2023/01/08 (19:10) ~ 2023/01/21 (16:28)

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Ecosystem
Ecology: a study of interactions among organisms and with their environment

Ecosystem: an area that has many diverse plants, animals and environment
- has cycling of matters between biotic and abiotic components
- energy drives the entire ecosystem; the actual solar energy diverted into living things is
small in reaction to the total amount the Earth receives, only 10% of the energy passes
through the food chain
Food chain: transfer of food energy from plants and other organisms

Abiotic factors: the physical environment

Biotic factors: all the living things within the physical environment

Habitat (栖息地): a place within an ecosystem where a living thing lives (in)
Niche: the combination of the job an organism does and the place in which it lives

Outcome 1: Biogeochemical cycle

Biogeochemical cycle: is the circular path of the chemical elements passing back and forth
between organisms (bio) and the non-living organisms (environment/geo)
- natural cycles are very dependent on one another

Carbon Cycle
Carbon is continually being withdrawn from the air as CO2 to be used in photosynthesis

4 Pools of carbon: ocean (water dissolved CO2); air; biota (green plants and animals);
fossil fuels and peat/humus (organic matter in soil)
- the main reservoir (pool) of carbon is dissolved in the ocean
- carbon is NOT recycled quickly in coal and oil; it is stored in beds of peat

Decayed plants’ and animals’ dead bodies are important natural sources; green plants use
these materials to produce food for the world

Carbon is a key element for living things; it exists in organic matter and inorganic matter
Organic matter: substances that always contain atoms of H and C
 Inorganic matter: substances that do NOT contain H and C
- is always taken and recycled into more complex organic substances

Photosynthesis (光合作用): is the process undergone by green plants use sunlight,

water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular respiration (呼吸): is a chemical process in which oxygen is used to make

energy from sugars (carbohydrates)
- when organisms use sugar, they break down into energy through respiration
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is required for DNA, also a factor in plant growth
- animals obtain N2 through the proteins they consume; some plants may also obtain N 2 in
the same way

Nitrogen fixation: a process that can change nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrate and ammonia

3 Methods of nitrogen fixation:

Atmosphere Fixation (Lightning): a small amount of N2 is fixed into NO3⁻ (nitrate) by the
energy from lightning; causing a reaction with O2 in the atmosphere

Haber Process (Industrial Fixation): atmosphere N2 and H2 are combined to form NH3
- under great pressure and a temp of 600℃, with the use of a catalyst
Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria (Biological): certain bacteria can change N2 into NO3⁻ and
NH3

2 Types of bacteria:
Free-living bacteria (30%): have the ability to combine N2 with H2 to make NH3 (ammonia)
Symbiotic relationship bacteria (70%): can be found in legumes’ nodules on the roots

Ammonification: when organisms excrete nitrogenous wastes and when bacteria decompose
after death; produce NH3 as a by-produce

Nitrification: certain bacteria convert ammonia to NO2⁻ and then NO3⁻

Denitrification: break NO3⁻ into NO2⁻, then into N2 for release back into the atmosphere by
special bacteria

Source of nitrogen: 1. crop, lawn and garden fertilizer; 2. household wastewater; 3.

eroded soil

Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen moves from one place to another in the lithosphere (land), hydrosphere, and
atmosphere
- water vapour breaking by ultraviolet radiation will release oxygen
- colder water will hold more oxygen
Ways to help oxygen cycle:
- plant more trees
- recycle papers and building materials
- reduce consumption of fossil fuels

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorous: an essential component of nucleic acids and ATP, cycles very slowly and tends
to be local
- has no atmospheric component
- is always limiting in aquatic systems

2 Important bacterial actions:

Bacterial decomposition: breaking down the dead organisms and excreted products
Phosphating bacteria: breaking down products and returning phosphate to the soil

Eutrophication: excess phosphorus entering water bodies; due to excessive algal and weed
growth
- algae cover the water surface 🠞 plants can not go through photosynthesis, no O 2 has
produced 🠞 algae died, use the O2 to decay 🠞 lack of O2 in the water 🠞 species died 🠞
died water
What is needed for all living things to break down glucose？

