Introduction to Thermal Engineering SYLLABUS Laws of thermodynamics, Heat Engine, Heat Pump, Refrigerator (simple numerical) Modes of Heat Transfer, Conduction, Convection and Radiation, Fourier's Law, Newton's law of Cooling, Stefan Boltzmann's law. (Simple numerical) ‘Two stroke and Four Stroke engines (Petrol, Diesel and CNG engines). Steam generators. Definition of Thermodynamics Thermodynamic System Dimensions and Units Thermal Equilibrium = (Equality of Temperature) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Law of Conservation of Energy First Law of Thermodynamics (Joule's experiment) First Law of Thermodynamics as Applied Closed System Processes Heat Reservoir, Heat Source and Heat Sink Second Law of Thermodynamics Heat Transfer Modes of Heat Transfer Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction Convection Radiation Stefan-Boltzman Law of Radiation Definition of Heat Engine / Thermal Prime Mover Terminology Used in LC. Engines Four Stroke Cycle Engines Comparison Between S.I. (Petrol) Engine and C.l. (Diesel) Engine ‘Two Stroke I.C. Engines Comparison Between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines CNG Engines Boilers or Steam Generators ‘Smoke Tube Boilers Water Tube Boilers Comparison Between Smoke Tube and Water Tube Boilers Package Boilers With Boiler Mountingstoms in Mechanical Engineering Section |: Laws of Thormodynamics 2.4 DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS ls with energy ‘rious applications of apy engineering, thermodynamics inthe field of energy utilization are : * Power producing devices ike internal combustion ‘neines, steam and gas turbines, jet propulsion, nuclear ower plants ete, * Power absorbing devices like compressors, pumps, ‘eftigeration and air conditioning plants, * Other device are heat exchangers, biological systems, chemical process plants, direct energy conversion devices ete, 22 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM (Pee. 09, Dec, 10, May 13, Dec.16, May 17, Dec. 47, May 18, May 19} ~_Pafine wth example, themodymamic system, Q Explain: System, surrounding and boundary, CECE ‘Whats thermodynamic systeni 2 Fig. 22.1 : Thermo, mi ties vaniSyten and Surrounding Sf system : A pistonovs Merging isa system, inde arangemen of Introduction to Thermal Engineetin * Surrounding : Everything external to the system is called surrounding or environment. Boundary : Boundary is a real or imaginary boarder between the system and surrounding. The boundary Separates the system from surrounding. Across the ‘boundary, the energy (heat and work) and mass transfer take place, Universe : A system and its surrounding together ig called the universe. 2.2.1 Classification of Thermodynamic ‘Systems : (May 13, May 14, Dec. 14, Dec. 17, May 18, May 19) [@- Explain, with “examples, thermodynamic systems. ~ various types May 13, Dec. 14, Dec. 17, May 18 "Draw a schematic sketches of various thermadynamia| systems, Wi mlain open system, closed! and energy transfer between the the system can be classified as : Classification of |__ Thermodynamic Systems System and isolated sys Based on the mass system and surrounding, 1. Closed system 2. Isolated systom 3: Open system 1. Closed systemIntroduction to Thermal Engineering Fig. 2.2.2 : Closed System 2. Isolated System : «© Isolated system : If there is no transfer between the system and its surrounding, a _gistem is said to be an isolated system. © Examples of isolated system : Universe is an example of isolated system. Perfectly insulated container like thermos flask is also an example of isolated system. 3. Open System : (Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 15, May 16, Dec. 18) Q. “Define : Operi system. Explain, with example, open system. Q._Explain Open system. © Open system : A system with mass transfer along with | | energy transfer across its boundaries is called an open system. * Example of open system : Fig. 2.2.3 shows an open system consisting of a turbine. In this system the high pressure gases enter into the turbine and low pressure gases leave the turbine. Hence, the mass * well as energy transfer take place. ‘ass Enon, Heat Energy Erierng ce Cae, Closed and Isolated System : (Dec. 09, May 17) Boundary a O'S (b) Closed System () Isolated System Fig. 2.2.4 Types of Thermodynamic Systems 2.3 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS Dimensions of a physical quantity may be defined as the measurable quantity or characteristics of the material of a system by which a physical quantity may bbe desert ‘The fundamental physical dimensions are length (L), mass (M) and time (@), ete: ‘The names assigned to these dimensions to measure their magnitudes are called units.‘systems in Mechanical Engineering ‘viscosity ete. for convenience. Some of the commonly used units practice are defined bel jum kept at Se'res, France. From these units we may derive the units of all the other physical quantities met within thermodynamics. Gii) Force (F) : Newton's second law states that the force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum. The unit of force is Newton (N). A force of 1 Nis defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg by Imv/s”. Therefore, IN = 1kgx 13 =1kgmis? 