Chapter one Introduction

1.0 The word thermodynamics

 Thermo – is the Greek word meaning hot or heat.

 Dynamics -Is the study of matter in motion, from the Greek word meaning power.

1.1 What is thermodynamics as field of study?

Def (1) it is science in which the storage, the transformation and the transfer of energy are studied.
Energy is stored as internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy and chemical energy. It is
transformed from one of these specifics to another and it is transferred across a boundary as either
heat or work. Thermodynamics is a system of mathematical equations that relate the
transformations and transfer of energy to the material properties such as temperature, pressure and
enthalpy.

Def (2) it is the science of the relationship between heat, work and the properties of systems, it is
concerned with means necessary to convert heat energy from available sources such as fossil fuels
into mechanical work.

1.2 Why do engineers study thermodynamics?

They are concerned with how much heat energy can be effectively converted into work and vice
versa in the case of refrigeration.

1.3 Historical background to the thermodynamics

 Man used his muscles as the source of power at the beginning to carry, walk etc.
 Later animals were used for carrying purposes and in ploughing fields.
 Wind was the next source of power for driving vessels, milling, sawing etc.
 Water was the next source of power but its disadvantage was that it was not always
available.
 Steam engines were develop in the seventeenth century
 Internal combustion engines were next to be developed.
 Hydroelectric power was the next
 Currently people are turning to solar power.

1.4 What is a thermodynamic system?

Is a definite quantity of matter contained within a closed surface. All matter and space external to
the system is called its surroundings. A system interacts with its surroundings by transferring
energy, not matter across its boundary. If a system does not exchange energy with its surrounding
it is an isolated system.

1.5 Types of energy

Internal energy- it is that energy which results from the random motion of the atoms and
molecules of a body. An internal energy increase does not always result in increase in temperature

3
of the body e.g during phase change the temperature does not change. Internal energy is a
property of the substance.

Heat- it is a transient quantity, it describes the energy transfer process through a system of
boundary resulting from temperature difference. Heat ceases to exist when the process of heat
transfer ceases.

Potential energy – If a fluid is at some height Z above a given datum level, then as result of its
mass it possess gravitational potential energy with respect to the datum.
Potential energy per unit mass =gZ…………………………………………1.1

Work- if a system exists in which a force at the boundary of the system is moved through a
distance then work is done by or on the system. Work is therefore a transient quantity, being
descriptive of that process by which a force is moved through a distance.

W = PV………………………………………1.2

Kinetic energy- is the energy that can be obtained from a moving body by slowing it down. The
maximum energy is obtained by slowing the body down to rest
k. e. =1/2mc2 ……………………………………….1.3.

4
 Chapter two

Laws of thermodynamics
2.0 Introduction

The laws of thermodynamics are really statements of thermodynamic behavior. They are natural
laws, which are based on observable phenomena. These are considered as law because they have
never been shown to be contradicted.

2.1 The Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

It states that if two bodies are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body then they must
be in thermal equilibrium with each other. If bodies B and C are in thermal equilibrium with body
A then bodies B and C must be in thermal equilibrium with each other. By thermal equilibrium is
meant that there is no change of state and hence the zeroth law implies that the bodies A, Band C
will all be at the same temperature.

Thermal Equilibrium
It is observed that a higher temperature object, which is in contact with a lower temperature
object, will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will approach the same
temperature, and in the absence of loss to other objects, they will then maintain a constant
temperature. They are then said to be in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is the subject
of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

The "zeroth law" states that if two systems are at the same
temprature in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

If A and C are in thermal equilibrium with B, then A is in thermal equilibrium with B. Practically
this means that all three are at the same temperature, and it forms the basis for comparison of
temperatures. It is so named because it logically precedes the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics.

Application

Measurement of temperature of a body using mercury in glass thermometer, when the

thermometer is steady, it is assumed that the mercury, the glass container and the body whose
temperature is being measured, are all at the same temperature and hence, are in thermal
equilibrium.

5
2.2 The first law of thermodynamics

Statement 1

Net heat transfer - net work transfer = 0

Net heat transfer = net work transfer

§Q = § W………………………………………………………………..2.1

Written symbolically § Q = § W § means the summation round the cycle.

The implications of the above statement are that there should be heat transfer for there to be work
done

Statement 2
If the heat transfer is not the same as work then some of the heat has been converted into internal
energy.

Q =  U + W …………………………………………………………………2.2

where Q is the heat transfer,

 U change of internal energy.
and W is the work transfer.
Statement 3
The steady flow energy equation is a further statement of the first law of thermodynamics

2 2
C C
1 2
U1 + p1v1 + + gZ1+Q = U2 +p2v2 + + gZ2 + W……………………….2.3
2 2

Where U = specific internal energy

p1v1 = specific flow work
C = velocity, it gives specific K.E.
Z/h = height above given datum level ( gives gravitational
potential Energy)
Q = heat transfer
W = work transfer

2.3 The second law of thermodynamics

It is a directional law in that it states that the heat transfer will occur down a temperature gradient
as a natural phenomenon. Heat transfer can occur up the gradient but not without the aid of
external energy e.g. in refrigeration and heat pumps. The second law of thermodynamics is a
general principle which places constraints upon the direction of heat transfer and the attainable
efficiencies of heat engines. In so doing, it goes beyond the limitations imposed by the first law of
thermodynamics.

6
2.3.1 The concepts of the second law of thermodynamics

 Rudolf Claussius (1822-1888)

It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by an external agency, to convey heat
from a body at low temperature to one at a higher temperature.
 Lord Kelvin (1824-1907)
We cannot transfer heat into work merely by cooling a body already below the temperature
of the coldest surrounding objects.
 Marx Planck (1858-1947)
It is impossible to construct a system, which will operate in a cycle, extract heat from the
reservoir, and do an equivalent amount of work on the surroundings
 Kelvin – Planck
It is impossible for heat engine to produce net work in a complete cycle if it exchanges
heat only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.

Second Law: Heat Engines

Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to extract an amount of heat QH from a hot
reservoir and use it all to do work W . Some amount of heat QC must be exhausted to a cold
reservoir. This precludes a perfect heat engine.
This is sometimes called the "first form" of the second law, and is referred to as the Kelvin-Planck

statement of the second law.

Second Law: Refrigerator

Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is not possible for heat to flow from a colder body to a
warmer body without any work having been done to accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow
spontaneously from a low temperature object to a higher temperature object. This precludes a
perfect refrigerator. The statements about refrigerators apply to air conditioners and heat pumps,
which embody the same principles.
This is the "second form" or Clausius statement of the second law.
Second Law: Entropy
Second Law of Thermodynamics: In any cyclic process the entropy will either increase or remain
the same.
Entropy:
a state variable whose change is defined for a reversible process at temperature T where Q is the
heat absorbed.
Q
S 
T
Entropy: a measure of the amount of energy, which is unavailable to do work.

Entropy: a measure of the disorder of a system.

Entropy: a measure of the multiplicity of a system.

Since entropy gives information about the evolution of an isolated system with time, it is said to
give us the direction of "time's arrow" . If snapshots of a system at two different times shows one
state which is more disordered, then it could be implied that this state came later in time. For an
isolated system, the natural course of events takes the system to a more disordered (higher
entropy) state.
7
2.3.2 Implications of the second law of thermodynamics.

 Heat transfer will only occur, and will always naturally, when a temperature difference
exists, and always naturally down the temperature gradient.
 If due to temperature difference, there is heat transfer availability, then work transfer is
always naturally down the temperature gradient.
 Temperature can be elevated but not without the expenditure of external energy. Elevation
of temperature cannot occur unaided.
 There is no possibility of work transfer if only a single heat energy source or reserve at
fixed temperature is available.
 It is useful to note that if work transfer is supplied to a system then this can all be
transformed into heat energy. Examples of this are seen in the cases friction and the
generation of electricity. Heat energy cannot be all transformed into work transfer; there
will always be some loss. Thus work transfer appears appear to have a higher value than
heat transfer.
 No contradiction with the first law of thermodynamics has been demonstrated.
 From this second law it follows that inorder to run all the engines and devices in use at
present, and hence to maintain and develop modern industrial society, a source of supply
of suitable fuels is essential it is by burning and consuming these fuels that the various
working substances have their temperatures put up above that of their surroundings, that’s
enabling them to release energy by heat transfer in a natural manner according to the
second law of thermodynamics.

