NITROGEN CYCLE:
element=pure substance that cannot be broken down further
cycle=movement of chemical/substance throughout ecosystem in diff forms
Nitrogen is needed for life. Plants use to make substances required. However they cannot use
N2 gas. they need it combined with other elements. eg: hydrogen, oxygen
free nitrogen is not usable. instead it has to be 'fixed' with other compounds.
Bacteria (in root nodules of alfalfa beans clover)separate nitrogen atoms and these atoms can
now form compounds with other elements.
Lightning also converts free nitrogen to nitrogen compounds. already combined with elements
after fixation:
plants use compounds containing nitrogen.
It is part of chlorophyll pigment (helps get sunlight) animals then eat plants. bodies use nitrogen
to create more complex substances, such as proteins.
bacteria break down nitrogen containing molecules in dead organisms and in animal waste.
nitrogen can move from soil to living organisms several times.
eventually nitrogen containing compounds are broken down further by bacteria and nitrogen is
released back into environment as free gas
Human activities that impact environmental chemicals:
growing crops, disposing wastes, treating wastewater,driving vehicles, manufacturing
HYDROCARBON COMBUSTION:
coal, natural gas, oil called fossil fuels because they made by dead animals and plants.
called hydrocarbons because mainly made of hydrogen+carbon.
may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and trace amounts of mercury + lead (etc.)
when burned they produce large amounts of CO2 and water vapor
hydrocarbon + oxygen (oxidation/burning) ---> carbon dioxide+water+energy
combustion of hydrocarbon may release pollutants such as sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides traces
of mercury+lead
Uses: crude oil in vehicles, natural gas in homes
coal is used for electricity generation
PH SCALE:
measures acidity. any substance that dissolves in water to produce solution with ph of less than
7=acid. if greater than 7=base/alkaline. 7=neutral
eg: battery acid=0.5, ammonia=12.6
Each number is 10x different. PH of 6 is 100 times more acidic than ph of 8. ph of 13 is 10x
more basic than ph of 12.
NEUTRALIZATION:
acid-base reaction which produces water+type of salt
hydrochloric acid+sodium hydroxide=table salt+water
if upset stomach u may take antacid (mild base) which reacts with acid in stomach to form
compounds less upsetting to stomach.
ACID RAIN:
when co2 + sulfur dioxide + nitrogen oxides are released from factories they dissolve in water to
become acids (nitric acid, carbonic acid, sulfuric acid)
droplets of acid then fall as acid rain. acid rain is harmful cuz it causes streams to become more
acidic, harms organisms living in it.
also increases rate of deterioration in buildings and monuments.
ACID RAIN NEUTRALIZATION:
acid is weak. about 5.6 is ph of carbonic acid. in some areas it can be as low as 3 tho. lakes in
ontario+quebec have become so acidic that organisms cant live their anymore.
acidic lakes can be treated with lime (calcium hydroxide). reaction makes calcium sulfate+water.
if all acid+base is used up = neutral
How Organisms take in Substances:
Nutrients enter plant through roots (diffusion). water enters through osmosis in roots.
(passive)diffusion=movement of particles from area of high concentration to low concentration
until equilibrium is reached
(passive)osmosis=diffusion of water through semi-permeable membrane
active transport=movement of particles from area of low concentration to area of high
concentration in roots of plant by using energy.
Plants need high concentration of nutrients in roots. concentration in roots may be higher than
soil, but to maintain plants need to move nutrients from area of low concentration to area of high
concentration.
plants take in inorganic and make organic substances. animals eat plants. humans eat plants or
animals.
plants may take in other chemicals when absorbing what they need. if they take in mercury it
could result in biomagnification.