23.1) The weight of a body (W) is the force with which a body is attracted to the centre of earth. ‘Therefore, weight is the product of mass of body (m) and the local acceleration of gravity () ie W +23.2) Value of g at sea level is 9.80665 m/s? ~ 9.81 m/s*. Force is a derived unit. Other examples of derived units are : = mg ‘Area (mt), Volume (m’), Velocity (mis) ete, 2.4 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM (EQUALITY oF TEMPERATURE) Tio, went Q._Define: Thermal equilibrium, * Consider two bodies A and Lemperature (ie, ‘ower temperature, Introduction to Thermal Engineering 24 It would be observed after sufficient lapse of time thay there are no changes in the state of bodies. «When such a state is reached it is said that the ty, bodies are in thermal equilibrium or they are at the systems will have equality of no changes in their properties arg . | 25 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (May 10, May 11, May 15, Dec. 15, May 16) equilibrium with a third body C, then the two bodies A and B will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. Above statement is known as zeroth law of ‘thermodynamics, This statement is represented schematically in Fig. 2.8.1. = Explanation : Since body A is in thermal equilibrium with body C, therefore, they are at equality of temperature ‘T each. Similarly, the body B being in thermal equilibrium with body C, the temperature of body B will also be T. It follows that body A and B are both at temperature T, hence they are also in thermal equilibrium. * The science of measurement of temperature is called thermometry. It is based on the concept of zeroth law of thermodynamics. It can be explained as follows : Fig.2.5.1 : Representation-zeroth law of thermodynamics‘systems in Mechanical Engineering 25 Introduction to Thermal Engineering + The body °C’ can'be used as.a thermometer to measure the temperature of the bodies. + Alternately, if body ‘C’ is used to measure the temperature of body A and B equality of temperature, or in other words the thermometer ‘C” indi being in thermal ‘own temperature which is ium with bodies A and B. * However, the problem remains to relate the temperatures which might be read on different thermometers or on the other measuring devices as discussed below. 2.6 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY «The law of conservation of energy states-“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be converted from one form to another”. Though the law of conservation of energy can not be prove analytically, singe it based on the man's experiences, but it has never been disproved and on the contrary many experiments have verified its statement. 2.7 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (JOULE'SEXPERIMENT) (May 10, Dec. 14) ees : With neat sketch, explain Joule's experime: conclusion. Explain first law of thermodynamics. ynamics is a particular statement of ‘of conservation of energy nt with its © This law of thermod} the general principles of law as applied to heat transfer and statement of conservation of energy aS analysed for thermodynamics systems by Joule the period 1840 to 1849 ‘which has led to the statement of Ist law of thermodynamics. * Arrangement similar to Joule’s ¢ Fig. 2.7.1. work. Initially “the quantitatively during, sxperiment is shown in Soule's Experiment It consists of a paddle wheel arrangement liquid filled in an insulated container. ‘The work is supplied across the boundary of the system by a falling weight of mass m (W = mg). The system is formed by the liquid in the container as a closed system. ‘The work input to the system equals to mgz. As a result of work transfer the temperature of liquid rises which is measured by a thermometer from initial atmospheric temperature t, to final temperature ty, The system has undergone a process (1-A-2) as shown in Fig. 2.7.2. ‘Next the system was kept in contact with the water bath. While in contact, the heat is transferred from liquid to ‘water bath till the system returns to its original state of pressure and temperature. ‘The heat transfer process is shown by process (2-B-1) in Fig. 2.7.2. Thus the closed system has completed a cycle. Similar experiments were conducted by Joule in which the modes of work transfer to different systems were different e.g. in another experiment he measured the electric work input to a heating coil and then its heat ‘energy was transferred to water bath so that the system returned to its original state. y with the Fig. 2.12 : Representation of processes of Joule's ‘experiment on (X-¥) co-ordinatessystems in Mechanical EDGIN200 9 ———— Sa Joule concluded that always proportional With the help of such experiments em at the end of inevery case the work input W was to heat transfer Q from the syst conclusion of a cycle. sign f for cyclic integral, the results of the © Using the ‘experiment can be put mathematically as follows : §aw« f'Q fa'w = 16dQ led mechanical Where, J is a constant and call equivalent of heat. InMKS. system, J= 4.187 kik cal However, in SiL system J = 1 J/Nm, since work W and heat Q are both measured in J or Nm. Therefore, Equation (2.7.1) can be rewritten as : fa'w = $4'Q ‘The relationship expressed by the Equation been found to be true in all cases investigated involving the cyclic processes. It's generalisation has led to formulation of first law of thermodynamics as applied to closed system undergoing a cycle. 2.7.1 Statements of First Law of Thermodynamics : May 14, Dec. 16, May 17, Ds tion at State various statements "of thermodynamics. State any two statements of first thermodynamics, ee 1.2) _ The statement of First Law of Thermodynamics, in various forms, can be stated as follows : (1) When closed system executes a cyclic process the algebraic sum of work transfers is Q) He ?) Heat and work are mutually convertible ‘energy can neither be creat i the total energy conversion associa conversion remains constant during since the ‘ed nor destroyed, therefore, ted with an energy acycle, understanding — the thermodynamics, Introduction to Thermal Engineering oie closed system goes trough 2 cYClEs the algebraie sum of total energy transfers to it as heat and work jg zero Mathematically, §a@ia-dw = 0 2.73) 2.8 FIRST LAW OF ‘THERMODYNAMICS AS APPLIED CLOSED SYSTEM PROCESSES ‘A machine cannot create energy nor it can deliver more work than the energy supplied. For example : ‘An engine receives chemical energy of fuel which is rnverted into heat energy due to combustion of fuel. ‘A part of the energy received by the engine is converted into work and remainder is stored as internal energy if the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are neglected. ‘Therefore IS law of thermodynamics for a process can be stated as : “In a process, the heat added (Q) to a substance equals the sum of workdone (W) and the change in internal energy (AU = Uz - U)). Accordingly, cor Q= wrau QB. Sign convention for heat