2.4 The third law of thermodynamics

The law suggests that the internal energy of a substance results from the random motion of
the atoms and the molecules which makeup the substance, the motion of the atoms is
associated with the temperature and it develops the idea of an absolute zero temperature
when all random motion ceases. The above considerations led to the development of the
third law of thermodynamics, which is the concept that at absolute zero of the temperature
the entropy of a perfect crystal of a substance is zero.

2.5 Conclusion

The laws of thermodynamics govern the way thermodynamic processes take place.
The zeroth law compares the temperature of two bodies. The first law is a conservation of energy
principle. The second law indicates the direction in which the heat would flow. The third law
gives the relationship between kinetic energy of particles and the temperature of the body.

8
 Chapter three

The properties of the thermodynamic media

3.0 Introduction
The molecules of a gas are in a rapid and random motion such that they fill completely the
container in which they are placed, the rapidly moving molecules continually bombard the surface
of the container and their effect is to produce a force normal to the surface, the number of impacts
per unit time is so large that it appears as if the force is continuous and uniform.
Varying any one of the gas properties such as pressure, temperature, volume, density will witness
the change in other properties.

Heat: is defined as thermal energy transferred across the boundaries of a system mainly because
of temperature difference between the two points. Specifically heat is transferred from a body of
higher temperature to a body in contact, which is at a lower temperature unless aided by
mechanical means to act otherwise.

Specific heat capacity of a body is the amount of heat required to raise one kg of a substance
through one degree.
Q dQ
Specific heat capacity c  in the limit as t  0 , then C 
t dt

The specific heat capacity is generally found to vary with temperature; they also vary with
pressure and volume. Cp denote the specific heat capacity at constant pressure and at constant
volume it is represented by Cv

For a solid the quantity of heat energy Q = mct

Q = mc(T1-T2)
For a gas of mass m heat added at constant pressure is given by
Q = mcp(T1-T2)……………………………………. .3.1

The heat added at constant volume Q = mcv(T1-T2)…….……………………… ………….3.2

Joule`s law states that the internal energy of a body/ perfect gas is a function of absolute
temperature only.
U = f (T)

But from the first law of thermodynamics the energy supplied to the gas is given by

Q =  U +  W

U — is internal energy ,
W — is the work done
But at constant volume W = 0
then  Q =  U
but also at constant volume  Q = mCv T
for one kg Q = Cv T
9
 Q = Cv (T2-T1) + k

3.1 Relationship between specific heats

Q = U+W
= m Cv(T2 -T1) + W
but W = P(V2 - V1)
also PV = mRT

W =mR(T2 - T1)

Heat supplied to the system Q = mCv(T2 - T1) + mR(T2 - T1)

But also Q =mCp(T2-T1) for constant pressure

Comparing the two equations above it is deduced that

Cp = Cv + R
Cp - Cv = R……………………………………………………………3.3

3.2 Ratio of specific heats

It has been proved that,

Cp
 constant
Cv
Cp
  …………………………………………..………………………….3. 4
Cv
 where is the expansion/ compression index

Cp =  Cv

But from above Cp – Cv= R

Dividing through out by Cv

CP CV R
 
CV CV CV

 - 1 =R/Cv

R
CV  ……………………………………………………………………………3.5
 -1

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3.3 Partial pressures:

Dalton’s and Gibbs law

The relationship between the partial pressures of the constituent gases is expressed by Dalton`s
law as follows:
The pressure of a mixture of a gas is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the constituents.

The partial pressure of each constituent is that pressure which the gas would exert if it occupied
alone that volume occupied by the mixture.

The total pressure P= Partial pressure of gas1 + partial pressure of gas 2 + partial pressure gas 3

Thus P = P1 + P2 + P3

Thus from the characteristic gas equation Pv = mRT substituting for the pressure of each gas and
also for the mixture

mRT m1R 1T1 m 2 R 2 T2 m 3 R 3 T3

  
V V1 V2 V3
Since it can be considered as though each gas occupy the same volume, then the volume is
common throughout. The temperature is also common.

MRt = T(m1R1 + m2 R2 + m3R3 + etc)………………………………………………………….3. 6

Where m is the total mass of the mixture and R is the gas constant of the mixture.

3.4 The ideal gases

The various laws governing the pressure- volume-temperature relations of gases as discussed in
this section apply accurately only to a hypothetical ideal or perfect gas. A perfect gas is described
as one, in which there is no interaction between the molecules of the gas. The molecules of such a
gas are entirely free and independent of each other’s attraction forces. Hence none of the energy
transferred either to or from an ideal gas has an effect on the internal potential energy.

At high temperature and low pressure gases approach the ideal gas, at low pressure the density
and intermolecular forces become very small. Under this situation the gases obey the law
PV
R
T

Where R is the characteristic gas constant whose units are kJ/kgK

Each perfect gas has a different gas constant
For unit mass P v = RT
For m kg Pv = mRT…
the above is known as the characteristic gas equation

for a substance of molecular weight M =m/n, where n is the number of moles, the equation
becomes PV = nMRT
PV
MR 
nT

11
 Avogadro`s hypothesis states that that the volume of one mole of any gas is the same as the
volume of any other gas at the same temperature and pressure
Thus V/n is the same for all gases at the same temperature and pressure

PV
Thus is constant for all gases
Tn

PV
Therefore MR  R 0 
Tn

Where R0 is the molar gas constant or universal gas constant

PV = n R0 T………………………………………………………………………3.7

R0 = 8314,5J/kmol

3.5 Expansion and compression of ideal gases

Introduction
The state of a working fluid can be identified by its thermodynamic properties, which are
pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy, entropy etc. if two of the properties are chosen
they are enough to define the state of a system and this state is represented by a point situated on
the diagram of the properties shown below.

p1 1 p1 1

p2 2 p2 2

p3 3 p3 3

V1 V2 V2
T1 T2 T2

Fig 3. 1 Pressure volume diagram Fig 3.2 Pressure and Temperature diagram
3.5.1 Reversibility

Definition – when a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and its surrounding can
always be restored to their original state.

12
Conditions of reversibility:
 The process must be frictionless ( no internal friction and mechanical friction).
 The differences in pressure between the fluid and its surrounding during the process must
be infinitely small.
 Difference between the fluid temperature and its surrounding must be infinitely small.
 When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state points can be joined up to
form a line on a diameter of properties.

The work done by a fluid during an irreversible process is given by the area under the P-V
diagram
pressure

P1 1

P2 2

V1 V2 Volume

Fig3.3 Pressure– volume relationship

v2
Work done is the area under graph 1-2 =  Pdv
v1

3.5.2 The isothermal process

Also known as the constant temperature process

When a gas in the cylinder is compressed from v1 to v2 the temperature of the gas will increase
but if the change takes place slowly there will be a very small change in temperature. In the latter,
when a lapse of time is allowed the temperature will return to its original value. And the process
will approximate an isothermal process.

When the volume of the gas is increased or decreased under such conditions that the temperature
remains constant the absolute pressure will vary inversely with the volume.

Boyles laws
It states that when the temperature of the body is maintained constant as its volume is varied, the
change in absolute pressure is inversely proportional to the volume

13
 1
P 
V
PV = C
P1V1 = P2V2 …………………………………………………..3.8
pressure

P1 1

PV = C

P2 2 P
V1
V2 Volume
V
v

Fig. P-v Diagram showing work done in an isothermal process

V2

Work done during an isothermal process w 

V1
 P dv

V2

C C
but P 
V
therefore w 

V1
V
dv

W = C [ ln ] W  C Invv2
1
V
Then PV = C then W  P1V1 ln 2 ………………………………3.9
V1
Heat transfer during constant temperature process

 Q = U +  W

but U =0 since there is no temperature change

 Q = W

14
3.5.3 Constant pressure process

If the temperature of the gas is increased by the addition of heat while the gas is allowed to
expand and its pressure is maintained constant, then the volume of the gas will increase in
accordance with Charles law.