Outcome 2: Factors that Disrupt Biogeochemical Cycles

1. Overuse of fertilizers or herbicides
- causes excessive phosphorous, nitrogen, and sulfur release into the soil
2. Combustion of fossil fuels
- adds CO2 into the air
- CO2 traps the heat emitted from the Earth
- creates a large number of organic nitrogen compounds
3. Deforestation
- slows down r=the rate in which CO2 enters biota
- an excessive amount of CO2 into the atmosphere, the Greenhouse Effect
4. Human and animal waste mismanagement
- concentration of livestock in feeding lot creates a large number of organic
nitrogen compounds
5. Volcanic activity
- cause extensive damage to the ecosystems surrounding volcanoes; like the
destruction of forests, huge clouds of ash and dust were sent into the atmosphere
6. Fire
- destroys biota, affecting the cycling of all materials
- also necessary to maintain some ecosystems
 Outcome 3: Bioaccumulation and its Impact on Consumers
Bioaccumulation: the amount of toxin inside the organisms increases as the trophic level
goes up, moving from primary to secondary to tertiary consumer
- occurs when non-biodegradable substances are concentrated and stored in organisms
(cannot be used or broken down), is the result of non-cycling of matter in ecosystems
- E.g. PCBs in beluga whales; DDP in eagle

Biodegradable (生物降解): a substance that is broken down naturally in the environment

Non-biodegradable: substances are broken down very slowly or not broken down at all
- E.g. DDT; mercury; glass
- can be absorbed from water
- store in the fat
Toxin: a pollutant that affects living organisms
- E.g. DDT; mercury

Biomagnification: the process of the toxins in organisms (bioaccumulation) are passed up in

the food chain. Increase the concentration of toxins in the living animals. The top
carnivore would have the greatest concentration of toxins.

Outcome 4: Carrying Capacities of Ecosystems

Population: a group of organisms that belong to the same species that live in a certain area

Properties of population
Distribution: the share of inhabitants by types of organisms in a given area

3 Patterns of distribution of population:

Clumped: grouped in clumps or aggregate E.g. elephants
Uniform: competition among individuals for factors such as light, space, moisture,
nutrients, and water E.g. dandelions
Random: neither an attraction nor repulsion among the members E.g. penguins

Size and density of population: the # of organisms of the same species sharing the same
habitat at the same time
- formula D (density) = N (total # of individuals) / S (space)
- 70/growth rate = the total # of people will be doubled (Size/growth rate)
4 Factors of changes in population size:
Natality: # of offspring of a species born in 1 year
Mortality: # of individuals of a species that die in 1 year
Immigration: # of individuals of a species moving into an existing population
Emigration: # of individuals of a species moving out of an existing population

Dynamic equilibrium (steady state): population in the ecosystem remains realistically

stable over a long term

Growth Curves
Growth curve: a graph used to show the changes in a population over a specific length of
time

Open population: density changes result from the interaction of all 4 factors

Closed population: density changes are the result of natality and mortality only; neither
food nor wastes are allowed to enter or leave the given environment

4 Phases of growth curve:

Lag phase: the adjustment period prior to accelerated reproduction by the population
Log (exponential) phase: the accelerated reproduction; natality > mortality
Stationary phase: the equilibrium between natality and mortality
Death (decline) phase: a constant decline in the population; natality < mortality

Exponential growth (J curve): where the population doubles at every division and
increases constantly
- often followed by a very rapid decline in population (death phase); caused by lack of food
or competition
Logistic curve (S curve): tends to level off at the stationary phase

Carrying capacity: the optimum # of organisms of a particular species that can be

supported by a particular environment
- when a population reaches the carrying capacity, certain factors prevent the population
from increasing further; the population has reached the steady state of dynamic
equilibrium
- function will occur when the average growth rate in the steady state is zero

Biotic potential: the max # of offspring the population can produce

- balanced by the limits of tolerance
 Outcome 5: Limiting Factors that Influence Population Dynamics
Density-independent limiting factors (DI): factors that affect members of a population
regardless of its population density
- include natural occurrences and human activity
- E.g. fires; drought; extreme heat or cold