Ingestion: the process of taking food, drink, or another substance into the body by swallowing
Inhalation: act of inhaling a substance
Absorption: absorbing substance through pores in skin
Hydrolysis: reaction of substance with water which breaks it down (large food molecules)
science: environmental chemistry
Chemicals: (biogeochemicals) - elements and compounds in our environment
-Organic
Chemicals including carbon, oxygen, hydrogen bonds - carbs sugars fats lipids proteins
-inorganic
chemicals that do not contain carbon, hydrogen bonds- elements, simple compounds, minerals,
vitamins
Beneficial chemicals:
Oxygen, calcium, iron, glucose(building block+energy storehouse)
Harmful Chemicals:
Sulphur dioxide
Ozone
Pesticides
TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE:
If the elements and compounds required are too much or too little it can harm living things that
use them
BALANCE IS ESSENTIAL
Earth is a closed system-every chemical is involved in a cycle
Common essentials for living things:
Nutrients:elements needed for living growing and reproducing
Macronutrients: substances needed in large quantities- phosphorus calcium carbon hydrogen
oxygen
micronutrients: Trace amounts-selenium
The optimum amount of a substance is the amount that provides an organism with the best
health
Organic substances produced by living things:
Types: carbs lipids proteins nucleic acids
Most chemicals in living things are organic compounds
Carbs: These compounds can be SIMPLE glucose, fructose, sucrose or COMPLEX starch
cellulose glycogen. glucose is created through photosynthesis
CO2+H2O+light---->C6H12O6+O2
Lipids (Fats)
Organic molecules- include fats oils waxes
produced by plants+animals
primary form of energy storage
fat molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol
Proteins:
composed of CHO and nitrogen. source of energy and form of energy storage
essential for growth and repair
proteins are made up of amino acids linked up in a chain of a specific sequence
Diff proteins have diff amino acid sequences
Nucleic Acids: large complex molecules found in living things
responsible for the transmission of genetic characteristics and in controlling cellular activities
DNA
RNA
How do chemicals enter the environment?
Photosynthesis-occurs in plants algae cyanobactertia and lichens
Cellular Respiration-conversion within the cell of nutrients into chemical energy in the form of
ATP
food reacts with oxygen until completely degraded to CO2 and H2O
Combustion-exothermic reaction of material with oxygen gas or other . Product of oxidant
(burning) (result in oxides)
Metabolism sum of all enzyme related catalyzed reactions in living cells. waste products are
produced and eliminated by body in numerous ways
How do chemicals get in living things?
Diffusion+osmosis(diffusion of water through semipermeable membrane (cell membrane)
Active Transport-
Transport of ions, nutrients, or other molecules into a cell against a concentration gradiant. this
process uses energy
passive transport= energy not needed happens naturally
Active transport uses ATP to get from low to high.
Ingestion
inhalation
absorption-movement through pores
-BIOMAGNIFICATION
can occur if hazardous wastes enter food chain. accumalation of toxin within the upper levels of
food chain. the lower levels take in toxins and it keeps on going until apex predator will have
injested a high amount of tox
-BIOACCUMALATION
is biomagnification within only one body
-LD50
used to measure toxicity levels for a certain chemicals
represents amount of a specific chemical that can cause a death in 50% of the population
Bioindicators indicate quality of environment.
Topic 2
Monitoring Water Quality:
● lakes become cloudy in summer because of algae growth
○ reduces oxygen content in lake
● organisms in cloudy lakes are different from clear lakes as they have diff amount of
oxygen needs
● eg: die when less dissolved oxygen in water
● clarity is not reliable indicator for water quality
○ acid rain may fall in lakes that remain clear
○ clear water may be harmful for organisms
● Water quality is determined relative to what its used for
Biological Indicators
● indicator organisms help determine water quality
○ fish,plants,worms,insects,plankton,protozoa,bacteria,viruses
● MICROBIOLOGICAL INDICATORS:
○ microscopic organisms can cause health problems if present in large numbers
○ samples are taken of water to determine bacteria strain+amount
○ If content is too high additional water treatment is conducted
● other biological indicators do not cause illness but show effects of pollution
● eg: if organism who need large amount of dissolved oxygen are found the water has a
high amount of dissolved oxygen
● water temperature and ph of water also affects types of organisms found in it.
Aquatic Diversity:
● if ph of water is less than 5 fish will be scarce
● insects are sensitive to water high in acidity and low in dissolved oxygen
● Low dissolved oxygen+high acidity=low diversity
● High diversity does not mean that water is safe to drink. must be tested before human
use
Chemicals Factors Affecting Organisms:
● water is never completely pure
○ contains many organic+inorganic compounds
○ concentration of compounds affects water quality
● Common indicators of water quality:
○ dissolved oxygen
○ acidity
○ heavy metals
○ plant nutrients (nitrogen+phosphorus)
○ pesticides
○ salts
● concentration of chemicals is measured in parts per million or mg/l
○ g of solute / g of solution x 106
○ mL of solute / mL of solution x 106
○ mg of solute/liters of solution
Dissolved Oxygen:
● essential for health of aquatic life
● depends on temperature, turbulence due to wind or speed of moving water, amount of
photosynthesis, number of organisms using oxygen
● turbulence allows more water to be exposed to air meaning more oxygen is dissolved
● 8 mg/l or ppm is healthy
● 2 is when only worms and midge can survive
Phosphorous + Nitrogen Content
● large amounts of p+n can enter water through runoffs from fertilized fields or sewage
outfalls
● higher concentration causes algae growth reducing dissolved oxygen cuz when they die
decomposing them consumes oxygen and more bacteria come
● when oxygen depletes fish and other organisms cannot survive which is why it is
important to keep the amount of p+n in the soil in control
Acidity
● normal rain has ph of 5.6 because of carbonic acid found in it
○ if lower its considered acid rain
● when acid rain falls it affects acidity of water
○ as acidity increases diversity decreases
○ fish disappear at ph of 4.5
● acid deposition is problem if no bases to neutralize them
○ forests and lakes can become damaged
● spring acid shock is when acid builds up in ice and snow, when it melts acids flow into
water systems
Pesticides
● pesticides are being found in water samples
○ very low concentrations
○ if different pesticides mix it might mix to form a much more toxic substance
LD50
● amount of substance needed to kill 50% of population
● usually done on rats and mice
● the more toxic the lower the ld50 number
Heavy Metals
● metals with density of 5g/cm^3 or more (at least 5 times heavier than water of same
volume.)
