on its
members.

As you can see, all these research aims are distinctly different, and therefore different analysis methods would be
suitable for each one. Also, remember that each method has its own strengths, weaknesses and general limitations.  No
single analysis method is perfect. Therefore, it often makes sense to adopt more than one method (this is
called triangulation), but this is, of course, quite time-consuming.

As we’ve seen, these approaches all make use of coding and theme-generating techniques, but the intent and approach of
each analysis method differ quite substantially. So, it’s really important to come into your research with
a clear intention before you start thinking about which analysis method (or methods) to use.

Start by reviewing your research aims, objectives and research questions to assess what exactly you’re trying to find

out – then select a method that fits. Never pick a method just because you like it or have experience using it – your
analysis method (or methods) must align with your broader research aims and objectives.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview
transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.
Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
1. Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
2. Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
3. Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize
your data.
4. Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s
responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to
add to your system if necessary.
5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.
There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they
emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative data analysis

Approach When to use Example
Content To describe and categorize common words, A market researcher could perform content analysis to find
PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 11
Qualitative data analysis
Approach When to use Example
analysis phrases, and ideas in qualitative data. out what kind of language is used in descriptions of
therapeutic apps.
Thematic To identify and interpret patterns and themes in A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel
analysis qualitative data. blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.
Textual To examine the content, structure, and design A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand
analysis of texts. how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past
decade.
Discourse To study communication and how language is A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study
analysis used to achieve effects in specific contexts. how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.

TOPIC#28: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology?

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) and Kerryn Warren (PhD)| June 2020

What is research methodology? 

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of research. More specifically, it’s
about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims
and objectives. 
 For example, how did the researcher go about deciding: 
 What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
 Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
 How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
 How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”) 

In a dissertation, thesis, academic journal article (or pretty much any formal piece of research), you’ll find a research
methodology chapter (or section) which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good methodology chapter in
a dissertation or thesis explains not just what methodological choices were made, but also explains why they were made.

In other words, the methodology chapter should justify the design choices, by showing that the chosen methods and
techniques are the best fit for the research aims and objectives, and will provide valid and reliable results. A good research
methodology provides scientifically sound findings, whereas a poor methodology doesn’t. We’ll look at the main design
choices below.

What are qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method methodologies?

Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods are different types of methodologies, distinguished by whether they focus on
words, numbers or both. This is a bit of an oversimplification, but its a good starting point for understandings. Let’s take a
closer look.
Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing words (written or spoken) and textual
data, whereas quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data. Qualitative analysis can
also focus on other “softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements.

It’s quite common for a qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and objectives are exploratory in
nature. For example, a qualitative methodology might be used to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event that took
place, or a candidate running for president. 

Contrasted to this, a quantitative methodology is typically used when the research aims and objectives
are confirmatory in nature. For example, a quantitative methodology might be used to measure the relationship between
two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses.
As you’ve probably guessed, the mixed-method methodology attempts to combine the best of both qualitative and
quantitative methodologies to integrate perspectives and create a rich picture.

How to write a research methodology

Published on February 25, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on February 8, 2021.
In your thesis or dissertation, you will have to discuss the methods you used to do your research. The methodology
chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research.
It should include:
 The type of research you did
 How you collected your data
 How you analyzed your data
 Any tools or materials you used in the research
 Your rationale for choosing these methods
PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 12
The methodology section should generally be written in the past tense.
Academic style guides in your field may also provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
For example, there are specific guidelines for writing an APA methods section.

Step 1: Explain your methodological approach

Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.
What research problem or question did you investigate? For example, did you aim to systematically describe the
characteristics of something, to explore an under-researched topic, or to establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And
what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?
 Did you need quantitative data (expressed in numbers) or qualitative data (expressed in words)?
 Did you need to collect primary data yourself, or did you use secondary data that was collected by someone else?
 Did you gather experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data by gathering
observations without intervening?

Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions
underpinning your methodology.
 Why is this the most suitable approach to answering your research questions?
 Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it require justification?
 Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
 What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research?

In a quantitative experimental study, you might aim to produce generalizable knowledge about the causes of a
phenomenon. Valid research requires a carefully designed study under controlled conditions that can be replicated by
other researchers. In a qualitative ethnography, you might aim to produce contextual real-world knowledge about the
behaviors, social structures and shared beliefs of a specific group of people. As this methodology is less controlled and
more interpretive, you will need to reflect on your position as researcher, taking into account how your participation and
perception might have influenced the results.

Step 2: Describe your methods of data collection

Once you have introduced your overall methodological approach, you should give full details of your data collection
methods.

Qualitative methods
In qualitative research, since methods are often more flexible and subjective, it’s important to reflect on the approach you
took and explain the choices you made.
Discuss the criteria you used to select participants or sources, the context in which the research was conducted, and the
role you played in collecting the data (e.g. were you an active participant or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups

Describe where, when and how the interviews were conducted.
 How did you find and select participants?
 How many people took part?
 What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-structured, unstructured)?
 How long were the interviews and how were they recorded?

Participant observation
Describe where, when and how you conducted the observation or ethnography.
 What group or community did you observe and how did you gain access to them?
 How long did you spend conducting the research and where was it located?
 What role did you play in the community?
 How did you record your data (e.g. audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data
Explain how you selected case study materials (such as texts or images) for the focus of your analysis.
 What type of materials did you analyze?
 How did you collect and select them?

Qualitative methods
In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images and observations (often involving some form
of textual analysis). Specific methods might include:
1. Content analysis: categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
2. Thematic analysis: coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
3. Discourse analysis: studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Qualitative methods example. The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was conducted. This involved
coding all the data before identifying and reviewing six key themes. Each theme was examined to gain an understanding
of participants’ perceptions and motivations.
PR1_Week 7: Data Collection, Data Gathering Instrument, Data Analysis Procedures, Research Methodology 13

Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices

Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these particular methods, especially if you did not take the
most standard approach to your topic. Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how
this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.
You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach you chose, but justify why these were outweighed by the
strengths.
Lab-based experiments can’t always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for
testing causal relationships between variables.Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized
beyond the sample group, but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations and
emotions.

Tips for writing a strong methodology

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them and to
demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted.

Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you
chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions. Throughout the section,
relate your choices back to the central purpose of your dissertation.

Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by reference to existing research in the field, either to:
 Confirm that you followed established practices for this type of research
 Discuss how you evaluated different methodologies and decided on your approach
 Show that you took a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature
Our free citation generators can help you to create MLA citations and APA citations.

Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and don’t go into unnecessary detail. If you are using methods that are
standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give lots of background or justification. But if you take an
approach that is less common in your field, you might need to explain and justify your methodological choices.
In either case, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not
just a list of technical details and procedures.

Discuss obstacles
If you encountered difficulties in collecting or analyzing data, explain how you dealt with them. Show how you
minimized the impact of any unexpected obstacles. Pre-empt any major critiques of your approach and demonstrate that
you made the research as rigorous as possible.
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References:
https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14062/research_data_management/61/research_data_management_explained
https://www.formpl.us/blog/data-collection-method
https://gradcoach.com/qualitative-data-analysis-methods/
https://gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/
https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/methodology/