Density-dependent limiting factors (DD): factors arising from population density that
affect members of a population
- tend to operate when a population is large and crowded
- E.g. competition; disease; food supply; predation

Outcome 6: Population Graphs

Population graphs: histograms with population along the horizontal axis and age along the
vertical axis
- drawn with horizontal bars
- each bar represents the # of organisms of a certain age group
- one bar for males, and one bar for females

Increasing population: many offspring are being produced by the organisms of

reproductive age

Decreasing population: has many organsms of reproductive age but few offspring

Steady population: having just enough offspring to replace themselves

Outcome 9: Biodiversity & Ecosystem Sustainability

Diversity and stability:
- Ecosystems serve many functions; help keep soils fertile and can prevent erosion
Food web: all the food chain in an ecosystem form an interrelated complex
- the more cross connecting links, the greater its stability

Extinction: a natural process that usually happens in response to environmental changes

Pathway to extinction:
Special concern: at risk; because of low #s at the fringe of its range or in some restricted
area
Threatened: likely to become endangered
Endangered: close to extinction
Extirpated: no longer exists in one part of the world
Extinct: no longer found anywhere in the Earth

Chemistry
Atom: a smallest piece of an element
Protons (p+): “+” charged particles
Neutrons (n0): “0” charged
Electrons (e-): “-” charged particles
- same # of p+ and e- made the atom have neutral charge
- the mass is found in nucleus (p+ & e-)

Energy level (electron shell): a certain distance from the nucleus, and has a definite
amount of energy
Stable octet: Valence shell with a full # of valence e-; stay stable

Valence electrons: e- in the valence shell (outer energy level)

Periodic table:
Periods #: how many shells the atom has
Groups or families #: # of e- in the valence shell
- elements within a group share similar physical and chemical properties
Properties of metals: Properties of non-metals:
1. Solid at room temp 1. Gas or liquid at room temp
2. High lustre (shiny) 2. Brittle or break easily in solid form
3. Malleable (into sheets) 3. Not shiny or malleable
4. Ductile (drawn into wire) 4. Act as an insulator
5. Conductors (heat and electricity) 5. Non-conductors
6. High density 6. Low density
7. High melting point and boiling point 7. Low melting and boiling point

Ions: the atoms that have a charge

Anion: atom has a “-’’ charge (more e-)
Cation: atom has a “+” charge (less e-)
- always write the number before the charge

Isotopes (name - #): atoms of the same element that have a diff # of n0

Lewis dot diagrams:

- only valence e- are represented
- single dots around 4 sides before dots start pairing up
- ions are shown with [] around the element symbol and the charge as a superscript ( 1+
)
outside the bracket
- non-metals with neg. charge need to draw all 8 dots in bracket

Compounds
Ionic bonds: when metals give their e to non-metals; are held by electrostatic attractions
-

- exist as large macromolecules in a crystal lattice

Formula unit: the smallest unit of an ionic compound

Covalent bonds (molecular substance): two non-metals share their valence e- to obtain
their stable octets
- share a pair of valence e-
Molecule: the smallest unit of a covalent compound
- has diff characteristic properties from the atoms that forms it
Diatomic molecules: formed between two atom of the same element
- E.g. H2; O2; F2; Br2 (l); I2; N2; Cl2
- E.g. P4 (s); S8 (s)

3 Types of covalent bonds:

Single covalent bond: sharing of 2 e-, 1 from each atom
Double covalent bond: sharing of 4 e-, 2 from each atom
Triple covalent bond: sharing of 6 e-, 3 from each atom

Polyatomic ions: composed of several atoms joined covalently

- charge is for the collection of atoms, NOT just for the atom written last

per-root-ate root-ate root-ite hypo-root-ite

Greatest amount Remove an oxygen as you move from left to right Least amount of
of oxygen Charge stay the SAME oxygen