and work are shown in Fig. 2.8.1 ‘Suroundings +0 (Heat added or supplies) —@ (Heat ejected) Fig. 2.8.1 : Sign convention for heat and work 2.9 HEAT RESERVOIR, HEAT SOURCE AND HEAT SINK We shall discuss some of the required definitions for concept of second law of a‘systems in Mechanical Engineering Introduction to Thermal Engineering 2.9.1 Heat Reservoir or Thermal E1 Reservoir : a Heat reservoir is defined as the source of infit energy and a finite amount of heat constant. @ Examples of heat reservoir : (Large bodies of water such as ocean, lakes or rivers. i) Atmosphere. iii) A two phase mixture of a substance where it can absorb or reject its latent heat. 2.9.2 Heat Source and Heat Sink : + Source : A heat reservoir which supplies heat to a system is called the source. + Sink : A heat reservoir which absorbs heat from the system is called sink. 2.9.3 Heat Engine : (Dec. 09, Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 14, May 15, Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 16, May 18) Tre a Q. Drawa neat sketch of heat engine using source and ‘sink concepts. Ca Explain, with neat sketch, the concept of heat | engine. a PRP aeE a Define and’ explain the Heat engine with Examples of heat engif team engine, steam turbine, petrol and diesel engines, Gas turbines ete. diagram of a heat engine is shown in from heat source at T) oF ical work, W and the sduces the mechani apres ected to heat sink at T2 OF Ty > From 1* law of thermodynamics, W=Q [Link] energy input. Itis a measure of performance of the heat engine. « Theeffciency can be expressed as : ‘Thermal efficiency, Work: n= 5 ait 2.9.1) w a-@ 293) r= Qe 292) Qa nei 2.93) eanst . = >0,n< Now, asg77 0 2.9.4. Refrigerators and Heat Pump : Ti a. ‘Describe the concept of Heat Pump and Refrigerator with diagram and write expression for COP. Compare Heat Engine and refrigerator. remainder of energy is Fei TT? TL):Systems in Mechanical Engineering Reffigerators and heat pumps are reserved heat engines. [Link] Refrigerator: (Dec. 09, May 16, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17, _ May 10) Draw a neat sketch of refrigerator using source and sink concepts. Ea Explain, with neat sketch, the concept of refrigerator, Draw sketch of refrigerator system, 7 Definé and explain Refrigerator with sketch, 8, Jan, 23(In Sem.) Refrigerator is a device operating on a cycle which removes the heat from a body at low temperature'T;’ (heat source) and rejects it to a body at high 1” (heat sink) on the expense of external If the objective of the system is to Produce cooling effect at low temperature, then the heat rejection temperature temperature. Such a device is called refrigerator. Reftigerator system is represented schematically in Fig. 2.9.2. Pl Fig. 2.9.2 : Refrigerator: 2.942 Heat Pump: (May 11, Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 14, May 16, May 17, Dec. 17, May 18) Define : Heat pump, SE Explain the concept of heat pump with Neat sketch, Draw a sketch of heat pump, Define heat pump and draw its sketch, heating in winter), then the 28 Introduction temperature T, corresponds to ambient temperature. Such q device is called a heat pump. Coefficient of Performance (C.0.P): (May 10, May 13, Dec. 13, Dec, 45, May 16, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17) [Link] ) + Coefficient of performance! ; Prove that : (COP)vea:pung = 1 + (COP)retigerte Explain : COP of heat pump and COP. of refrigerator. [Dec. 16] Derive the relation between ‘COP of Heat Pump and COP of refrigerator. [May 17 | Define COP of heat pump and COP of refrigerator. The efficiency of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance (C.0.P.). From 1* law, w (COP atigentar A=W Desired effect Energy input =i) ze @ A-@ Desired effect Energy input Qu W 2.948) (COP set pnp Q A-@ ) and (2.9.4), we have, (COP), ey 2.9.5 Difference Heat Pump 9.5) From Equations (2.9.5 (COP Nena 2.9.6) between Refrigerator rand (May 10) Table 2.9.1 g hy : heat pump, OWS a difference between refi igerator andDifference between Refrigerator and Heat Pump Refrigerator is a device operating on a cycle Jwhich removes heat] Heat pump is a device operating on a cycle which removes heat from| temperature and rejects| it to a body at “high| and rejects it to a body at high temperature on the ‘work supplied. If the objective of the system jis to produce’ cooling ‘heating in winter), then temperature, then the corresponds to ambient device is called heat! Such a device is called |_ Heat removed __Qz 2.10 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (May 09, May 10, May 11, May 13, Dec. 13, Dec. 15, May 16, May 17, Dec. 18, May 19) Introduction to Thermal Engineering lausius statement : impossible to construct device operating on a cycle whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a low temperature heat reservoir to a higher temperature heat reservoir. ‘Though heat energy cannot flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature, however, such of heat can be achieved in practice by expanding, nergy on the system e.g. in case of refrigerator to construct a heat engine operating ona cycle whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a single heat reservoir and its conversion into equal amount of work. Consider an engine shown in Fig. 2.10.1 which receives heat Q, from high temperature heat reservoir at Ty, rejects heat Q, to low temperature heat reservoir and does the work. W= Qa-Q@ Fig: Heat engine ‘The efficiency of the engine, Q Q. State Kelvin-Plank a1 second law of thermodynamics. (EEA second law of thermodynamics. May 10, May 11, May 13, Dec Explain the Kelvin Plank’s statem nd Clausius statement of State and explain two State second law of thermos "pp PP ics Based on the limitations of first law of thermodynamic thermodynamics as enumerated below. a= 1-7 According to Equation29.3] leakage from surrounding into the cold fed to be 1800 kulmin. If COP of the (2) Power required to drive the refrigeration system Solution : Refer Fig. P2.10.1 shows the sketch of the system. 