F.

How to Write a Good History Essay

Some Suggestions f or the Time-Conscious Student
The f ol l ow i ng outl i ne i s i nt ended as t o pr ov i de one ex ampl e of how to w r i te an essay . Tr eat i t as f ood f or thought, as pr ov i di ng a set of suggesti ons some of w hi c h y ou mi ght i nc or por ate i nto y our ow n method f or w r i ti ng essay s.

1. Why do historians set essay s? It i s usef ul to b egi n b y c onsi der i ng w hy essay -w r i ti ng has l ong b een the method of c hoi c e f or assessment i n hi stor y . The c hi ef r eason i s that no other method pr ov i des as ef f ec ti v e a means of t esti ng a student's c ompr ehensi on of a t opi c . W e w ant y ou to show us that not onl y hav e y ou ac qui r ed a k now l edge of the t opi c b ut al so that y ou f ul l y under stand the topi c and the i ssues r ai sed b y i t. Essay s test under standi ng b y ask i ng y ou to sel ec t and r e-or gani se r el ev ant mater i al i n or der to pr oduc e y our ow n answ er to the set questi on. A n under gr aduate essay need not b e par ti c ul ar l y i nnov ati v e i n i ts appr oac h and i nsi ghts, b ut i t must b e the pr oduc t of the st udent's ow n di al ogue w i th the sub jec t. Essay s w hi c h do not answ er t he questi on c an onl y b e r egar ded as demonstr ati ng some k now l edge of the topi c , they c annot b e sai d to show under standi ng of the topi c . Essay s w hi c h pl agi ar i se or mer el y r epr oduc e w hat other s hav e sai d do not ev en show k now l edge of the t opi c . Pl agi ar i sm i s thus not mer el y a matter of thef t , i t i nv ol v es an enti r el y unac c eptab l e sub v er si on of the l ear ni ng pr oc ess.

2. I s there a right and a wrong answer? Hi stor y essay s ar e l ess ab out f i ndi ng the c or r ec t answ er to the set questi on than they ar e ab out demonstr ati ng that y ou under stand the i ssues w hi c h i t r ai ses (and the tex ts w hi c h di sc uss these i ssues). W i th most hi st or i c al pr ob l ems (c er tai nl y the most i nt er esti ng ones) i t i s sel dom possi b l e to ar r i v e at a def i ni ti v e answ er . The ev i denc e al most al w ay s per mi t s a v ar i et y of sol uti ons, and di f f er ent appr oac hes gener ate di v er gent c onc l usi ons. Ther e ar e, how ev er , l i mi t s to the f i el d of possi b l e sol uti ons, si nc e they must f i t i n w i th 'the ev i denc e'. Of c our se, ex ac tl y w hat c onst i t ut es 'the ev i denc e' i s al most i nv ar i ab l y one of the i ssues under di sc ussi on among t he hi stor i ans w ho ar e most deepl y engaged w i t h t he pr ob l em, b ut i n gener al f or eac h hi stor i c al questi on ther e w i l l b e a b ody of ev i denc e w hi c h i s r ec ogni sed as b ei ng r el ev ant t o i t. Thi s b ody of ev i denc e w i l l ty pi c al l y c ompr i se w hat the pr i mar y sour c es t el l us ab out the ev ents and phenomena under di sc ussi on. A good answ er w i l l need to har moni se w i th al l of thi s ev i denc e, or ex pl ai n w hy par ti c ul ar i tems hav e b een di smi ssed as hav i ng no b ear i ng on the pr ob l em. It f ol l ow s f r om al l of thi s that th ere c ertainly are w rong ans w ers that i s, answ er s w hi c h f al l outsi de the f i el d of possi b l e sol ut i ons or w hi c h f ai l to tak e ac c ount of r ec ei v ed ev i denc e ev en though ther e i s no 'ab sol utel y r i ght ' answ er .