● copper, lead,zinc,mercury,cadmium,nickel
● occur naturally in rocks soils and occasionally water
● can be harmful to organisms so are tested during water quality inspection
● acids may increase their exposure to people
Monitoring Air Quality:
● can be measured in two ways:
○ measuring levels of pollutants in the air (more accurate)
■ measure both natural and unnatural sources
○ estimating amount of emissions from pollution sources
Sulfur Dioxide SO2
● major air pollutant that forms smog and acid rain
● can affect respiratory system and irritate eyes
● forms when oxygen reacts with sulfur
● main source is industrial processes or burning hydrocarbons
● devices called scrubbers reduce emissions by 99%.
○ they use limestone (calcium carbonate) to react with sulfur dioxide producing
gypsum (calcium sulfate) which is used in manufacturing
○ (2)sulfer dioxide + (4)water + (2)limestone +(1)oxygen -->(2)gypsum +(2)co2
Nitrogen Oxides NOx
● major air pollutant that forms both smog + acid rain
● affects respiratory + eyes
● x in formula indicates that its a mixture of NO and NO2 and sometimes other oxides of
nitrogen
● form mainly from combustion in vehicles, energy generating plants, and industrial
processes (eg: oil refining)
● nitrogen formed by burning fuels combines with oxygen to create nitrogen monoxide
(NO)
● reacts again with oxygen in atmosphere creating NO2
Both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are carefully monitored within cities
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
● colourless and odourless gas called silent killer
● formed when carbon is burned but not enough oxygen to produce co2
● main source is motor vehicles
○ others are combustion of wood+natural gas, industrial processes, airplanes,
cigarette smoking, forest fires
● major pollutant in cities because of cars
● if inhaled reduces amount of oxygen carried by blood
○ causes headaches sleepiness chest pain brain damage death
○ catalytic converters in vehicles and industry sites convert co into co2
Ground-Level Ozone O3
● ozone protects earth from harmful uv rays, located high above earths upper atmosphere
● it is also found at earths surface but is a harmful pollutant here
● at ground level: forms from reactions between oxygen, nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds
○ voc's are organic chemicals that evaporate easily. some plants and trees emit but
most are manmade (eg:solvents,gasoline)
● major source: fuel combustion+industrial sites
● ground level ozone is mainly a problem in large cities during summer
○ ozone is harmful for people with respiratory problems
■ children at higher risk
○ excersising while inhaling ozone outside causes breathing+lung problems
● ozone can also affect crops
● also causes materials to deteriorate faster
Monitoring Atmosphere:
● chemicals in air cause health effects
● co2 is not pollutant cuz its naturally present
● increase of co2 is bad because it traps heat
● atmospheric gases that trap heat are called greenhouse gases
○ eg: water vapour co2 methane nitrogen oxides
Greenhouse Effect
● the earth is a natural greenhouse as atmosphere traps heat from suns radiant energy.
● keeps earth at temperatures that allow organisms to live,grow,reproduce
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
● many scientists believe greater concentrations of greenhouse gases are resulting in
increase of overall temperatures on earth.