Charles law states that:

When energy is supplied to a gas under such conditions that the pressure of the gas is kept
constant, then the volume of the gas will increase in direct proportion to the change in absolute
temperature of the gas.

V T
V/T = constant
V1/T1 =V2/T2………………………………………………………….3.10

Force exerted on the piston = P A

Work done in pushing piston = PAL
But AL = V2- V1

V1 V2

Area (A) Piston

L
Fig 3.5 Work done at constant pressure

Work done on the piston = P(V2–V1) ……………………………………………….3.11

Heat transfer Q = U + W…………………………………...……………….3.12

3.5.4 Constant volume process ( isochoric)

Assume that the gas is confined in a closed cylinder so that its volume cannot change as it is
heated or cooled, as the energy to the gas is varied, the absolute pressure will increase
proportionally to the increase in absolute temperature

15
Combining Charles law and Boyles law

P1V1 P2V2
 Known as the characteristic gas equation
T1 T2

For constant V, V1 =V2

P1 P2
 …………………………………………………………….……..3.13
T1 T2

Work done at constant volume W=0

Heat transfer at constant volume Q = U + W

but W = 0
Q =U
= mC
= mCv(T2- T1)……………………………………….3.14

3.5.5 Adiabatic compression and expansion:

Also known as the constant energy process

Def – an adiabatic process occurs when the compression or expansion of a gas takes place without
an heat flow out or into the system ( it occurs very fast)
If a gas expands or is compressed in a cylinder, which is well lagged, and the change takes place
very quickly the conditions are approximately adiabatic. An adiabatic process is a special case of
a polytropic process

Polytropic expansion or compression of gases

PVn = C

All expansions of the above form are polytropic

P1V1n = P2V2n………………………...…………………3.15

P1V1 P2V2
Also PV/T =C then  ………………………….………..…………………3.16
T1 T2

T2 P2  V2 
From 3.15    …………………………………………………3.17
T1 P1  V1 

From 3.16 (V2/V1)n = P1/P2

V2/V1 = (P1/P2)1/n
= (P2/P1) –1/n……………..…………………………………….3.18

substituting into 17, T2/T1 = P2/P1 (P2/P1) –1/n

16
 T2/T1 =P2/P1 n-1/n……………………….…………………………………………….………3.19
from 2 T2/T1 =P2V2/P1V1

From 1 P2/P1 =V1/V2 n

Then T2/T1 = (V1/V2)n x V2/V1

= (V1/V2)n x (V1/V2) –1

T2/T1 = ( V1/V2)n-1…………………………………………………………3.20

3.5.6. For non-flow processes

Work done during a polytropic expansion
pressure

P1 1

PVn = C

P2 2 P
V1
V2 Volume
V
v

Work done = area under the curve 1-2

V2

w 

V1
P dv

V2

C C
but P 
Vn
therefore w 

V1
Vn
dv

v2
= C[ V1-n ] v1

1-n

17
 =
P2 V2  P1V1
…………………………….……………………..………………..3.21
1 n

=
P1V1  P2 V2
……………………………………………………………………..3.22
n 1
mR T1  T2 
ALSO Since PV = mRT W =
n 1

For non-flow processes

Work done during an adiabatic expansion
pressure

P1 1

PVγ = C

P2 2 P
V1

V V2 Volume
v

Work done = area under the curve 1-2

V2

w 
V1
P dv

V2

C C
but P 
V
therefore w 

V1
V
dv

v2
= C[ V1- ]
v1

1-

18
 P2V2  P1V1
= ………………………..………………..3.23
1 

=
P1V1  P2V2
……………………………………………………………………………………..3.24
 1
mR T1  T2 
ALSO Since PV = mRT W =
 1

Worked examples

QUESTION 1

A petrol engine cylinder has diameter of 9,5 cm and stroke 12,7 cm, clearance volume 230 cm3. If the
temperature at the beginning of the compression is 570C,
Find the temp at the end of compression, and the work done during the compression stroke if the law
of compression is pV1.3 = c. take the initial pressure as 100 kN/m2.

SOLUTION
pressure

V2 = VC = 230 X 10-6 2
P2
 
V1 =  X 0.0952 X 0.127   230 X 10 - 6
4 

= 1130 X 10-6

From P2 V21.3  P1V11.3

1
V 
1.3 P1
P2  100 1 
 V2 
 1130 
1.3 V2=VC V1=VC+VS
Volume
P2  100  VC VS
 230 

= 792.1kN/m2

Temperature

P1V1 P2V2
From 
T1 T2

19
 P V 
T2  T1  2 2 
 P1V1 

 7921 X 230 
T 2  330  
 100 X 1 130 

= 532K or 259oC

work done
P1V1  P2 V2
W=
n 1
100 X 1130 X 10 6  792.1 X 230 X 10 6
W =
0.3
= -0.23061kJ
= -230.61J

(–)indicates work done on the gas

QUESTION 2

1 m3 of air, initially at 110 kN/m2 and 150C, is compressed according to the law pV1.3 = c in a
cylinder to a final pressure of 1.4 MN/m2 . Taking R for air = 287 J/kgK and cp = 1005 J/kgK,
determine

a) the volume and temp of air at the end of compression;

b) the work done in compressing the air;

c) the change of internal energy;

d) the heat exchange through the cylinder walls, stating the direction of heat flow.

a) i)

1
P  1.3
V2  V1  1 
 P2 

1
 110  1.3
V2  1 
 1400 

= 0.141m3

n 1
P  n
ii) T2  T1  2 
 P1 

20
 1.31
 1400  1.3
T2  288 
 110 
= 518 K or 245oC

b) work done
P1V1  P2 V2
W=
n 1
110 X 1  1400 X 0.141
W =
0.3
= -291.3kJ

C) U2 – U1 = mcV(T2 – T1)
PV 110  1
But m  =
RT 0.287  288

= 1.33

CP - CV = R

Thus Cv = 1.005 - 0.287

= 0.718 kJ/kg
U = 1.33 x 0.718(518 – 288)

= 219.77 kJ/kg

Heat flow Q = W + (U2 – U1)

= –291.3 + 219.6362
= –71.6638 kJ/kg

QUESTION 3

1 kg of a certain gas expands adiabatically in a closed system until its pressure is halved. During the
expansion the gas does 67 kJ of external work and its temp falls from 2400C to 1450C. Calculate the
value of the adiabatic index and the characteristic constant of the gas.

 1
T P  
From 2   2 
T1  P1 

 1
418  1  
 
513  2 

 1
1 
0.814814814 =  
2

21
  1 1
log 0.8 = log
 2

 1 log 0.8
=
 log 0.5
log 0.8
 1 = 
log 0.5

 - 0.295γ = 1
0.7 = 1

 = 1.419

Work done
mR T1  T2 
W =
 1
R T1  T2 
67 =
 1
67  1
R =
T1  T2

67  0.419
R =
513  418
= 0.2955kJ/kg

QUESTION 4

In a closed system, 1 kg of air initially at 100 kN/m2 and 270C is compressed adiabatically to 3
MN/m2 and then expanded isothermally back to its original volume. determine the excess of the
work done by the gas over the work done on the gas.Taking R for air = 287 J/kgK and  = 1.4.
pressure

Given data
m = 1 kg
P1 = 100 kN/m2 P2 2
T1 = 300K
P2 = 3 000 kN/m2
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
P3 3
Final temperature—adiabatic process
P1 1
 1
P  
T2  T1  2  V2 V1=V1 Volume
 P1 
0.4
 3 000  1.4
T2  300 
 100 

22
T2  792.7858662K

Adiabatic work

mR T1  T2 
W =
 1

1  0.287300  793
W =
1. 4  1

W = –353.573859 kJ

Isothermal work

V3
W  P2 V2 ln
V2
V3
But P2V2 = mRT2 W  mRT2 ln
V2
V3 V1
Also 
V2 V2
From adiabatic process

1
V1  P2   V3
  
V2  P1  V2
1
3 000  .4
1 1
    30 1.4
 1001 
1
thus Work W  mRT2 ln 30 1.4

1
W  1  0.287  792.7858662 ln 30 1.4

= 552.7663485 kJ

= 552.8 kJ

Excess of the work done

= 552.7663485 kJ –353.573859kJ

= 199.1924895kJ

23
 Chapter 3
Tutorial questions

1. A volume of 0.5 m3 of gas is expanded in a cylinder from a pressure of 660 kN/m2 and temp 1650C
to a pressure of 120 kN/m2 according to the law pV1.3 = c. Find:-

a) the final volume and temp of air ;

b) the work done by the air during the expansion;
c) the change of internal energy during expansion;
d) the heat exchange through the cylinder walls, stating the direction of heat flow.