Chemical Formulas & Naming

Chemical formula: a shorthand method used to represent compounds that uses the
elements’ symbols and subscripts
- write symbol for the cation first, followed by the anion, with the charge of the ion they
would form
- make the sum of the charges of the ions zero; the # of pos. charges equal the # of neg.
- use subscripts to indicate the # of atoms
- more than one polyatomic ion: put rounded brackets around the ion, followed by a
subscript

Naming:
- name the first element
- multivalent: look at non-metal ions to determine the total pos. Charge, indicate the
charge using Roman numerals
- covalent: use prefixes for each element in the compound
- do NOT use mono for the first element
- leave off the “a” on prefix if the element starts with a vowel (元音)
- name the root of the second element and change the ending to “-ide”
- do NOT change the ending if it’s polyatomic ions

From name to the formula:

- multivalent: use the roman numerals to determine the total pos. charge
- covalent: write the symbol with the subscript indicated by the prefix

Subscript Prefix Subscript Prefix Molecular Substance & Common Names

1 mono 6 hexa water H2O ozone O3

2 di 7 hepta ammonia NH3 hydrogen H2O2

peroxide
3 tri 8 octa methane CH4

4 tetra 9 nona methanol CH3OH

5 penta 10 deca ethanol C2H5OH

Term
Symbol: represents 1 atom of that element

Subscript: a # written in the bottom right-hand corner

- behind the symbol: indicate the # of atoms of that element
- behind the bracket: multiplies all the elements inside the brackets

Coefficient: # written in front of a chemical symbol/formula

- indicates the # of atoms, formula units, or molecules in an equation - it applies to the
whole formula unit/molecule
- can be changed to balance an equation
- if no coefficient is shown in front of a molecule, it means the coefficient is 1

Balancing Equations
Law of Conservation of mass: matter can be changed from one form into another;
mixture can be separated or made; pure substance can be decomposed; but total amount of
mass remain the constant; the total mass of the reactant is the same as the total mass of
products

Symbol Meaning:

+ and; is mixed with; reacts with

→ produces; results in

(s) solid phase (pure substance)

(l) liquid phase (pure substance)

(g) gas phase (pure substance)

(aq) aqueous (dissolved in water)

Formats of word statements:

… reacts (combines) with … to produce … (solution) and …
… combusts with … to produce … and …
A solution of … is mixed with … to create … and …

Chemical Change & Reactions

4 Chemical changes:
Precipitate formation: a new substance with lower solubility is formed
- liquid+ liquid → solid + …
Gas formation: a new substance, a gas is produced
Major color change: change in major color
Energy change: heat or light is released (exothermic); heat or light is absorbed
(endothermic)
5 Chemical reactions:
Hydrocarbon combustion: chemical compounds made up mainly H and C atoms
- general formula: CnHm… + n+m/4 O2 → n CO2 + m/2 H2O
Combustion (burning): very rapid reaction of a substance with O2 to produce compounds
called oxide

Synthesis (single composition): combination of smaller atoms/molecules into larger one

- general formula: A + B → AB

Decomposition: reverse of synthesis reaction

- AB → A + B

Single replacement: 2 likely charged elements will change place (if possible)
- A + BC → AC + B
- use activity series

Double replacement: the ions switch partners

- AB + CD → AD + CB
- reaction will occurs when at least one products is solid, gas or liquid
- use solubility table

Reversible reaction: reactions that will go both ways (synthesis & decomposition) in the
right condition; use a double arrow

Neutralization reaction: when an acid reacts with a basse; producing a salt and water

Molecular Mass
How to calculate: multiply the subscript with the element’s atomic mass and add the
masses together
amu: atomic mass unit

Acids & Bases

Electrolyte: any substance that conducts an electric current (when in a water solution)
- strong electrolyte would break almost completely into ions in water

Acids: molecular substance that break
apart in water to produce the hydrogen ion
(H ) and an anion; more H in the solution
+ +
Bases: molecular substance that break
apart in water to produce the
Hydroxide ion (OH-)
the stronger the acid