3. Analy sing the Question Essenti al steps: sel ec t a questi on; i dent i f y the sub jec t of the questi on; w hat ar e y ou b ei ng ask ed to do - that i s, w hat k i nd of i nf or mati on w i l l y ou need t o answ er the questi on, and how w i l l y ou hav e to tr eat i t? Ci r c l i ng the

k ey w or ds i n the quest i on i s someti mes a hel pf ul f i r st step i n w or k i ng out ex ac tl y w hat y ou need to do. It i s usef ul to note t hat ther e i s usual l y a natu r al w ay of str uc tur i ng y our answ er : that i s, a w ay of or gani si ng an answ er w hi c h f ol l ow s natur al l y f r om the f or mat of the questi on and w hi c h w i l l put the f ew est ob stac l es i n the w ay of t he r eader : 'Explain' and 'why ' questions demand a l i st of r easons or one b i g r eason; eac h r eason w i l l hav e to b e ex pl ai ned that i s, c l ar i f i ed, ex p ounded, and i l l ustr at ed. 'Assess', 'ev aluate' and 'define-the-significance-of' questions r equi r e judgements suppor ted b y r easons, ex pl anati on and ev i denc e. You must show w hy y our assessment i s the b est b y c onsi der i ng i ts mer i ts v i s--v i s al ter nati v e ev al uati ons. It mi ght b e usef ul t o def i ne and def end the c r i ter i a on w hi c h y our judgement depends. That i s, to ex pl ai n w hy they ar e t he b est c r i ter i a f or judgi ng the hi stor i c al phenomenon at i ssue. 'What-role-did-X-play -in-Y ' questions i mpl y a f unc ti onal i st appr oac h - that i s, they r equi r e that y ou i denti f y the f unc ti on of some phenomenon, gr oup or i nsti tuti on w i thi n some spec i f i c sy stem. Thus, the sub jec t of the questi on i s the 'Y' r at her than the 'X' el ement. That i s, the questi on r equi r es a di sc u ssi on of the sy stem as a w hol e and the c onsi der at i on of al ter nat i v e ex p l anat i ons of how 'X' w or k ed w i thi n i t. 'To-what-extent' questions i nv ol v e a judgement of measur e. One w ay of answ er i ng the questi on w oul d b e set up a ser i es of 'test s', as i t w er e, that c an b e i nv esti gated i n tur n.
Th i s e ssay w i l l e x ami n e f i v e sp h e r e s w h i c h c ast l i gh t on t h e e x t e n t of Je w i sh i n f l u e n c e i n h i gh me di e v al F r an c e : n ame l y , t h e i r r ol e i n t h e c omme r c i al l i f e of t h e t ow n s, t h e r ol e of Je w i sh b an k i n g i n t h e agr ar i an e c on omy , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on Ch r i st i an i n t e l l e c t u al l i f e , .. [an d so on ].

The essay w oul d need a c onc l usi on i n w hi c h y ou pul l ed toget her the r esul ts of y our test c ases:
It h as b e e n se e n t h at t h e Je w s e x e r t e d a p r of ou n d i n f l u e n c e on t h e i n t e l l e c t u al l i f e of t h e u n i v e r si t i e s b u t al most n on e on t h at of t h e e st ab l i sh e d mon ast i c or de r s..

'Quote-and-discuss' questions r equi r e y ou to i dent i f y the i ssue at stak e and to pr oduc e a r easoned r esponse. You may r espond, f or ex ampl e, b y agr eei ng w i t h t he quotati on i n w hi c h c ase y ou w i l l need to ex pl ai n w hy agr eement i s the b est r esponse, w hy i t w oul d b e w r ong to di sagr ee. You shoul d c onsi der the mer i ts of a v ar i ety of r esponses. If possi b l e y ou shoul d al w ay s ex ami ne t he b ook or ar ti c l e f r om w hi c h the quotati on has b een tak en i n or der to di sc ov er w hat i ts author meant b y i t, to di sc ov er how the author has under stood the i ssues. 'Compare-and-contrast' questions demand the i denti f i c ati on of si mi l ar i ti es and di f f er enc es. One method of tac k l i ng suc h an essay w oul d b e t o di st i ngui sh f i v e or si x ar eas of si mi l ar i ty and c ontr ast, and to dev ote a sec ti on of the essay to eac h ar ea - a sec ti on i n w hi c h y ou w oul d assess t he degr ee of si mi l ar i ty and r eac h a sub -c onc l usi on. The c onc l usi on w oul d t hen r equi r e a summat i on of the v ar i ous 'sub -c onc l usi ons'. It needs to b e str essed t hat none of th es e ty pes of q ues tion c alls for a narrativ e approac h . You w i l l nev er b e ask ed to pr oduc e a nar r ati v e of w hat happened. In r ar e c i r c umstanc es, a f ew sentenc es of nar r ati v e may f or m par t of the ev i denc e c i ted i n suppor t of a poi nt, b ut the essay as a w hol e shoul d b e or gani sed ac c or di ng to a l ogi c al str uc t ur e i n w hi c h eac h par agr aph f unc t i ons as a pr emi se i n t he ar gument. The anal y ti c al and ex posi t or y v oi c e w i l l al w ay s pr ov e mor e ef f ec ti v e than the nar r ati v e mode of w r i ti ng.