Take Cv = 710 J/kg K and R for air = 287 J/kg K.

2. Air is expanded adiabatically from a pressure of 800 kN/m2 to

128 kN/m2. If the final temp is 570C, calculate the temp at the beginning of expansion, taking  = 1.4.

3.The ratio of compression in a petrol engine is 9 to 1. Find the temp of the gas at the end of
compression if the temp at the beginning is 240C, assuming compression to follow the law pVn =
constant where n = 1.36.

4.The vol. and temp of a gas at the beginning of expansion are 0.0056 m3 and 1830C, at the end of
expansion the values are 0.0238 m3 and 220C respectively. Assuming expansion to follow the law
pVn = constant, find the value of n.

5. 7.08 litres of air at a pressure of 13.79 bar and temp 3350C are expanded according to the law
pV1.32 = constant, and the final pressure is 1.206 bar. Calculate

i) the vol at the end of expansion

ii) the work transfer from the air
iii) the temp at the end of expansion
iv) the mass of air in the system taking R for air = 287 J/kgK.

6. A perfect is compressed in a cylinder according to the law pV1.3 = constant. The initial condition
of the gas is 1.05 bar, 0.34 m3 and 170C. If the final pressure is 6.32 bar, calculate:-
a) the mass of gas in the cylinder;
b) the final volume;
c) the final temperature;
d) the work done to compress the gas;
e) the change in internal energy;
f) the transfer of heat between the gas and cylinder walls.

7. Assume a compression according to the law PV = CONSTANT,

i. Calculate the final volume when 1m3 of gas at 120 k N/m2 is compressed t
o a pressure of 960 k N /m2.
ii. Calculate the initial volume of gas at a pressure of 1.05 bar, which will occupy
a volume of 5.6m3 when it is compressed to a pressure of 42 bar.
iii. 0.25m3 of gas at temperature of 210C is heated at constant pressure to a
temperature of 3150C. Calculate the final volume.

24
8. A closed vessel contains air at a pressure of 140kN/m2 gauge and temperature 200C. Find the
final gauge pressure if the air is heated at constant volume to 400C. Take the atmospheric pressure
as 759mm Hg.

9.Taking the characteristic gas constant R for nitrogen as 0.297kJ/kgK., calculate:

i. The mass of 0.05m3 of nitrogen at 550kN/m2 and 280C.
ii. the volume of 1kg of nitrogen at 1MN/m2 at 00C.

10.An air reservoir contains 20kg of air at 3200kgkN/m2 gauge and 160C. Calculate the new
pressure
and heat energy transfer if the air is heated to 350C. Neglect any expansion of the reservoir, take
the
R for air =0.287kJ/kgK, specific heat at constant volume Cv =0.718kJ/kgK, and atmospheric
pressure = 100kN/m2.

11. heat energy is transferred to 1.36kg of air which causes its temperature to increase from
400C to 4680C. calculate for two separate cases of heat transfer at a). Constant volume b).
Constant pressure:
i. the quantity of heat energy transfer
ii. the external work done
iii. the increase in internal energy
Take Cv and Cp as 0.718 and 1.005kJ/kgK respectively.

12. A closed vessel of 500cm3 capacity contains a sample of flue gas at 1.015 bars and 200C.
If the analysis of the gas by volume is 10% CO2. 8% O2, and 82% n2 calculate the partial
pressure and mass of each constituent in the sample. R for CO2, O2 and N2 =0.189, 0.26
and 0.297kJ/kgK respectively.

13. Gas is expanded in an engine cylinder according to the law Pvn =C. at the beginning of
the expansion the pressure and the volume are 1750kN/m2 and 0.05m3 respectively, and at
the end of expansion the respective values are 122.5kN/m2 and 0.375m3. calculate the
value of n.

14. 0.113m3 of air at 8.25 bar is expanded in cylinder until the volume is 0.331m3 . calculate
the final pressure and the work done if the expansion is ;
i. isothermal,
ii. adiabatic, taking  =1.4

15. a gas is expanded in a cylinder behind a gas tight piston. At the beginning of the expansion
the pressure is 36bar, volume 0.125m3 and temperature 5100C. at the end of expansion the
volume is1.5m3 and the temperature 400C. Taking R =0.284kJ/kgK and Cv =0.71kJ/kgK,
calculate;
i. the pressure at the end of expansion.
ii. The index of expansion
iii. The mass of gas in the cylinder,
iv. the change in internal energy,
v. work done by the gas
vi. heat transfer during expansion.

25
 Chapter four
The first law of thermodynamics

4.0 Introduction:
Conservation of mass states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be
changed from one form to another. The total energy in a system remains constant hence
initial energy of the system plus energy entering the system is equal to the final energy of
the system plus energy leaving the system.

4.1 Energy forms in thermodynamics:

 Gravitational potential energy, for unit mass of fluid potential energy =gz where z is some
height above a given datum.
 Kinetic energy, k.e. = C2/2 where C is the velocity of flow of the fluid.
 Internal energy U –all fluids store energy. The energy stored within the fluid results from
the internal motion of the atoms and molecules.
 Heat received or rejected (Q)- in an system a fluid can have a direct reception or rejection
of heat through the system boundary. Heat received is positive heat rejected is negative.
 External work done (W)
In any system a fluid can do external work or have external work done on it, transferred
through the system boundary. External work done by the system is positive, external work
done on the system is negative.

4.2 The-closed system:

The substance enclosed by the system will possess internal energy U, there could also be
some other random energies, which are electrical, magnetic and surface tension but these
forms of energy will be neglected as being insignificantly small.
In a closed system the sum of all the energies possessed by the contained substance called
the total energy E:

E = U + P.e +  K.e

Process carried out on a closed system:

E1 = initial energy of the contained substance
E2= final total energy of the contained substance
Q = heat transferred to or from the substance.
W = work transferred to or out of the system.

E1 +Q = E2 + W

4.3 The non-flow energy equation:

It was stated that the sum of all energies possessed by the contained substances was called
total energy E, where

E = U + P.E +  K.E

26
If the substance is considered to be at rest then there is no turbulence. In this case the random
potential and kinetic energy will be zero. Thus for a substance at rest the contained energy will be
only internal energy then equation 1 becomes.