- have a sour taste - have a bitter taste

- can burn your skin - can burn your skin
- react strongly with metals - feel slippery
- they are corrosive - they are caustic
- pH less than 7.0 - pH greater than 7.0

Strong — Strong —
Hydrochloric acid HCl Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Nitric acid HNO3 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Weak —
Perchloric acid HClO4 Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
Hydroiodic acid HI Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
Hydrobromic acid HBr
Weak —
Acetic acid CH3COOH
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Citric acid C₆H₈O₇
 Physical
Kinematics
Kinematics: the study of motion of objects without reference to the focus the motion

Scalar: quantities that only have a size

- are represented by letters in italic type

Vector: quantities that have both size and direction

- direction is usually found in square brackets after the unit
- represented either with boldface type or with an arrow above the symbol

Δ (delta): change in
- final minus initial

Time: the duration of an event; scalar

- SI: s; h
- symbol: t, ti, t1 (initial time); tf, t2 (final time)

Distance: the total length of a journey; scalar

- SI: m
- symbol: d

Position: an object’s location in terms of a “frame of reference”; vector

- SI: m
- symbol: "d" with an arrow on top

Displacement: change in position; vector

- SI: m
- symbol: "Δd" with an arrow on top
- if an object ends up where it started, the displacement is 0

Speed: the distance covered in a certain time; scalar

- SI: m/s; km/h
- symbol: v

Velocity: speed and direction of motion; vector

- SI: m/s; km/h
- symbol: "Δv" with an arrow on top

Acceleration: how much an object’s speed or velocity changes in a certain time

- SI: m/s2; km/h/s
- symbol: "Δv or v" with an arrow on top

Drawing vector:
Vector: a line segment that represents the size and direction
- add vectors tip to tail to get the resultant vector

Speed Velocity Avg. speed Avg. velocity Avg. velocity Accel

v = d/(Δ)t v⇀ = Δd/(Δ)t vav = Σd/Σt v⇀av = ΔdR/Δt v⇀av = (v1+v2)/2 a⇀ = Δv⇀/Δt

Instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at a particular point in time

Constant speed: the speed remain the same for a period of time
Average speed: overall rate of change of position form start to finish

Graphing

Shape: Δd-t graph velocity-t graph

straight pos. - constant, pos. velocity - speeding up

sloping line - from pos. position - constant pos. acc.
(above x-axis) - pos. velocity

straight pos. - constant, pos. velocity - slowing down

sloping line - from neg. position - constant pos. acc.
(below x-axis) - neg. velocity

straight neg. - constant, neg. velocity - slowing down

sloping line - from pos. position - constant neg. acc.
(above x-axis) - pos. velocity

straight neg. - constant, neg. velocity - speeding up

sloping line - from neg. position - constant neg. acc.
(below x-axis) - neg. velocity

straight - at rest - const. velocity

horizontal line - pos. position - pos. velocity
(above x-axis)

straight - at rest - const. velocity

horizontal line - neg. position - neg. velocity
 (below x-axis)

curved line - pos. velocity - pos. velocity

upward to right - pos. acc. - pos. acc.
(above x-axis) - pos. position

curved line - pos. velocity - neg. velocity

upward to right - pos. acc. - pos. acc.
(below x-axis) - neg. position

curved line - neg. velocity - pos. velocity

downward to right - neg. acc. - neg. acc.
(above x-axis) - pos. position

curved line - neg. velocity - neg. velocity

downward to right - neg. acc. - neg. acc.
(above x-axis) - neg. position

a point o the x-axis at the origin at rest

slope means velocity acceleration

Dynamics
Dynamics: studies both the motion and the forces which cause the motion

Aristotle (亚里士多德): greek philosopher

- every terrestrial object had a “natural” motion toward the center of the Earth; an
object’s weight governed the speed at which it would fall
- a continuous force was necessary to keep an object moving
- objects would be in violent motion under the influence of an external force, if it moved
other than towards the Earth’s center