4. Preliminary Reading The ai m of y our i ni t i al r eadi ng shoul d b e to i denti f y an ar gument w hi c h answ er s t he questi on - one w hi c h y ou f i nd pl ausi b l e and c an c ar r y thr ough w i t h c onv i c ti on. For thi s pur pose, i t w i l l b e usef ul to r ead at l east tw o or thr ee i tems, i nc l udi ng a r ec ent b ook c ov er i ng t he gener al ar ea i n w hi c h the topi c f al l s. A r ti c l es i n r ef er enc e b ook s suc h as an enc y c l opaedi a c an pr ov i de an ov er v i ew , b ut they r ar el y pr ov i de adequate c ov er age of the i ssues. Ci ti ng suc h w or k s w i l l under mi ne the c r edi b i l i ty of y our essay .

Do not f or get to mak e notes as y ou go. Mak i ng notes hel ps y ou t o summar i se ar guments and i deas, to sel ec t poi nts r el ev ant t o y our essay , to c l ar i f y and adju st y our under standi ng of the essay questi on and of the topi c i t b ear s upon. But y our mai n pr i or i ty shoul d b e t o di sc ov er an ar gument.

5. Drawing up a Plan Onc e y ou hav e c ome up w i th a w or k i ng ar gument, y ou need to dr aw up a pl an to gui de the nex t stage of y our r esear c h. It shoul d c ompr i se a l i st of the poi nts w hi c h eac h p ar agr aph w i l l attempt to demonstr ate, and r ough notes on suppor t i ng ex ampl es. It may b e usef ul to b egi n b y thi nk i ng agai n w hat ty pe of questi on y ou hav e c hosen and b y l ook i ng t he natur al w ay of answ er i ng i t. In or der to dr aw up a pl an y ou w i l l need to ev al uate i ts mer i ts: W hat poi nts w i l l I need to mak e i n or der to sustai n thi s ar gument? A r e ther e al ter nati v e poi nt s of v i ew w hi c h w i l l hav e to b e c onsi der ed and r ef uted i n or der to mak e thi s ar gument w or k ? Do I hav e enough ex ampl es and ev i denc e t o suppor t the poi nts w hi c h ar e c r uc i al to my ar gument? Do I need to k now mor e ab out the ex ampl es I'm pl anni ng to use? Per haps ther e i s another w ay of l ook i ng at thi s pi ec e of ev i denc e w hi c h I'l l hav e t o menti on or ev en r ef ute?

6. Directed Research Hav i ng dec i ded on the l i ne of ar gument y ou i nt end to use, and i denti f i ed ar eas w her e y ou need mor e mater i al , sear c h the r eadi ng l i st and b i b l i ogr aphi es of the tex ts y ou'v e b een usi ng f or b ook s and ar ti c l es w hi c h w i l l hel p y ou t o sol v e these pr ob l ems. Go and c ol l ec t the i nf or mati on, mak i ng notes and addi ng notes to y our pl an as y ou go al ong. Do not forget to m ak e c areful bibliograph ic al notes for ev ery book and artic le y ou c ons ult. You w i l l need thi s i nf or mati on w hen i t c omes t o f oot noti ng y our essay .

7. Rev ising y our Arg ument Inev i t ab l y , t he pr ev i ous stage w i l l tur n up thi ngs y ou hadn't thought of and b ook s w i th b etter thi ngs to say ab out t he t opi c . Do not pani c . A sk y our sel f : c an y our ar gument b e sav ed w i th a f ew adjustments? Does the ar gument need to b e r e-c onst r uc ted f r om sc r at c h? If so, how c an I r ec y c l e the i nf or mati on I'v e al r eady b egun to c ol l ec t? Muc h w i l l depend upon how c onf i dent y ou now f eel ab out y our ar gument . Fol l ow y our i nsti nc ts: i f the ar gument f eel s w r ong, l ook f or a b et ter one. It i s b etter to star t agai n than to w r i te an essay that l ac k s c onv i c ti on. If c ompl ete r ec onstr uc ti on i s unav oi dab l e, go b ac k to '5. Dr aw i ng up a Pl an'.