4° C=44273=277K, Given: T2=G, = 1800ki/min, cop=15 1 dings, (Amount of heat rejected to surroundings «Oy _ 1800. 1290 ks/min @ weer is cor = 3 = Cor w sions ima oo 1200 = 3000 i wns. tem, W or P {a Power required to drive the SY 1200 ki/min Fromabove: W = = 2222 is orkW = 2kW Given : Heat lost from house = 60,000 ki/hr; T,=25°C =25 +273 = 298 k; Heat generated in house = 4000 kifhr ; COP = 1,5 , Refer Fig. P. 2.10.2 1 = Heat ost from house to suroundings ~ Heat generated in house = 60000-4000 = $6000 kar -56000_ 60x69 MSorkW= 15.555 iw Fig. P2102 Power required to drive the heat pump, W Heat pumped into house,Q, fae Power input, W 15.555 COP = ; W=1037kKW jevelops 80° KW of work output when ‘heat is The sketch of the system is shown in Fig. P. 2.10.3 Given: W=80kW=0,-0, ) Heat supplied, Q, = 240 kW @ Efficiency of the engine, n : Work output, W_ Heat supplied, Q, 80 240 = 0.3333 or 33.33 % [Source atT, Fig. P. 2.103sms in Mechanical Engineering “(G Heat rejected to atmosphere or Sink, Q, : W = G-G 5 G=0,-W=240-80 = 160kW A heat engine operates between source temperatures of 235° C and 30° C respective ‘engine receives 35 KW from the source, find the net work ‘done by the engine, the heat rejected to the sink by the ‘engine. and the efficiency of engine. Draw the sketch of, P.2.104 235°C = 235 +273 = 508K 30°C = 30 +273 = 303 K "Q, = 35kW 4. Net Workdone, W: . % 303 Efficiency, 1 = 1 a" 1-Sog = 9.40354 Fig. P. 2.104 Work output .W. n= 7 Heat input , Q, W = 1x Q,= 0.40354 x35 = 14124 2. Heat rejected to sink, Q, = From I* law, Q = Q-W=35- 14.124 = 20,876 kW 3. Efficiency of the engine, n° From above, 1 = 0.40354 or 40.354% Introduction to Thermal Engineeri 'A refrigerator with COP of 1.5 absorbs heat from food ‘compartment at the rate of 360 kiimin. Draw the sketch of system and find : 41) Power cor 2) The amount of heat rejected to surrounding, Solution : Refer P. 2.10.5. cop = Q= 360 kin = 320 6 kas 4. Power consumed by the refrigerator, W = eae feria effet 0 Power input, W 1s = 4; W= 4kisorkw ADS. Fig. P.2.10.5 2. Heat rejected to surroundings, Q, : From law, W = Q,-Q 5 Q=W+Q =4+6=10KW Ans. —_______§_— Example 2.10.6 ACERT ‘A household refigerator with a COP of 1.8 removes heat form the refigerated space at the rate of 90 kulmin. Determine power consumed. by the refigerator. (1) Electrical b ‘The rate of heat transfer to kitchen air Solution : a = 90 ki/min=22 = 1.5 ki/s or kW coP=18, 0 TechKnowledgéFig P.2.10.1100) Be 210.12: ‘State second law of thermodynamics. A refrigerator with COP of 1.6 removes heat from freezer at the rate of 400 kilmin. Draw block diagram of system. Compute the Power consumed by compressor and-heat rejected to the surroundings, SEES) Soin, : Fig. P. 2.10.12 shows the block diagram of the refrigerator (R) . cop = 16 @ Power consumed, yy Fig. P.2.10,12 250 = Gp Wisorkw = 4.1667 kW ‘Ana, Hreat rejected t0 the surroundings, g, Gi) Het From I* law, 5 = Gp tw 74004250 a” = 650 kJ/min vty Ang, Section Il: Heat Transfer 2.11 HEAT TRANSFER ‘The heat is defined as the form of energy which can by transfered from one system to another system across the boundaries due to temperature difference existing between the two systems. The amount of heat energy transferred across the system can be determined by the application of first law of thermodynamics involving work and other forms of energies. During heat transfer, it is observed that the heat energy always flows in direction from higher temperature medium {o lower temperature medium and the transfer of heat energy stops once both the mediums reach to their equality of ‘emperature, Thus the driving force of transfer of heat sett * temperature difference and the rate of heat ‘transfer increases with the increase in temperature Bradient/difference, 2.11.4 Application Areas of Heat Transfer ; The knowledge of the heat rans: ches ; of the engineering ‘tata vie * sesien oF systems are based on the 1. Desi a oh changers ducts ete in Teftigeration and ol pe ir : as Desin of extn, Tadiators etc in interna) combustion 3. Desi i fracture oy 4 Design of motors, generators, transformers ete,systems in Mechanical Engineering Introduction to Thermal Engineering 5, Design of steam generators, condensers, cooling towers and other heat exchangers in thermal and nuclear power plants. Design of solar collectors and 7. Design of furnaces, space ‘components of chemical processes 8, Various electronic systems like computers, TV, VCR etc. 9, To prevent creation of thermal stresses in’ concrete structures during curing. 10. Heat treatment of metals to obtain the desired properties of materials etc. 2.12 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER Q) Differentiate between different modes of heat | transfer. : es © The heat can be transferred from one substance to another substance by the following three modes : | Modes of Heat Transfer’ 4; Conduction 2 Convection “@: Radiation 1. Conduction : +All modes of heat transfer require the existence of temperature difference and the heat is always transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. ‘Conduction of heat can be defined as the transfer of| heat from one part of the substance to: another part the same substance ‘without appreciable motion of| moteuten, e 2 Convection: / «The conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. * The process of heat moving matter to carry heat enerey- : +The transfer of heat by convection takes place betwee a solid surface and the adjacent liquid ot nYS! a motion. Tn case the fluid is atrest then HE (TP convection is due tothe capacity f 100 41 (14 = 1074 m) solely as a result of the temperature ofa surface. insfer of heat energy of radiation does case of heat transfer by conduction or convection. Ina physical problem, rate of heat transfer is controlled by the combined effect of all the modes of transfer i.e. by conduction, convection and radiation in varying degree. However, solution of a problem on transfer involves the identification of the major modes of transfer as compared to other modi ‘To illustrate how all the three modes are involved, let us consider the case of transfer of heat from the furnace of boiler to the water flowing in the tubes. In this case the heat is dissipated by the flue gases to ‘metal surface of tube both by radiation and convection. ‘This heat is further transferred by conduction across the thickness of tube to its inner surface and further it is transferred by convection and radiation to water in the tubes. 