Galileo Galilei (伽利略): the founder of modern science

- believed in the idea of controlled experiments
- found Aristotle’s claims quantitatively is false
- a body moving on a horizontal plane will continue at the same speed unless a force
opposes it
- in a vacuum, all bodies fall at the same acceleration regardless of their mass or
composition
- all bodies falling freely or rolling down an inclined plane will accel. at a constant rate
- explain kinematics
Sir Isaac Newton (牛顿): Newton’s 3 laws of motion

Newton’s 1st law (law of inertia 惯性): an object in motion will remain in motion, at
the same speed and direction, an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an
outside(unbalanced) force
- interia is not a kind of force

Force: anything that causes the displacement or deformation of an object or shape

- force is directly related to acceleration
- accel. and mass is inversely related
- force is proportional to mass

Newton’s 2nd law: when an unbalanced force is exerted on an object, the object accel. in
the direction of the force according o the relationship

Newton’s 3rd law (action-reaction law): for every action force, there exits a reaction
force that is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction

Momentum (quantity of motion): an object’s mass with its velocity

- SI: kg m/s
- symbol: p
- total momentum in any system is conserved

Impulse: product between force and time

- SI: Ns
- symbol: J; Δp

Law of conservation of energy: energy can be neither be created nor destroyed; can
change from one form to another
- the total quantity(量) of energy does not change during transformation
- energy will be dissipated through the transfer

Energy: the ability to do work

Kinetic energy: energy of motion
Potential energy: energy of position
Heat energy: energy of molecules in motion
Sound energy: disturbance of a medium

Force Momentum Impulse Stopping

 Time
F = ma mbvb + movo = mbvb + movo = p = mv FΔt = mΔv = D = vt + kv2
(mb + mo)vboth mbvb’ + movo’ Δp
 Weather
Weather and the Atmosphere
Weather: the condition of the air around us
- 4 causes: temperature, moisture, air pressure, and wind

Climate: an area’s typical pattern of weather and temp over a long time

Atmosphere: a blanket of air that surround the Earth

- a mixture of gasses; ¾ (78%) nitrogen gas, 21% oxygen gas
- uses: cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and nitrification (make proteins)

Troposphere: the layer closest to the earth

- contains enough air for breath
- where weather occurs

Stratosphere: from troposphere to 50 km above the Earth

- contains ozone (03)
- keep most of the sun’s harmful radiation from reaching Earth

Mesosphere & Thermosphere: layers outside the Stratosphere

- air become thinner and thinner

Hydrosphere: All the water on the Earth’s surface

The Earth’s Radiation Budget

Energy from the sun is absorbed by gasses, dust particles, clouds and surface, the rest is
reflected
51% absorbed by surface > 30% reflected and scattered > 19% absorbed by clouds and
atmosphere

3 Methods of energy transfer:

Radiation: moving particles create waves that send the energy to another object
- do NOT need a medium to travel through
- energy is given by waves hit the other object
- it’s the only way for the sun’s energy to reach us

Conduction: heat moves from one to another place without the molecules actually change in
position
- energy is transferred through the collisions of molecules
- best conductors are metals; can also occur in rock, soil and water
- it’s largely how the atmosphere gets heated ⟶ warm surface heats the air above it by conduction

Convection: a group of molecules move from one place to another carrying their heat
energy with them
- energy is transferred through the movement of particles
- the warm air above the surface will rise taking its heat energy with it and helping to
heat more of the atmosphere
- E.g. currents in oceans; air circulation in a house

Albedo: ability of a substance to reflect energy

- good absorbers will also be a good emitters
- if a substance can absorbed a high amount of energy, it will also give off a lot of energy
- good absorbers are clean ice and snow

Heat sink: an object that can absorb energy and become warmer
- oceans are great heat sinks; rocks and soil are poor heat sinks

Clouds
Cloud: a mass of water droplets or ice crystals that floats in the air

3 Main types of clouds:

Cirrus: white and feathery; high; made of ice crystals
- rain or snow is coming within a day

Cumulus: thick, white, and fluffy; like a piles of cotton; lower; made of water droplets
- sunny summer day, fair weather