8. Writing the F irst Draft Hav i ng r ev i sed y ou ar gument (and pl an), i t's ti me to w r i te y our essay . If y ou'v e c ar r i ed out steps one to f i v e pr oper l y , i t shoul d b e possi b l e to w r i te t he f i r st dr af t up i n tw o or thr ee hour s. (a) Writing an I ntroduction. A n i ntr oduc t i on shoul d show how y ou i ntend to answ er the questi on, b y (1 ) i ndi c ati ng the l i ne of ar gument y ou i ntend t o tak e, b y (2) gi v i ng an ov er v i ew of the or gani sati on of w hat f ol l ow s, and b y (3) i ndi c ati ng the sor t of mat er i al or ev i denc e y ou w i l l b e usi ng. It i s an ef f ec ti v e str ategy , espec i al l y w hen w r i ti ng a shor t essay , to b egi n w i th a b ol d, attenti on-gr ab b i ng, f i r st sentenc e w hi c h show s the mar k er that y ou k now w hat y ou ar e doi ng: that i s, answ er the questi on as b r i ef l y as possi b l e w i t h y our f i r st sentenc e. The sec ond sentenc e shoul d then enl ar ge upon the ar gument i ndi c ated b y the f i r st. (b) The body of the essay . Int el l i gent use of par agr aphi ng i s c r uc i al to the suc c ess of an essay . Of ten, i t i s b est

to or gani se the par agr aphs so that eac h mak es and def ends a poi nt or pr emi se essenti al the ar gument of the essay . (By 'pr emi se' i s meant a poi nt w hi c h i s par t of and essenti al to the ar gument of the essay .) It must b e enti r el y c l ear how y our poi nts f i t i nto the ar gument: essay s w hi c h meander ar ound the top i c l eav i ng the mar k er to joi n the dots t o c ompr i se an answ er ar e not ac c eptab l e, si nc e they f ai l to demonstr ate under standi ng. It i s a good i dea to use 'topi c sent enc es' t o si gnal the sub jec t and mak e ex pl i c i t the p oi nt of eac h par agr aph. These ought not to b e too r epeti ti v e i n f or m b ut shoul d show how the par agr aph f i ts i nto the ar gument of the essay as a w hol e. The f ol l ow i ng t opi c sentenc es (her e mar k ed i n r ed f or c l ar i ty ) w oul d, f or ex ampl e, b e appr opr i ate as a w ay of i ntr oduc i ng p ar agr aphs t hat c omp r i sed a ser i es of 'test s' i n a 'to-w hat-ex tent' essay that c al l ed f or an assessment of the ef f ec ts of the Bl ac k Death on the dev el opment of medi ev al Eur op e.
It i s al so p ossi b l e t o asse ss t h e e x t e n t of t h e c at ast r op h e b y l ook i n g at t h e l e v e l of de man d f or l an d i n t h e major u r b an c e n t r e s. In Ge n oa, f or e x amp l e , l an d p r i c e s f e l l sh ar p l y f r om a h i gh i n 1 31 0 of .... [se v e r al se n t e n c e s of e x amp l e s] ....Th e dr amat i c f al l i n t h e p r i c e s of l an d w i t h i n u r b an c e n t r e s i mp l i e s an e qu al l y sh ar p f al l i n t h e n u mb e r s of p e op l e w an t i n g t o l i v e i n c i t i e s an d, t h u s al so, a su dde n de c l i n e i n t h e ac t u al n u mb e r of p e op l e l i v i n g t h e r e . Th e p i c t u r e c on v e y e d b y t h e se f i n an c i al r e c or ds i s sc ar c e l y r e p r e se n t at i v e , h ow e v e r , of t h e si t u at i on t h r ou gh ou t Eu r op e as a w h ol e . Th e y b e ar w i t n e ss t o w h at h ap p e n e d i n t h e mor e h i gh l y u r b an i se d r e gi on s of Eu r op e t h at i s, t o w h at h ap p e n e d i n n or t h e r n It al y an d i n t h e Low Cou n t r i e s an d e v e n i n t h e se r e gi on s, me r e l y t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h ose w h o dw e l t i n t h e t ow n s t h e mse l v e s b u t n ot t o t h at of r u r al p e op l e ... [se v e r al se n t e n c e s de v e l op i n g t h i s p oi n t ] H ow e v e r , some of t h e gap s i n t h e p i c t u r e c an b e f i l l e d i n , al b e i t some w h at sk e t c h i l y , w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e r u r al p ar i sh r e c or ds. Su c h r e c or ds r e mai n sc ar c e f or t h e f ou r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t t h ose t h at su r v i v e al l ow u s t o se e t h at t h e p l agu e c ou l d h av e de v ast at i n g c on se qu e n c e s i n t h e c ou n t r y si de as w e l l as i n t h e c i t i e s.... [an d so on .]