2.12.1 Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux : © Definition of Heat : “Heat hias been defined as the form of eneray in transit| ‘he driving force is the temperature difference. never contained in a body, itis only recognized crosses the boundaries ofa system. @ Definition of Heat ‘Transfer Rate : Phe amount of heat energy transferred ‘during a process| ‘en period of time is denoted by letter Q (Joules) ‘amount of heat transferred per tnit time is called heat transfer rate, Q (Js or Watt) ‘Therefore, t Q = JQ-at Joules (2121) 0 were, represents the time interval which the total heat transfer Q is to be determined.ystems in Mechanical eneettd Emad ite: & Definition of Heat Flux Rat a 3 Toad transfer per wt ‘area norm ae a ra acon ed tee TE direction fe Q (212.2) 4 - 2cwm) where ‘A’ represents te hea transfet a2 een used in general in the text 85 heat 2Q has Note. ae transfer rate until itis: 2.43 FOURIER’S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION conduction Q. Explain Fourier’ law of heat Fourier in 1822 had proposed the emperical law of heat ‘conduction based on observations which is called as the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. ‘Statement : Atcan be stated as follows: s5 “The rate of heat flow through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area measured | normal to the direction of heat flow and the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow”. For the heat flow in X-direction, mathematically it can be expressed as : ar Qe ag 2.13.1) where, Q = Heat transfer rate (J/s or W) in direction, A = Arca of beat flow normal to flow direction (m?). ST = Temperature difference between two faces ofa block of thickness dx (°C ork). dx = Thickness of solid body (m), he direction of heat flow (K/m), Tms, Q = -K-AZ Qt Heat fix, q= 3-4-2 =i is the sign of proportionality caljey a ity of material. where k i of thermal conductiv! , Negative sigm jin Equation (2.13.2) appears fact that dT is negative in the direction of heat fy 3c X-direction because sy og ies, Fig. 2.13.1 2.13.1 Units of Thermal Conductivity, k : ‘Thermal conductivity k has units which can be determined from Equation (2.13.2) as follows : __Q-(W) x dx (m) FE A(m?) x dT (°C or K) Thermal conductivity is the ability of material to conduct heat through it. It can also be defined as the amount ‘of eat flow rate per unit area normal to the direction of heat flow through unit thickness of the material per unit temperature difference, INote : 1) Thermal conductiviy of non-metals have low thermal conductviy. These are called thermal insulators. J? Thermal conductivity of pure metals decreases with| inetease in temperature where as the value of 8, Value of k for 99568 increases with increase temperature. in 4. The value of k decreases wih increase in temperature Incase of liquids except for water,systems in Mechanical Engineering 247 Introduction to Thermal En ion to Thermal Engineering 2.43.3 Analogy Batwoon Hoat Conduction and Electricity (Concept of Thermal esistance In Heat Transfer) : © Definition of Convection : ‘The process of heat transfer betwee i ; in the solid surface Rate fest flow has an analogy with current flow in an HA 8: alt AA cere een system having the electrical resistance R with potential difference V as shown in Fig, 2.13.2 In order to understand the concept of convective heat ider a hot vertical wall in contact with air 4.1. @ system Fig. 2132: Analogy between clectrical conduction and heat conduction system From ohm’s law for electrical system we can vite : -¥ <. Current flow, I = & (213-1), For heat conduction system, a k-A(Ti-T2) _ (Ti=T2) “aT x om (&) Rk kA (2.13.2) ‘By comparing Equations (213-1) and (2.13.2) we draw the following analogy between electricity and heat flow (Temperature difference (Ti — 2) across the wall represents the driving force equivalent t0 potential difference, V- i) Heat flow rate Q corresponds to current flow I Fig, 2.143 : Heat eonduction through 2 id fim It will be observed that with the lapse of time, the layer »(Z) represents the thermal resistance to heat flow . KA, of cold ait in contact with surface is ‘heated by heat rate, R equivalent to electrical resistance R eondyetion through the wall surface and the density of ‘roreases: Due to density difference, « buoyant force results 2.44 CONVECTION and it causes the heated air to rise which is replaced by the It is observed that the fluids are aways in direct | fresh ir. This process is repeated continuously and SS UP physical contact with solids. Due to this, heat surface to the fluid always takes place from the heated solid st or from the hotter fluid to the cold consequence of the motion of the surface. : the external force s convection eurrents heat transfer is called the natural or free convection which is due to the wn of fluid by virtue of natural difference in To improve upd} rah as fan and blowers are used to Set Uf ‘as shown in Fig. 2.14.2, In this ease th by Foreed convection. Tech¥aowleds ed deevanical Engineetng ‘systems in Mechanical Engin — © piference between fee and forced conveto Free/ Natural [Bey] Forced Convection Ce ae 2.44.2 Newton's Law of Cooling : No. 1. | Ifmovement ofthe molecules occurs due to-extemal force or by ‘sing external means like pump, compressor, blower ete. then such, type of convection. called forced Heat transfer rate is less. No external power is wvective heat transfer between @ surf na ite a first suggested by Newton and j, jnown as Newton's Law of cooling. (Assume Tw >T.) 2.142) Q « A-(Tw-To) or Q= h-A-(Tw-To) Where ‘h’ is the constant of proportionality called the coefficient, of convective heat transfer or film 7 conductance. uired. = i Units of h are Wim?K. 7 pee ree eee