○ called global warming
● water vapour+co2 contribute most to enhanced greenhouse effect
○ co2 emissions are being observed as we emit it in large quantities each day
Ozone Layer
● concentrated layer of ozone absorbs uv rays
○ protects organisms on earth from damaging uv rays
● natural formation of ozone 15-50 km above earths surface
● has been thinning allowing more uv rays through to earth
○ some areas so thin that they are called 'holes' in the ozone
● could have adverse effects on organisms such as plankton which are extremely
sensitive
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
● thinning of ozone is caused by use of cfcs
○ used in fridges, aerosol cans,fire extinguishers
● move slowly from lower atmosphere to upper atmosphere where uv radiation breaks
them down into substances such as chlorine which destroy ozone
○ chlorine reacts with ozone to produce O2
○ one chlorine atom can remove 100,000 ozone molecules
● many countries have starting monitoring and reducing their use of cfcs
Topic 3
molecules of substances can travel long distances
eg: mercury can remain airborne for 2 years
pollutant may be created in one country but be deposited in another country
can also be carried in water which knows no boundaries
Transport in Air:
1. Release of chemical from source
2. Dispersion in atmosphere (scatter in various directions
3. Deposition of chemical in soil or water
direction and distance travelled by airborne chemicals depends on:
pollutants properties, wind speed, direction of prevailing winds
eg: in alberta winds come from west. chemicals go eastward
Precipitation may affect distribution as well
airborne chem. will be deposited closer to source if carried to ground by rain or snow
chemicals travel across borders so its international problem.
countries have signed anti-pollution and passed laws to limit spread of airborne pollutants
Transport in Surface Water:
● can enter surface water in many ways
○ air, groundwater, runoff from agricultural fields + industrial sites, outflow from
storm sewers + sewage treatment plants
● Not a problem if concentration is very low
● dispersed+carried away with water
● problem if not dispersed and concentrations gradually increase
● easily dissolved substances can be carried + dispersed further
● if not dissolved easily they may attach to solids (eg: soil grains)
○ will not travel as far
○ sink and become concentrated close to source
○ may build-up at bottom of lakes+streams and affect organisms living there
Transport in Soil:
● water landing on lawn/field does one of four things:
○ some evaporates
○ some soaks into soil and absorbed by plants
○ some runs onto street or into stream
○ some soaks through soil and moves downwards. it dissolves substances in the
soil and carries them along. such liquid is called leachate
● composition of soil affects rate of movement of liquid
● denser materials reduce speed of liquid or can be impermeable
○ eg: landfills lined with impermeable clay. prevents water from escaping into soil
with harmful chemicals
● organic material (decayed leaves) can slow movement if chem. are absorbed
● chem. can become attached to soil particles + movement is slowed/stopped
hazardous acids can become neutralized by bases in soil
other hazardous materials can be changes also
Transport in Groundwater:
● water soaks into soil. moves deeper and enters zone where all spaces between soil are
filled with water. this water is called water.
● top of groundwater zone is called water table
○ wells use ground water
● can move up down or sideways as slow as 1m a year or 1m a day (not as fast as rivers
or streams)
○ factors affecting movement: number and connection of pores (spaces between
soil grains)
○ if soil is tightly packed no pores are connected making it hard for water to move
through
○ permeable soil has interconnected pores
○ pollutants transported further if its through permeable osil
● contaminants can be man-made or natural
● because slow contaminants cannot be dispersed
● may increase in concentration over time. problem if used for drinking or agriculture or
industrial use
●
Changing concentration of harmful chemicals in environment
concentration of pollutants in environment can be changed:
dispersion: scattering of substance away from source.
dilution: reduces concentration by mixing pollutant with larger quantities of water+air. eg: drop of
bleach in sink full of water will cause bleach to dilute as particle spread
dilution and dispersion can reduce concentration but may not leave an area clean enough. can
be paired with another clean-up process:
biodegradation: organisms break up organic substances, including pollutants. eg: earthworms,
fungi, algae, bacteria.
affected by temperature (cold is bad), soil moisture, ph, oxygen supply, and nutrient availability.
planting vegetation encourages biodegradation as microorganism are present more
phytoremediation: reduces concentration of pollutants in groundwater by using plants which
absorb + accumulate unusually large amounts of metals from soils. plants grow and then are
harvested and burned or composted. once plants used for
phyto(plant)remediation(cure/correction) have cleaned soil other plants can be planted.
photolysis: breakdown of compounds by light.
Bacteria:
diff organisms need different circumstances:
breakdown substances in 2 diff ways:
aerobic biodegradation is done using oxygen
anaerobic degradation is done without using oxygen
● anaerobic bacteria remove chlorine from harmful compounds and replace with hydrogen.
chlorine is then used for food by bacteria removing pollutant
Biomagnification:
● increase of chemical as it moves up food chain
○ algae take in mercury. insects must eat a lot of algae to survive increasing
concentration in their bodies. fish must eat a lot of insects. and humans must eat
a lot of fish meaning we have highest mercury concentration
● Bioaccumulation: build up of chemical within organism when intake exceeds secretion.
introduced to organism through abiotic factors(soil,water,air) or dietary ingestion