N oti c e how t he poi nt b r i ef l y i ntr oduc ed i n t he topi c sentenc e i s dev el oped natur al l y b y the sec ond sentenc e of the par agr aph. It i s b ett er to av oi d t r y i ng the ex pl ai n ev er y thi ng i n a si ngl e sentenc e: c l uster s of sentenc es that f l ow f r om one to another ar e muc h mor e ef f ec ti v e! Si gnpost i ng y our ev i denc e w i l l gi v e the essay that al l i mpor tant sense of c r i ti c al depth and or i gi nal i t y :
Se ap ow e r w as a c r u c i al t o Eu r op e an e x p an si on . Th i s mu c h i s i l l u st r at e d b y t h e w ay i n w h i c h Eu r op e e x p an de d b e t w e e n t h e t e n t h an d si x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s. Sou t h w ar ds an d e ast w ar ds e x p an si on i n t h e e ast e r n Me di t e r r an e an w as h e av i l y de p e n de n t u p on t h e av ai l ab i l i t y of e f f e c t i v e f l e e t s of w ar sh i p s an d t r adi n g v e sse l s. Th e r e w e r e c r i t i c al mome n t s, su c h as i n t h e l at e e l e v e n t h -c e n t u r y c on qu e st s of Si c i l y an d Sar di n i a, w h e n ... [an d so on .] Ev e n i n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y e f f e c t i v e gov e r n me n t de p e n de d on t h e p e r son al i t y of t h e k i n g. F or e x amp l e , t h e En gl i sh e x c h e qu e r su f f e r e d a gr av e f i n an c i al c r i si s w h e n Ki n g H e n r y V I, ac t i n g on a p e r son al w h i m, gav e aw ay ... F or i n st an c e ,...

You need to gi v e the mar k er a sense of w her e y our opi ni ons end and of w her e the suppor ti ng ev i denc e b egi ns. But r ememb er to v ar y y our si gnpost s: usi ng the same phr ase ov er and ov er agai n w i l l di str ac t and b or e the r eader . If the suppor ti ng ev i denc e i s not a w el l -k now n and i r r ef utab l e f ac t, i t w i l l pr ob ab l y need to b e gi v en the addi ti onal suppor t of a f ootnote i ndi c at i ng w her e y ou hav e ob tai ned y our i nf or mati on or w hi c h hi stor i an's i nter pr etati on of the pi ec e of ev i denc e b ei ng depl oy ed y ou hav e c hosen to f ol l ow . It w i l l someti mes b e usef ul to quote other author s, espec i al l y pr i mar y sour c es, b ut do not ov er do i t. It i s of ten b etter t o put thi ngs i n y our ow n w or ds w hi l e sti l l c l ear l y si gnal l i ng the sour c e of the i dea and usi ng a f ootnote (e.g. 'A c c or di ng to May er the f i r st c r usade.'), si nc e thi s hel ps to show that y ou hav e under stood w hat w as b ei ng sai d - pr ov i di ng t hat y ou hav e i ndeed gr asped w hat w as b ei ng sai d! (c) The Conclusion. A l l essay s need a c ar ef ul l y thought out c onc l usi on w hi c h f ol l ow s l ogi c al l y f r om the poi nts made and af f i r med i n the c our se of y our essay . It need not r ehear se the poi nts y ou hav e r ejec ted. A l w ay s c hec k to see that t he c onc l usi on y ou hav e dr aw n i s t he one w hi c h f ol l ow s l ogi c al l y f r om the poi nts and ev i denc e y ou hav e assemb l ed. (d) F ootnoting. Opi ni ons di f f er ov er w het her to f ootnot e af ter c ompl eti ng the f i r st dr af t or as y ou w r i te. Someti mes, i t i s b est to go b ac k and f oot not e the essay af ter y ou hav e f i ni shed, b ec ause i nser ti ng f ootnotes c an