Rewriting the Equation (2.14.2) in the form, coefficient his more | j= (5-15) Wim?K nny than 20 Wim?K a= tts +2143) 5. | Applications ar in heat | Cooling of Human body, Gn x) exchangers like Hot still ai flow over nae : pate a ae Convective thea eis, boilers radiators, et, R= “t 2. -Q.144) 2.14.1 Coefficient of Convective Heat Transfer fi Where, 5x In case of heat transfer by convection (natural or forced), there exists a very small fluid film adjacent to the ‘wall surface of thickness 8, where the temperature varies ffom surface temperature, Ty, to outer film temperature, Let ly be the thermal conductivity ofthis film, Then we define the eoeficient of convective heat transfer or film conductance, h as the ratio o Abnigy ts a ‘ Im - thickness, Therefore, coefficient of convective th = TBermal conductivity of ftm kp Film thickness, § f thermal conductivity of the . HA ‘presents the thermal resistance, Reonvecion offered by the film due to heat transfer by convection. The range of convective heat transfer coefficient for liquids and gases is given in Table 2.14.1. of convective heat transfer, h (W/mK) Process bh (Wim?K) 1. Natural convection i 41025 100 to. 900 2. Forced convection @ Air 25 to 100 i 100 to 3500 Boiling liquids 2000 to 25000 GW) Condensation of vapours | 4000 to 250002.15 RADIATION All bodies radiate heat. Radiation is the rate of heat transfer BY means of electromagnetic waves that are emitted in the wavelength band between 0, solely a5 @ result of the temperature being the propagation of electromag require any medium for this propagati If two bodies are at differe body sends radiations to col ‘The intensity of radi onthe nature of the body Out ofthe total radiations falling on a body, a part is reflected at the surface. (the fraction being indicate reflectivity, p) a part of itis absorbed while travelling along ‘The value of emissivity ranges between 0 to 1. 2.16 STEFAN-BOLTZMAN LAW OF RADIATION Cine Q. State Stefan Boltzman’s law of radiation. This law states that the emissive power of a black body directly proportional to fourth power of its absolute ‘temperature ic. the depth of the body and produces heat ( denoted b ae AAG) absorbtivity, a ) and the remainder radiant energy is | Fore? Qea-Tt transmitted through the body ( denoted by transmissivi of, Q= GATE ...2.162) Therefore, ptaty =1 ‘Where, q = Emissive power or heat flux ( W/m?) A body which absorbs entire Aj body. See Q In this case, p = y = 0, hence a = 1, A black body is also best radiator. ‘i The bodies which are opaque .(usually,’ Solids); the radiant energy falling on it is either absorbed or reflected. In this case y = 0, therefore, a+ p= 1. In certain materials like gases and glass, the entire radiant energy falling on them is transmitted. In this case, a=p=0andy=1. also called as diathermanous bodies. 2.15.1 Emissive Power (E) : Tha emiasive posoer of any ourfuce is defined as the cneray emitted by the surface per unit area per unit ime. It’s unit is W/m? are | = 5.67 x 10-§ Wim?- K* Equation (2.16.2) holds good for black body only. ‘A body having emissivity less than 1 and it is same for all wavelength is called grey body. Its absoptivity is equal to emissivity. Fora grey body Q= eo AT +(2.16.3) where, ¢ is called emissivity as defined in section 2.15.2 Now consider a body of surface area A at temperature T, kept in infinite surroundings at temperature Tz (Ty > Tz ). The exchange of energy by radiation from a solid to its surroundings can be writen as : Q = e-a-A(T-T Also, Q = e-o-A(T~ (T1=T2) * O° fee a(T HR) +] 2.16.4) +T3)(T1-T)‘Systems in Mechanical Engineering In the above equation, the denominator represents the In radiation thermal k-ACTi-=h) (N-h) ig x = "RTKA) 1 Q where, 2 = Conduetive resistance, R Q_k(M-k) . Heat us, == y-te) QnA (TW Te) = Ga) Introduction to Thermal En 2:20 Example 2.16.2: ven is 40 om thick having its Hy Te ee Wik. The interior surface of the ow’ mnatained at a temperature of 800°C and the o, en temperature is 200°C. The total surface area of way coven is 1 m?. Find the thermal resistance, heat flow raj, i Given : Thickness, x= 40 cm = 0.4 m ; Thermal conductivity, k= 0.7 WimK ; T, = 800°C; T) = 200°C; A=2m? () Thermal resistance, R R= where, = Convective resistance, Reonvection: kA 4 BOGE SATs -s = 0.2857 KW sAns, ee Stefan Boltzmann's constant. = 5.67 x 10% (ii) Heat flow rate, Q aK (U-b) 1-7, 3. =2-0-A@-2 Q- -e SEAR ce : (ax) Vise a(t) tye . — 800 ~200 Ree Ratiaicn, alesis 0.2757 as = 2100 Ww ++ Ans, Example 2.16.4 : leat flux, q Calculate the heat transfer rate er unit area through a a= 2 _ 2100 Spee Plate 0.045 m tick whose one face A core ad the other face at 80°. Tena sn Copper is 370 Wimec, Solution : Given: Thickness of plate, x= 0.045 m; Ty = 350°C; T =50°C; i‘ k=370 Wine tak. cect, @ water at 100°C is 2287 kame Sntlby of Svaporation of Heat transfer rate per unit area, = Solution : Refer Fig. P2163, md At) Given: Te ERS <= 12 = 135 19°9 , ay uiside temperature, Ty = 12900 - Q Inside temperature, Ty = 100°¢ ; =5m; = 370, (@50~ so) A=S5m’; k=84 W/mK oa Enthalpy of evaporation hg, = 2257 Kikg, = 2466667109 Wig? eat tm tow fom outside to surface of boiler, This cat wil utilized to ‘evaporate water insid the boi = 2466.67 kWim? s-Ans, | T2= 100°C. . a TechiKneina Pinsystems in Mechanical Engineering i x= 12mm Fig. P.2.163 Heat transfer rate, g = BACET) 845 (120= 100) x 12107? = 700 x 103 Wor J/s = 700 ki/s Let mm = Rate at evaporation of water. Heat utilized by water during evaporation = Heat transfer rate, Q tax hg = Q m= 2-2 kgs fg 2257 = FB x3600 keine = 11165 kg/hr Ams, Example. ‘The wall of a oven is 40 om thick, having its thermal conductivity of 0.7 WimK. The interior surface of the oven is, maintained at a temperature of 800°C and the outside wall 224 Introduction to Thermal Engineering Heat flux, q thick whose one face at 50°C. Thermal conductivity of ickness of plate, x = 0.045 m; T)=50°C; k= 370 Wim°C P Q Heat transfer rate per unit area, 7% kA(T1~T2) x Q= 370 (350-50) 0.045 2466.67 x 103 Wim? 246.667 kWia™ Ams. f gee nttang 2A Wm ‘Example 2.16.6 : water heater of surface area 0.1m? and rating igned to operate fully submerged in water. Estimate the surface temperature of the heater when the water is at 40°C and hyater = 300 Wim’K. If this heater is by mistake used in air at 40°C with hair = 9 Wim?K, what will be the surface temperature? temperature is 200°C. The total surface area of wall of the | Solution : oven is 2 m?. Find the thermal resistance, heat flow rate and | 4. : the heat fx. ives Solution : A=O1m?, Q=1kW ; Ty =40°C, by = 300 Wi? K Given : Thickness, x = 40 em = 0.4m; T= 40°C, y=9WImK,. Ty=? Thermal conductivity, k= 0.7 W/mK ; at _ 7 Water: Q= T= 800°C ; T,=200°C; A=2m?