Stratus: gray clouds; cover most of the sky; low

- rain or snow is coming

Fog: stratus cloud forms on the ground; forms when air that is holding a lot of water cools
off quickly at night

-nimbus: means that s cloud is heavy and dark and will bring rain

Humidity
Humidity: amount of water vapor in the air
- changes depending on the air temp; warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air
- places near the equator are more humidity than the poles

Temperature
Temperature: a measure of how hot or cold something is
- affects the weather
- measured in Kelvin(K), Celsius(℃), Fahrenheit(℉)

Kelvin is used in chemistry; Kelvin Zero or Absolute Zero, where all molecular motion would
stop; both Kelvin and celsius have equal-sized units
Water frozen at 0℃, 273K, or 32℉

What Makes the Weather Change?

Air mass: a huge body of air moves together, have the same humidity and temp all through
it
- weather depends on the kind of air mass

4 Main kind of air mass: cold & dry; cold & wet; warm & dry; warm & wet
- form over water have wet air; near the equator has warm air

Front: when two air masses meet; where most change in weather take place

Cold front: cold air mass moves into a warm mass

- weather changes suddenly
- may bring partly cloudy skies, rain, or snow; cooler temp and clean skies follow after

Warn front: warm air mass moves in over a cold air mass
- may bring wispy cloud, light rain, or snow; warm and humid weathers follow after

Air Pressure
Air pressure: push of air on the Earth
- affect the weather
- air is made of diff gasses, gasses are made of tiny particles that have weight and push
down the Earth
- changed by temp; the particles move apart when air is heated, close together when
cooled
- cold air is heavier and has more pressure than warm air
Low: rising warm air form a low-pressure area

High: falling cold air form a high-pressure area

Wind: caused by the movement of air from high-pressure area to low-pressure area
- the greater the diff in pressure between the areas, the stronger the wind will be

Barometer: tool that used to measure air pressure

The Coriolis Effect

Coriolis Effect: influence of the Earth’s rotation on air, or on any object moving on the
Earth’s surface
- spinning Earth causes the weather system to spin opposite direction in the northern and
southern hemispheres
- noticed least at the equator, most near the poles
- each point on the Earth rotates at diff speed, depending on the latitude
- deflection of wind and ocean currents to the right from the equator in the northern
hemisphere; to the left on the southern hemisphere
- do NOT cause water to swirl down the drain in the opposite direction

Prevailing Wind (盛行风): caused by a combination of convection currents and the

Earth’s eastward rotation
Wind belt: created by the Earth’s rotation and interact of 2 situations
- situation 1: at the North Pole; the cold, dry, dense air; high pressure at the surface
- situation 2: at equator; warm, moist, rises air; low pressure at the surface
3 Wind belt: Polar Easterlies (60°-90°), Prevailing Westerlies (30°-60°), Tropical
Easterlies (0°-30°)

Jet Streams (高速气流 喷射气流): high altitude eastward flowing winds; primary engines of
weather

El Niño (厄尔尼诺现象): a shift in ocean temp and atmospheric condition in the tropical
Pacific that affects weather patterns all around the world

Storms
Storms: a large diff in the temp of the air masses

Thunderstorms: with heavy rain, thunder, and lightning

- in spring and summer in North America
 Lightning: caused by electric charges in cloud
- heats up the air and make it expand very quickly
Thunder: the noise that the expanding air makes

Tornado: a violent but small storm that starts over lans

- winds move in a circle
- a tall, dark cloud n the shape of a funnel
- bottom may touch the ground
- will destroy buildings; lift and throw cars and other objects away

Hurricane: a large storm that forms over an ocean near the equator
- damage islands and coastal areas with high winds and heavy rains
Eye: the center winds spin around, it’s clam (no wind)

Tracking the Weather

Meteorologists: people who study weather
- measure air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed, precipitation, and cloud type
- try to predict how the weather will change

Weather vanes: tell the direction of the wind

Weather balloons: conditions of the atmosphere

Weather satellites: track hurricane and other storms

- is sent up into space

Weather map: show areas of high and low pressure, warm and cold front
- band has same temp at the beginning and at the end