di stur b t he f l ow of y our w r i ti ng. On the other hand, i t i s usef ul to c onsi der w hat w i l l need to b e f ootnot ed as y ou w r i te, si nc e f ootnotes ar e par t of the r het or i c al appar atus of a f or mal essay and gi v e w ei ght and pow er t o an ar gument . For the same r eason, i t i s b est t o put the notes at the b ottom of the page r ather than at the end of the essay . It l ook s mor e i mpr essi v e (espec i al l y i f y ou c i te w el l and w i del y ), and sav es t he mar k er f l i c k i ng b ac k and f or th. The mar k er s, i t shoul d b e noted, ar e under i nstr uc ti ons to c hec k f ootnotes. (e) Onc e y ou hav e f i ni shed y ou shoul d c ompi l e y our bibliography . (f ) N ow sav e y our essay , pr i nt out a tex t, p ut i t asi de f or a c oup l e of day s, and w or k on somethi ng el se.

9. Revising y our Essay Inev i t ab l y , w hen y ou c ome to r e-r ead y our essay , y ou w i l l al w ay s thi nk of b etter w ay s of putti ng thi ngs. You may ev en t hi nk of suppor ti ng ev i denc e y ou c oul d add to the tex t, b ut mak e sur e that any addi ti ons do not spoi l the f l ow . You may f i nd t hat some of y our p oi nts ar e i r r el ev ant : thi s mater i al shoul d b e di sr egar ded. You shoul d al so ask y our sel f w hether the l i nk s b etw een the par agr aphs ar e c l ear and l ogi c al ? Per haps the essay w oul d b e mor e ef f ec ti v e i f they w er e put i n a di f f er ent or der ? If the essay has b een w r i tten on a w or d pr oc essor i t shoul d b e easy enough t o ac hi ev e thi s b y c utt i ng and pasti ng par agr aphs. Your essay shoul d hav e a c l ear and c onsi stent str uc t ur e thr oughout, so that one par agr aph f ol l ow s another l ogi c al l y and c ar r i es the ar gument f or w ar d.

10. Editing y our Essay You w i l l need to edi t : f or gr ammar , spel l i ng and punc tuati on; to r emov e unnec essar y v er b i age, c ol l oqui al i sms and jar gon; to ensur e that the f ootnotes and b i b l i ogr aphy c onf or m w i th the r equi r ed sty l e sheet; and f or the c oher enc e and qual i ty of y our w r i ti ng. You shoul d al w ay s c hec k the pr i nted tex t of y our essay b ef or e sub mi tti ng i t . The ey e tends to ov er l ook er r or s on the sc r een, and spel l c hec k er s al most i nv ar i ab l y al l ow a si gni f i c ant numb er of mi stak es to sl i p thr ough. 'Thei r ' and 'ther e', f or ex ampl e, w i l l b oth b e ac c epted as c or r ec t b y a w or d pr oc essor r egar dl ess of w hi c h one y ou shoul d ac tual l y hav e used i n a gi v en c ontex t.

11. F inal Thoughts The ab i l i t y to w r i te good essay s does not c ome to many peopl e easi l y . It i s a sk i l l w hi c h r equi r es c onstant attenti on and pr ac t i c e. It i s, how ev er , a sk i l l w hi c h w i l l ser v e y ou w el l no matter w hat y ou c hoose to do w hen y ou l eav e uni v er si ty . Ef f ec ti v e c ommuni c ati on i s a k ey to suc c ess i n many w al k s of l i f e. Ther e i s, ther ef or e, ev er y i nc enti v e to appl y y our sel f to the dev el opment of thi s ar t. Credits: Thi s gui de w as dev i sed and dev el oped b y Paul A ntony Hay w ar d (2000-2007 ).

Contact Details: Depar tment of Hi stor y , Lanc aster U ni v er si ty , Lanc aster LA 1 4YG, U N ITED KIN GDOM | Emai l : hi st or y @l anc aster .ac .uk | Tel : +44-1 524-592554 | Fax : +44-1 524-8461 02. Credits: Thi s si t e i s mai nt ai ned b y Dr Paul Hay w ar d. Pl ease r epor t any pr ob l ems to p.hay w ar d@l anc aster .ac .uk . Copy right: Depar tment of Hi stor y , Lanc aster U ni v er si ty | Disclaimer: as per uni v er si ty pol i c y .