*, R (Thermal resistance, R 1000 = 1 = a R= (55 petpr oases KW ww ANS, byA 3000.1 " T, = 333°C Ans, (i) Heat flow rate, Q T.-40 (Mi-T2) _ T= Air: 1000 = "7 Q= (%) aR 9x OL kA, 1, = 1si°c ss Ams, = 200200 _ swAns, = “oags7 ~ 2100 TetiKnauiedga PubueationsExample 2.16.7 : The wall tess bap eae - of the wal is 1 ofinner surface of the iss the electric col win the oven IS oe be 11 surface needed perpen ‘044 WimK. The 75°C, The energy is 40.5 W. ation is 04 the Sf wa Determine the area of heat flow so that the ter wall does not exceed 75°C. Solution : Given : Wall thickness, x= Ty=1TS*C; Q=4OSW3 T= 75°C. perature on the other side 8.25 em = 0.0825 m; k= 0.044 Wik Let A be the surface area needed. Energy dissipated by coil, Qinoven = Heat transfer rate by ‘conduction across the wall kA(Ti-T2) Qe 0.044 Aas 75) 0.0825 A= 0.7594 m? Example 216.8: A hot plate area 1.5 m? is maintained at 300°C. The air at 20°C blows over the plate. If the convective heat transfer ‘coefficient is 20 Wim?K, caloulate the rate of convective heat transfer. Solution : Given: Plate temperature, Ty = 300°C; A= 1.5 m?; Film temperature (air), Ty: = 20 Rate of convective heat transfer, Q = hA(Tw-T.) =20 x 1.5 (300-20) = 8400 W swAns, er i Example 2.16.9: 405 = = 20 Win?K. A ipe, 2 cm diameter, at 40°C is placed in )) an air flow at 50°C with h = 20Wim?K OR in 30°C with f= 70Wim?K. Find the heat transfer per unit length of the pipe and comment on the results in both cases, water Solution = Refer Fig P. 2169 p = 2em=o02m; Ts 40°C pr, = 50°Cs ha= 20 Win? é, = 30°C}, by = 70W/ mK Fig. P.2.16.9 (i Heat transfer rate when pipe is in placed air, Q,, Q = by AMs-T) = 20 x x 0.02 x 1 x (40-50) =+ 12.6 Wim ‘This means, heat gain by pipe from air. (ii) Heat transfer when pipe placed in water Qw Qw = Bw A (Ts=Tw) : = 10x xx 0.02 x 1(40-30) = 43.96 Wim In this ease, transfer is taking place from pipe ‘surface to water. Ans, Example 2.16.10: A hot plate 11m x 4.5 m is maint blows over the plate. Ifthe 20 Wim?*C, calculate the Solution : tained at 300°C. Air at 25°C Surface heat transfer coefficient Tate of heat transfer. Given: Surface area, A= 1x 1.5 = 1S mi, Wall temperature, Ty = 300°C ; Coefficient of convective heat transfer, Rate of heat transfer, Q = hA(Tw-T.) = 20x 1.5 x (300-25) 20 Win2=c, = 8250 Wor 8.25 kWSystems in Mechanical Engineering Example 2.1 ‘Awire 2.0 mm in diameter and 18 cm tong is submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. An electric current is passed through the wire until the water boils at 100°C, In case the wire surface temperature is needed to be maintained at 120°C, determine the electric power supplied to the wire. Assume, convective heat transfer coefficient as 4000 Wim? K. Solution : Given : Diameter of wire, d= 2 mm=2 x 107? m Length of wire, L = 18 em =0.18 m; Wire surface temperature, Ty = 125°C ; Water (fluid) temperature, T.. = 100°C ; h=4000 Wim?K. Surface area of wire exposed, A = xDL wx (2x 107?) x 0.18 = 1.131 «1073 m? Electric power needed to be_Rate of convective supplied to wire heat loss. Q = h-A(Tw-To) Q = 4000 x (1.131 x 10°?) x (125 - 100) = 113.1W oo Ams. ee Example 2:16.12: A black body at 1100°C has ‘surroundings at 200°C. Find the heat loss per unit area by radiation. Solution : Given : T, = 1100°C = 1100 + 273 = 1373 K; T, =200°C = 473 K, ‘A= 1m? and e= 1 (being black body) Heat loss per unit area; Q a-% seo-(T-T) 8) (13734—-473") Ams = 1x (5.67% 10° = 1.9866 x 108 Wi al eee 8 8. Example 2.16.13: ‘A body having 3 m? of surface area is maintained at 600 K. It exchanges heat by radiation with another surface enclosing it at 300 K. Its emissivity is 0.55. Find: (i) The rate of heat lost by radiation, ) Radiation thermal resistance, he value of equivalent convection coefficient. Solution : Given : A=3m, — T)=600K;T)=300K; 2-055 (i) Rate of heat lost by radiation, Q Q= e-0-A(T.-T) 0.55 x 3 x (5.67 x 107® ) ( 600 -300*) 113669 W owns. (ii) Radiation thermal resistance, Ryag, (i-th) Read. (M-k) Raa eg (600 - 300) 113669 Q=- = 0.0264° CW Ams. (Gii) The value of equivalent convection coefficient, b Q = heA(T-T2) 113669 = x3 x (600-300) h = 12,6299 Wim? K wns. ph = 2 Ex. 216.14: A body having 5 m? of surface area is maintained at 227 °C It exchanges the heat with another surface enclosing it at 27 °C by radiation - Its emissivity is 0.1, 6 = 5.67 + 10-8 irk, Compute the rate of heat lst by raciation REESE Soln.¢ ‘Area, A = Sa, ‘Ty = 2279C= 227+ 273 = 500K, Ty = 279C=274273=300K, Emissivity, © = 0.1, 6=5.67 x 10° Wim?k*systems in Mec Rate of heat lost by radiation, ‘yf a= oA(T -1)) + y 8) x 5x 00)' - 00)'] = 01 x(567 x10 se Ans. = 4536W (C. Engines and Steam Generators IN OF HEAT ENGINE / 2.17 DEFINITIO! RIME MOVER THERMAL PI @ Definition of Heat Engine / Thermal Prime} ‘Movers: ‘A heat engine is a device in which the chemical energy sofa fuel is first converted into heat encray, subsequently ‘this heat energy is converted into mechanical energy. ‘Heat engines are also called as thermal prime movers. Combustion (LC.) Engines = In Internal the ‘combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder itself and air is induced from atmosphere. 2.47.1 Applications of |.C. Engines : 1. Most of the I. C. engines are used in transport system i.e. in automobiles, diese] locomotives, trucks, tractors, two wheelers like scooters and motor eyéles etc. 2. LC. engines are used in aeroplanes and marine transports, motor boats, generating sets etc. 3. LC. engines are used for industrial applications for running mills, concrete mixtures, lawn movers and in carth moving plants. 