U1 + Q = U2 + W

Q = U2-U1 + W………………………………………………..4.1

4.4 The open system:

The purpose here is to examine the two flow open system in which an equal mass of fluid
per unit time is entering and leaving the system. This is known as the continuity of mass
flow.
Q

Input Output

Fig 4.1 energy balance in an open system

Entering
1. internal energy (U)
2. displacement or flow energy (PV)
3. kinetic energy (KE)
4. Gravitational potential ( PE)

Leaving
1. U2
2. KE2
3. P2V2
4. PE2

As the fluid enters the system let the total actual energy of the fluid in the system= E1
after passing through the system as the fluid leaves let the total energy of the fluid mass
remaining in the system = E2 in its passage through the system, let the fluid mass transfer heat
=Q. and the transfer work = W. for two flow open systems:

Fluid mass entering the system =U1 + P1V1 + KE1 + Q1

Energy of fluid mass leaving the region = U2 + P2V2 + PE2 + KE2
from the principle of conservation of energy

27
U1 + E1 +P1V1 + KE1 + PE1 + Q = U2 + E2 + P2V2 + KE2 + PE2 +W

But U + PV = H = enthalpy

E1 + H1 + PE1 + KE1 + Q = E2 + H2 + PE2 + KE2 + W

Q - W = (E2-E1) + (H2-H1) + (KE2-KE1) + (PE2-PE1)

4.5 The steady flow energy equation

In a stead flow system it is considered that the mass rate of the fluid throughout the system is
constant. It is further considered that the total fluid mass in the system remains constant

For unit mass through the system

C12 C2
U1 + P1V1 + + Q + Z1 = U2 + P2V2 + 2 2 + W + Z2 …………. ….4.2
2 2

`for most industrial applications the difference in height is negligible Z2-Z1=0

and also U + PV = H
C2 C2
H1 + 1 + Q = H2 + 2 + W………………. ….. . 4.3
2 2

P1, V1, C1, U1

Entry

Z2 P2, V2, C2, U2

Exit

Z2
Q

Datum

Fig 4.2 energy balance in a steady flow

28
 Worked example 1
A turbine operating under steady flow conditions receives steam at the flowing state; pressure,
13.8 bar, specific volume 0.143m3/kg, specific internal energy 2590 kJ/kg,
velocity 30 m/s. the state of the steam leaving the turbine is as flows: pressure 0.35 bar,
specific volume 4.37m3, specific internal energy 2360 kJ/kg, velocity 90m/s. heat is
rejected to the surroundings at the rate of 0.25 kW and the rate of steam flow through
the turbine is 0.38 kg/s. calculate the power developed in the turbine.

Given data
Entering Leaving
P1 = 1 380 kN/m2 P2 = 35 kN/m2
V1 = 0.143 m3/kg V2 = 4.37m3/kg
U1 = 2 590 kJ/kg U2 = 2 360 kJ/kg
C1 = 30 m/s C2 = 90 m/s
•
Q = – 0.25 kJ/s
0.657894736kJ/kg
•
Q  0.25
Q = •
= – 0.657894736kJ/kg
m 0.38

C12  C 22
W = (U1 – U2) + (P1V1 – P2V2) + + Q
2  10 3
30 2  90 2
= 2 590 – 2 360 + 1 380 x 0.143 – 35 x 4.37 + – 0.658
2  10 3
= 270.1321kJ/kg
•
P = W m = 270.1321 x 0.38
= 102.65 kW

29
 Chapter four
Tutorial Questions

The first law of thermodynamics

1.A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing

fluid . At the inlet to a certain nozzle the specific enthalpy of the fluid is 3025 kJ/kg
and the velocity is 60m/s. at exit from the nozzle the specific enthalpy is 2790 kJ/kg
the nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it. Calculate
 The velocity of the fluid at exit.
 The rate of flow of fluid when the inlet area is 0.1m2 and the specific volume at inlet is
0.19m3 /kg
 The exit area of the nozzle when the specific volume at the exit is 0.5m3/kg

[688m/s; 31.6kg/s; 0.0229m2.] esatop

2.In the turbine of a gas turbine unit the gases flow through the turbine at 17 kg/s and the power
developed by the turbine is 14000kW . The specific enthalpies of the gases at
inlet and outlet are 1200kJ/kg and 360kJ/kg respectively, and the velocities of the
gases at inlet and outlet are 60m/s and 150m/s respectively. Calculate the rate at which
heat is rejected from the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the
specific volume of the gases at the inlet is 0.5m3/kg
[119.34KJ/s 0.142m3 ]

30
 Chapter five
The second law of thermodynamics

5.0 Engine cycles and thermal efficiency

During a cycle there will be some heat transfer and work transfer to and from the substance. After
performing the cycle, if the substance returns to its original state then from the first law of
thermodynamics.

§Q =§W
Thus for the cycle the net work transfer = net heat received- net heat rejected

net work done

Thermal efficiency  
net heat received
Net work done = positive work – negative work

mass flow of steam kg / hr

Specific steam consumption 
Power output in kW

mass flow of fuel uesd

Specific fuel consumption 
Power output in kW

31
5.1 The Carnot cycle for the gas

Carnot`s principle states that no engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine working
between the same limits of temperature

Carnot conceived of a cycle made up of thermodynamically reversible process.

Figs 5.1 P-V diagram for Carnot cycle

1-2 isothermal expansion

Work done =P1V1lnV2/V1 = mRT1 lnV2/V1
for the isothermal process, Q = W
therefore heat received =mRT1 lnV2/V1

2-3 adiabatic expansion

work done =P2V2-P3V3 = mR(T2-T3)
(  – 1) (  – 1)

for the adiabatic process Q = 0, there is no heat transfer.

3-4 isothermal compression

Work done = P3V3ln V4/V3 = - P3V3ln V3/V4

32
 = - mRT3 lnV3/V4
for the isothermal process, Q = W
Therefore heat rejected = mRT3 lnV3/V4

4-1 adiabatic compression

Work done = P4V4- P1V1 = -(P1V1-P4V4)
(  – 1) (  – 1)

for the adiabatic Q = 0, no heat transfer during the process

This process returns the cycle to the starting point 1

Net work done per cycle = § W

= area under 1-2 + area under 2-3- area under 3-4 – area 4-1
= area 1 2 3 4
= area enclosed by cycle

§W =mRT1 lnV2/V1+ mRln(T2-T3) - mRT3 lnV3/V4 – mR(T1-T4)

(  – 1) (  – 1)
now T1 = T2 and T3 = T4 from the isothermals

therefore mR(T2-T3) = mR(T1-T4)

(  – 1) (  – 1)

from the above equation

§ W = mRT1lnV2/V1-mRT3ln V3/V4

For the adiabatic 1-4

T1/T4 = (V4/V1) ( – 1)

For the adiabatic 2-3

T2/T3 = (V3/V2) ( – 1)

But T1 =T2 and T3 =T4

Therefore T1/T4 =T2/T3

Hence, from equations above

V4/V1 =V3/V2 or V2/V1 = V3/V4

Substituting equation 6 into equation 2

§ W =mRlnV2/V1(T1-T3)
Thermal efficiency = heat received – heat rejected
heat received

33
from the above analysis thermal efficiency = mRT1ln(V2/V1) –mRT3ln(V3/V4)
mRT1 ln(V2/V1)

= mRln(V2/V1) (T1-T3)
mRln(V2/V1) T1

Since V2/V1 = V3/V4

Therefore thermal  = T1 –T3

T1
= Max. absolute temp.– min. absolute temp.
Max. absolute temp .

5.1.1 Carnot efficiency using T-s diagram

Carnot showed the most efficient possible cycle is one with all the heat supplied at one fixed
temperature and then all the heat is rejected at a lower fixed temperature. The cycle therefore
consists of two isothermals joined with two adiabatic
T

4 1
T1

T2 2
3

A B S
Fig 5.2 Carnot cycle on a T-s diagram

1-2 isentropic expansion from T1 to T2

2-3 isothermal heat rejection
3-4 isentropic compression from T2 to T1
4-1 isothermal heat supply
The cycle is completely independent of the substance used

The cycle efficiency = - W =  Q/Q1

Q1

From the graph the gross heat supplied Q1 is given by the area 41BA4
Q1 =T1( sB-sA)

The net heat supplied Q is given by the area 41234

34
 Q =(T1-T2) (sB-sA)

Hence the carnot cycle efficiency  = T1-T2) (sB-sA)

T1( sB-sA)

 = (T1-T2)
T1
5.20 Entropy

It is the property of a body, which is defined as  Q/T

From the first law of thermodynamics the work transfer in a reversible process

W rev = PdV
The second law provides the corresponding expression for heat transfer which can be
written as

 Q rev = T s ,  s is the change in entropy

Entropy is an abstract property it can not be measured but can only be calculated, entropy
like enthalpy can be treated in three stages of the formation of vapour from the liquid.