4, Diesel generators are used for as power plants upto 100 MW capacity. ‘= Specific applications of type of IC. Specie api type of LC. engines are ‘Table 2.17.1 : Specific Applications of LC. Engines Sr. | ‘Type of LC. Application No.| Engine 1. | Two stroke | Used in mopeds, scooters, motor petrol movers etc due to their engines in working and low ince cost. These are used for capacity upto 12 kW upto600 pm. sr. | Type of LC jee introduction to Thermal Engineering ‘Application No,| Engine + These are used in Ca, Jeeps, motor cycles, pumping se small power generating sets ett. Earlier they vpere used in airorafts which have been replaced by gas turbine power plans, These have high running ared to diesel engines. | cost compare > —— These are commonly used in automobiles, pumping sets, ‘construction machinery, motor boats, high power generating sets etc. due to their high efficiency compared to petrol engines and low running cost. These engines can develop 1 kW to 40000 KW of power per cylinder with speed ranging 100 rpm to 4500 rpm. These are preferred for generation 4, | Two stroke diesel by high power, because. of their engines lower weight to power ratio (almost 50%) compared to four stroke diesel engines. Diesel power plants are used upto a capacity. of 100 MW. & Engine Components : Please refer section 3.3 of chapter 3. 2.18 TERMINOLOGY USED IN I.C. Cyinder heat Fig. 2.18.1 : Bore, stroke and Clearance Volume‘systems in Mechanical Engineering 4. Dead Centres : ‘F Definition of Top Dead Center In case of vertical engines, when the piston is at the top Introduction to Thermal Engineering TF Definition of clearance ratio ‘learance volume to stroke volume is called most position, the crank position is called top dead | center (T:D.C). TF Definition of Bottom Dead Centor When the piston is at the bottom most position, the crank ‘position is called bottom dead center (B.D.C.). ‘| Definition of Outer Dead Center In’ case of horizontal. engines, the crank pésitions corresponding to the inner most position \and outer most position of the piston are called inner ‘dead center| (D.C) and outer dead center (0.D.C.) respectively. 2. Cylinder Bore, d: © Definitionofbore 4 ‘The inner eylinder diameter of the engine is called bore. 3, Stroke Length, L : ‘7 Definition of stroke. 2 : ‘The travel of the piston from its stroke of piston: BDC is called the! 6. Total volume volume : @ cylinder or cylinder ‘© Definition of total or full volume the| cylinder ‘The volume occupied by the fluid in the cylinder when piston is at BDC is called the total volume or full volume the cylinder or the cylinder volume. <. Total volume of the cylinder = Clearance volume, V_ + Stroke volume, V, (2.183) 7. Compression Ratio, r : © — Definition of compression ratio ‘The ratio of cylinder volume when piston reaches to BDC! toclearance volume is called the compression ratio of the engine. If ‘ris the radius of crank, it is obvious that : Stroke length, L = 2x1 on(2.18.1) 4, Clearance Volume, V,: © Definition of clearance volume me contained in the cylinder above the piston The volu dead centre position is called clearance from its top volume, Ve. 5. Stroke Volume V, and clearance ratio, C= ‘TF Definition of stroke volume Ds ‘The travel of piston from T-D.C. to B. ime displaced piston stroke denoted by ‘L' and the volt ©. is called||. Cylinder volume = Clearance volume; (V.) + stroke volume, (V.) et Cylinder volume ‘:. Compression ratio, = Cjearance volume VetVe Ve 8.4) 8. Piston Speed : of piston is called piston speed and al 10 Let N= speed of the crankshaft in rpm. ‘. Piston speed = 2x Lx N (m/min) o=(2.18.5), N Piston speed = 2L x Gp (m/s) by the piston is called stroke volume, Ve. 18.6)roauetonto Therma Egg thy KE CYCLI he cycle com in two revolutions of the WORKING OF 4 STROKE Sl ENGINE Inet ave closed \spanoug / fevtopan Cylindersystems in Mechanical Engineeting 5s 2.22 COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO STROKE AND FOUR Introdtiction to Thermal Engineering. STROKE ENGINES [Link].| Aspect Four stroke cycle engine Two stroke eyete engine 1. | Completion of cycle Cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston or in two revolutions of the Cycle is completed in two strokes of| the piston or one revolution of the - requirement for same’ size | complicated valve mechanism. crankshaft, crankshaft 2. |Power produced. for same|Less High. cylinder “dimensions and ae Power produced is almost twice of| four stroke engine practically 70% to 80% higher. 3. _ | Size of flywheel Heavier flywheel is needed since turning Lighter flywheel is need since more] moment is not so uniform. uniform tuming moment is produced. 4, Initial cost ~ and. space|Occupies more space and costly due’ to| Occupies less space and cheaper. of engine 5, |"Thermal efficiency High Te Siac, ose fat escapes during scavenging process. 6. | Volumetric efficiency High due [Link] time for induction. Low due to less time of induction 7. |Starting cs: Complicated arrangement needed Basy 8. [Noise Less, More Cooling and lubrication | Lesser’ cooling and. lubrication’ required| More cooting and lubrication needed] * ~ since’ it has only 1 power stroke per}sinee it has 1 power stroke per revolution of crankshaft. revolution of erankshaft, i Cars, tucks, industrial engines, generators Scooters / motor cycles due to their 10. | Application ; ones etc, mpact 2.22.1 How to Tell Whether an Engine Is Fou! 1 2. and oil filter plug jinder at exhaust vé sump e ine does not have oil A2-stroke engine do he bead end of installed at jlencer is : The exhaust silen roke ens towards the middle of eylinder in 2+ it does not have ixed with petrol 2-stroke engine due to this ine recommends 0 sn mma plate on engine FECOMAT mix oil with petrol while in case of + Stroke or Two Stroke Engine ? ‘whereas these exist in 4-stroke engine. lve in 4-stroke engine while itis install oil drains and refills as itis necessary 4-stroke engine and type of oil 0 be used.