The energy of the liquid can be expressed as Q = mc

And for unit mass Q = cθ, for θ = T
And for constant pressure Q = cpl T

Dividing by T Q/T = cpl T/T

S = cpl T/T

To calculate the total change in entropy between given temperatures

S = m cpl T/T

s2 –s1 =cpl ln (T2/T1) ………………………………….[5.1]

Change in entropy for a vapour

S = mcpv T/T

s2 –s1 = cpv ln (T2/T1)

s2 –sf = cpv ln (T2/T1)

s2 = sf + cpv ln (T2/T1)………………………………….[5.2]
Entropy of steam

s2 –sg =cps ln (T2/T1)

35
 s2 = sg + cps ln (T2/T1)…………………………………………….[5.3]

5.2.1 Change of entropy for a gas

from the first law of thermodynamics

 Q = U +W where U = cv T and W =P V

Q = cv T + P V
Dividing by T

Q = cv T + P V
T T T

From pv = RT then P/T = R/v put in above equation

 Q = cv T + R V
T T V

S = cv T + R V
T V

S = cv T + R V
T V
s2-s1 =cvln (T2/T1) +Rln( V2/V1)………………………………………[5.4]

but cp- cv =R
Substituting s2-s1 =cvln (T2/T1) +( cp- cv) ln( V2/V1)
s2-s1 =cvln (T2/T1) + cp ln( V2/V1) - cv ln( V2/V1)……………….. [5.5]

s2-s1 =cvln{ (T2/T1)(V1/V2) } + cp ln( V2/V1)

And from P1V1/T1 =P2V2/T2; T2V1 = P2/P1

T1V2

s2-s1 =cvln (P2/P1) + cp ln( V2/V1)……………………[5.6]

But also cv = cp-R put into equation [5.4]

s2-s1 =cPln (T2/T11) -R ln (T2/T11) + R ln( V2/V1)

s2-s1 =cPln (T2/T11) + R ln{( V2/V1)(T1/T2)}

From P1V1/T1 =P2V2/T2; T1V2 = P1/P2

T2V1

s2-s1 =cPln (T2/T11) +R ln (P1/P2) ……………………………………… [5.7 ]

36
5.2.2 Change of entropy at constant pressure

From equation [5.4]

s2-s1=cvln(T2/T1)+Rln(V2/V1)…………………………………………… [5.8]
from equation [5.6] p1=p2
s2-s1 = cp ln( V2/V1)…………………………………………………… [5.9]
from equation [5.7]
s2-s1 =cPln (T2/T11)…………………………………………………… [5.10]

5.2.3 Change of entropy at constant temperature

from equation [5.6]
s2-s1 =cvln (P2/P1) + cp ln( V2/V1)………………………………… [5.11]
from equation [5.4]
s2-s1 =Rln( V2/V1)…………………………………………………. . [5.12]
from equation [5.7]
s2-s1 = R ln (P1/P2) ………………………………………………… [5.13]

5.2.4 Change of entropy at constant volume

from equation [5.7]
s2-s1 =cP ln (T2/T11) +R ln (P1/P2)………………………………… [5.14]
from equation [7]
s2-s1 =R ln (P1/P2)…………………………………………………. [5.15]
from equation [4]
s2-s1 =cvln (T2/T1) ………………………………………………… [5.16]

5.2.5 Change of entropy during a polytropic process

 Q =  –n x polytropic work
 –1

Q =  –n x P V
 –1
dividing by T

Q =  –n x PV from pv = RT, P/T =R/V

T –1 T

s = –n x RV
 –1 V

s2-s1 =  –n x R ln(V2/V1) ………………………………………..[5.17]

 –1

From cp –cv =R and cp/cv = 

37
 R = cv(–1) put into [5.17]

s2-s1 = –n x cv( –1) ln(V2/V1)

–1

s2-s1 = cv (–n ) ln(V2/V1) ……………………………….. [5.18]

but from P1V1n =P2V22

V2/V1 = (P1/P2)1/n
Putting into [5.18]

s2-s1 = cv (–n ) ln(P1/P2) 1/n

s2-s1 = cv ( –n ) ln(P1/P2) ……………………………………………[5.19]

n

from T2/T1 = (V2/V1)n-1 , V2/V1 =( T2/T1 )1/(n-1)

put into equation [18]

s2-s1 = cv ( –n ) ln( T2/T1 )1/(n-1)

s2-s1 = cv ( –n ) ln( T2/T1 ) …………………………………………[5.20]

n-1

Worked example
A rigid vessel contains 0.5 kg of a perfect gas of specific heat at constant volume 1.1 kJ/kg K. A
stirring paddle is inserted into the vessel; and 11 kJ of work are done on the paddle by the stirrer
motor. Assuming that the vessel is well lagged and that the gas is initially at the temperature of the
surroundings, which are at 17 oC, calculate the effectiveness of the process.

Solution
Q + W = U2 +U1 but Q = 0 , W = 11 kJ
Giving
W = mCv(T2 – T1)

11 = 0.5 x 1.1 x (T2 – 290)

T2 = 310K = 37 oC

Change in entropy

s2 – s1 = Cvln(T2/T1) = 1.1 x ln(310/290)

= 0.07336 kJ/kg K

Increase in specific energy

38
 = (U2 +U1) – To(s2 – s1)
= 1.1(310 – 290) – (290 x 0.07336)
= 0.7256 kJ/kg
therefore
increase in energy of a system
effectiveness =
loss in energy of surroundings

0.7256  0.5
effectiveness = = 0.033 or 3.3%
11

Tutorial questions
Second law of thermodynamics

1. The overall expansion ratio of a Carnot cycle is 15. The temperature limits of the cycle are
2600C and 210C. Determine;
 The volume ratios of the isothermal and adiabatic processes
 The thermal efficiency of the cycle

 =1.4 [3.39; 44.8%] RJ

2. 0.23kg of gas is taken through a cycle whose temperature limits are 3000C and 500C if the
volume ratio of the isothermal processes is2.5:1 determine for the cycle,
 the thermal efficiency
 the net work done
 the work ratio
Take  =1.4 R =0.28kJ/kgK [43.6%; 14.75kJ; 0.2] RJ

3. Steam at a pressure of 1.9MN/m2 and with temperature of 250 0C is expanded isentropically

to a pressure of 0.3MN/m2. it is further expanded hyperbolically to a pressure of 0.12MN/m2.
using tables determine;
 the final condition of steam
 the change of specific entropy during the hyperbolic process
[0.954; 0.5727kJ/kgK, an increase] RJ

4. A quantity of gas as an initial pressure, volume, and temperature of 1.1bar, 0.16m3 and 180C,
respectively. It is compressed isothermally to pressure of 6.9bar. Determine the change of
entropy. Take R =0.3kJ/kgK [-111kJ/K]

5. 1kg of dry saturated steam at 22bar is throttled to a pressure of 7bar, then expanded at constant
entropy to a pressure of 1.4bar. calculate;
 the degree of superheat at 7bar
 the increase in entropy

39
 the dryness fraction at 1.4bar [15.80C, 0.4848kJ/kgK, 0.9217] REEDS

40
 Chapter six
Gas engine cycles
6.0 Introduction
Gas engine cycles are ideal gas cycles the working media is assumed to be air. In studying this
chapter the students should be able to calculate the change in thermodynamic property at each
turning point. From which the heat supplied, heat rejected work done and the thermal efficiency
can be calculated.

6.1. Constant pressure cycle

Also known as the [isobaric] cycle, heat is added and rejected at constant pressure

Fig 6.1 P-v and T-s for constant pressure cycle

1-2 adiabatic compression according to the law PV = C

at point 1 assume that P1 V1 T1

 1
T1  V2 
 
T2  V1 

 1
V 
T2  T1  1 
 V2 

= T1( rv) -1

V1
where r  V
2

also P1V1  P2V2


V 
 P2  P1 1 
 V2 

41
2-3 constant pressure heat addition

P3 = P2

V3  V2 
 
T3  T2 

 T3 =T2 V3/V2 =V3/V2T1 rv(-1)

3-4 adiabatic expansion according to the law PV = C

 i
T4  V3 
 
T3  V4 

4-1 constant pressure heat rejection

T4 =T1V4/V1
It follows that V4/V1 = V3/V2 =constant pressure ratios
This could also be obtained from the fact that since V1/V2 =V4/V3 = rv then
V4/V1 = V3/V2
Also P4V4  =P3V3
Then P4 =P3 (V3/V4) = P3/rv

Net work done by the system= area under 2-3 + area under 3-4 – area under 4-1 – area1-2
(P V - P V ) P V -P V
= P2 (V3 - V2 )  3 3 4 4 - P1 (V4 - V1 ) - 2 2 1 1
 1  1

P3 V3 - P4 V4 - P2 V2 - P1V1
= P2 (V3 - V2 )  P1 (V4 - V1 ) 
 1

mR T3 - T4  - T2 - T1 
 mR(T3 - T2 )  mR (T4 - T1 ) 
 1

 T - T  - T2 - T1 

 mR (T3 - T4 )  (T2 - T1 )  3 4 
  1 

 1  
 mR (T3 - T4 )  (T2 - T1 )1   but R  CP
   1  1
 mC P (T3 - T4 )  (T2 - T1 )

Work done = heat received – heat rejected

= mcp (T3-T2)- mcp(T4-T1)
= mcp (T3-T2)-(T4-T1)

Net work done =heat received x thermal efficiency 

Thermal efficiency  = 1- heat rejected
42
 heat received
= 1-mcp(T4-T1)
mcp(T3-T2
= 1- (T4-T1)
(T3-T2)

6.2. Constant volume

Also known as an otto cycle heat is added and rejected at constant volume

fig 6.2 T-s and P-V for constant volume cycle

1-2 adiabatic compression of the gas according to the law PV = C

assume that the thermodynamic properties at 1 are P1, V1, T1

T1/T2 = (V2/V1) -1

T2 = T1(V1/V2) -1

where, r v =V1/V2 , the adiabatic compression , volume ratio

=V4/V3, adiabatic expansion, volume ratio

also P1V1 = P2V2

 P2 =P1(V1/V2) 
=P1 rv
2- 3 constant volume heat addition
V3 =V2 since the volume remains constant

P3/T3 =P2/T2
T3 = T2 P3/P2 = T1P3/P2 r-1v from 2

3-4 adiabatic expansion of the gas according to the law PV =C

T3/T4 =(V4/V3)-1 = r-1v
T4 =T3/ r-1v
= T1(P3/P2) r-1v/ r-1v

43
 = T1(P3/P2) from 3

AlsoP4V4 =P3V3
 P4 =P3 (V3/V4) 
= P3/rv

4-1 constant volume heat rejection

and also from the constant volume process
P4/T4 = P1/T1
T4 = T1 (P4/P1) = T1P3/P2 from above
from the above then it follows that P4/P1 =P3/P2

Net work done = area under 3-4 – area under 1-2

= P3V3 –P4V4 – P2V2 –P1V1
 -1  -1

= P3V3 –P4V4 – P2V2 –P1V1

 -1

= m R {( T3-T4)-(T2-T1)} Since pv =mRT

-1

6. 3.Diesel cycle
heat is added at constant pressure and then released at constant volume

fig 6.3 P-V and T-s for the diesel cycle

1-2 adiabatic compression according to the law PV =C

2-3 constant pressure heat addition P2 =P3
3-4 adiabatic expansion according to the law PV =C
4-1 constant volume heat rejection V4 =V1

the cycle is sometimes referred to as the modified constant pressure cycle

assume that at point 1, P1,V1,T1, are known
1. P1,V1,T1

2. T1/T2 =(V2/V1) -1

T2 T1 (V2/V1) -1

44
 Also P1V1 = P2V2 

P2 = P1( V1/V2) 
2. P3 =P2 pressure remains the same
V3/T3 =V2/T3
T3 =T2 V3/V2 =V3/V2T1 rv -1
= T1 rv -1
 = V3/V2 cut off ratio

3. T4/T3 = (V3/V4) -1

T4 = T3(V3/V4) -1

Now V3/V4 =V3/V1 since V4 = V1 and

V3/V1 =V3 V2 =/rv
V2 V1

T4 =T3( /rv) -1

=  T1 rv-1 -1
rv-1

T4 = T1 -1
= T1 

and also P4V4 = P3V3

P4 = P3( V3/V4)  =P3 (/ rv) 

Work done during the process= area under2-3 + area under 3-4 –area under 1-2

=P2(V2-V3) +(P3V3 –P4V4) – P2V2 –P1V1

 -1  -1

= P2(V2-V3) + (P3V3 –P4V4) –P2V2 –P1V1

 -1

6.4. The dual combustion cycle

Heat is added at constant pressure and at constant volume hence the name dual. Heat is then
rejected at constant volume, it is a modified diesel cycle

1-2 isentropic compression

2-3 reversible constant volume heating
3-4 reversible constant pressure heat addition
4-5 isentropic expansion
4-6 reversible constant volume cooling

45
 p

p3=p4 3
4

2
5

v2=v3 v
v1
The heat is supplied in two parts first at constant volume and then at constant pressure

Heat supplied =mcv(T3-T2) + mcp(T4-T3)

Heat rejected = mcv(T5-T1)

Net work done = area under 3-4 + area under 4-5 – area under 1-2
= P3(V4-V3) +P4V4 –P5V5) – (P2V2 –P1V1)
( –1 ) ( –1)

= P3(V4-V3) +(P4V4 –P5V5) – (P2V2 –P1V1)

(  –1)
= mR{T4-T3) +{(T4-T5)-T2-T1)}
( –1)

or net work = heat received – heat rejected

=mcv(T3-T2) +mcp(T4-T3) –mcv(T5-T1)

Thermal efficiency =1 - heat rejected

Heat received
=1 - mcv(T5-T1)
mcv(T3-T2) +mcp(T4-T3)

=1- (T5-T1)
(T3-T2) + (T4-T3)

46
6.5. Gas turbine cycles

combustion chamber

air compressor
2 3

turbine
coupling shaft
1 4

air intake exhaust

T
p2

p2
2
2s
4
4s
1
s

fig 6.5 T-s diagram for gas turbine

The basic gas turbine unit is that which operates on an open cycle in which a rotary compressor is
coupled to a turbine. Air is drawn into the compressor, and after compression it is passed into the
combustion chamber where energy is supplied in the form of sprayed fuel. The resulting hot gases
expand through the turbine to the atmosphere.

1-2 represents irreversible adiabatic compression

2-3 constant pressure heat supply in the combustion chamber
3-4 irreversible adiabatic expansions
1-2s represents the ideal isentropic process between same pressures p1=p2
3-4s represents the ideal isentropic expansion between the same pressures
Assume that the kinetic energy through the system is negligible compared with enthalpy changes

47
Applying the flow equation to each part of the cycle for unit mass

Compressor work input =cpa(T2-T1)

For combustion chamber heat supplied =cpc(T3-T2)
For the turbine work output =cpt(T3-T4)
Net work output =cpt(T3-T4)- cpa(T2-T1)
The thermal efficiency = net work output
heat supplied
= cpt(T3-T4)- cpa(T2-T1)
cpc(T3-T4)

cpa is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure for entering compressor

cpc is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure for fuel in the combustion chamber

cpt is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure for combustion products in the turbine

isentropic efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of work in put required in isentropic
compression between p1 and p2 to the actual work required

compressor isentropic efficiency c = cp(T2s –T1)

cp(T2-T1)

= (T2s –T1)
(T2-T1)

Isentropic efficiency of the turbine is defined as the ratio of the actual work to the isentropic work
output between the same pressures

Turbine isentropic efficiency  = cp(T3-T4)

cp(T3-T4s)

 = (T3-T4)
(T3-T4)

Worked Example
A closed cycle gas turbine unit operating with maximum and minimum temperatures of 760oC
and 20oC has a pressure ratio of 7:1. Calculate the ideal cycle efficiency and the work ratio.

T2 = 293 x (7) 0.4/1.4 = 510.9 K

Then heat supplied

Q = Cp(T3 –T2)
= 1.005(1033 – 510.9)
= 52407 kJ/kg

T4 = 1033/(7) 0.4/1.4 = 592.4 K

Then heat rejected

Q = Cp(T4 –T1)
= 1.005(592.4 - 293)
= 300.9 kJ/kg
48
 Heat sup plied  Heat rejected
thus cycle efficiency =
Heat sup plied
524.7  300.9 223.8
= 
524.7 524.7
= 42.7%

The net work output is equal to the net heat supplied

i.e. net work output = 223.8 kJ/kg

Gross work output = Cp(T3 – T4)

= 1.005(1033 – 592.4)
= 442.8 kJ/kg

net work output

Work ratio = gross work output

223.8
= = 0.505
442.8

Worked example
In a dual combustion cycle the maximum temperature is 20000C and the maximum pressure is 70
bar. Calculate the cycle efficiency and the mean effective pressure when the pressure and
temperature at the beginning of the compression are 1 bar and 170C respectively. The compression
ratio is 18/1 (63.6%; 10.46bar) T.D. Eastop

Solution
P2 = P1x (18)1.4 = 1 x (18)1.4 = 57.2 bar
T2 = T1x (18)0.4 = 290 x (18)0.4 = 921.5 K

T3 P
Also  3
T2 P2

923  70
T3 =  1129.6 K
57.2

V4 T 2273
And  4   2.012
V3 T3 1129.6

V5 18
i.e.   8.945
V4 2.012

0.4
V 
Then T5 = T4   4 
 V5 
= 946.2 K

 Heat supplied = Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3)

= 0.718(1123 – 921.5) + 1.005(2273 -11296)

49
 = 1293.8 kJ/kg
Heat rejected = Cv(T5 –T1)
= 0.718(946.2 - 290)
= 471.2 kJ/kg
Net heat supplied = net work output
= 1293.8 – 471.2
= 822.6 kJ/kg
then, cycle efficiency
net work output
=  0.636 or 63.6%
heat sup plied
RT1 287  290
now V1   5
 0.8323 m 3 / kg
P1 1  10
 V2 –V1 = (.8323/18) – 0.8323 = 0.7861 m3/kg
net work output  1000
mean effective pressure =
V2  V1

822.6  1000
= = 10.46 bar
0.7861  10 5

50
 Chapter six
Gas power cycles
Tutorial Questions
1. The pressure, volume and temperature at the beginning of the compression of a constant
volume (otto) cycle are 105kN/m2, 0.002m3 and 25 0C respectively. The maximum
temperature of the cycle is 1250 0C. The volume ratio of the cycle is 8:1. The cycle is
repeated 4000times/min. determine for the cycle,
 the theoretical output in kilowatts;
 the thermal efficiency;
 the mean effective pressure;
 the carnot efficiency within the same temperature limits
take cp =1.007kJ/kgK.cv =0.717kJ/kgK [54.3kW; 57%; 465.1kN/m2; 80.4% ] R.JOEL

2. 0.5 kg of air is taken through constant pressure cycle. The pressure and temperature at the
beginning of the adiabatic compression are 96.5kN/m2 and temperature 150C, respectively.
The pressure ratio o9f the compression is 6:1. Constant pressure heat addition occurs after the
adiabatic compression until the volume is doubled. Determine for the cycle,
 the thermal efficiency;
 the heat received
 the net work done
 the work ratio
 the mean effective pressure
[40%; 241kJ; 96.4kJ; 0.466; 134.3kN/m2 ] R. JOEL

4. An engine working on an ideal Diesel cycle has a clearancevolume of 0.000 25m3. it has a
bore and stroke 0f 152.5mm and 200mm, respectively. At the beginning of the adiabatic
compression the air in the cyclinder has a pressure of 100kN/m2 and a temperature of 200C
respectively. The maximum temperature of the cycle is 10900C ,. Determine,
 The temperature and pressure at the end of the adiabatic compression;
 the temperature and pressure at the end of an adiabatic expansion
 the thermal efficiency of the cycle
take =1.4 [6060C;4680kN/m2; 2690C;185kN/m2 63.3% ] R. JOEL

5. A continuous combustion constant pressure gas turbine takes in air at a pressure of 93KN/m2
with a temperature of 20 0C .A rotary air compressor compresses the air to a pressure of 552
kN/m2 with an isentropic efficiency of 83%.The compressed air is passed to a combustion
chamber in which its temperature is increased to 8700C .From the combustion chamber the
high temperature air passes into a gas turbine in which it is expanded to 93kN/m2 with an
isentropic efficiency of 80%.For an air flow of 10 kg/s and neglecting the fuel mass as
small, determine:
(a) the net power output of the plant if the turbine is coupled to the
compressor;
(b) the thermal efficiency of the plant;
(c) the work ratio.

Take, =1.4 and cp =1.00kJ/kgK

[(a) 1310KW; (b) 21%; (c) 0.36]

51
 Chapter seven

Vapour power cycles:

7.0 Introduction

The steam power plant is the plant, which is used to convert water into steam, whose kinetic
energy is used to drive the turbine. The turbine in turn is coupled to the generator, which is used to
generate electricity. The main components of a steam power plant are as flows:
1. the boiler
2. the turbine
3. the condenser
4. the feed pump
5. extraction pump
6. cooling tower
7. the economizer

fig 7.1 major components of a steam power plant

7.1 Vapours

Formation of steam

When water is put into a boiler it absorbs heat at constant pressure, steam bubbles are formed near
the heating surface and they rise through the water, however the water around is cold hence it
absorbs heat energy from the steam bubbles, which immediately collapse. Finally the steam
bubbles can escape from the boiling surface. The mass is in extreme state of turbulent called
boiling. it will be noted that as boiling temperature ceases to rise. The temperature remains
constant despite the increase in heat being added (saturation temperature). As the steam breaks
away from the water surface it will carry with it droplets of water. The steam with these droplets
is called wet steam. Further heating to the wet steam will convert the droplets tom dry steam,
which is then known as dry saturated steam. This makes the end of the constant temperature heat
addition. Further addition of heat to this steam result in the formation of superheated steam. And
there is a sudden increase of temperature.

52
7.1.1 Stages in the formation of steam

Temp,
tsup liquid water vapour
water/ steam superheated steam

boiling point dry saturated

tf

hf enhalpy of steam

hg
hsup

fig. 7.2 formation of steam from water

Stage 1
Warming phase, temperature rise to saturation temperature. The energy supplied, is the liquid
Enthalpy hf in kJ/kg

Stage 2
It starts with water at saturation temperature tf at the beginning and a dry saturated steam at
saturated temperature at the end. The energy required, is the enthalpy of evaporation, hfg

Stage 3
Formation of superheated steam, temperature rise as the energy is added, superheat enthalpy

Liquid enthalpy

For 1kg of water, the specific liquid enthalpy is written as hf, the accurate value of hf at any given
saturation temperature corresponding to any given constant pressure given from steam tables, also
hf = mc

Enthalpy of evaporation

Dryness fraction of steam x, quality of steam is the fraction of dry steam to the total mass of wet
steam

x = mass of dry steam present

total mass of water and steam

53
 = ms
mw + ms
= v/vg …………………………………………………………………………….7.1

c=0 c=1

Vf Vg

fig 7.3 dryness fraction of steam

Specific enthalpy of wet steam

hwet = hf + x ( hg-hf) …………………………………………7.2

hwet = hf + x hfg

Enthalpy of superheated steam

hsup = hg + cp (tsup –tf ) cp specific heat capacity of superheated steam

Formation of the T-s or T-h diagrams

54
 T T c
13 14 12 Liquid
8 phase Gaseous

10 11 phase
4
6 7 Vapor
9 phase
5 2 3 a
1 b
h
h

When experiments are performed at different pressures the temperature enthalpy diagrams will be
as shown in the first diagram. As the operating pressure increases the boiling temperature also
increases.
If points 2,6,10,13,14, 11,7, 3 are joined with a smooth curve the second diagram is formed. At
point c is that pressure which will ensure that the water suddenly changes into gas without passing
through the vapor phase, it is known as the critical pressure and temperature point.
Curve ac is the liquidous line, and cb is the gaseous line. The second graph is the one applied
when dealing with different cycles.

7.2 The Rankine cycle

Fig 7.4 Rankine cycle with superheat

1-2 water is being pumped into the boiler with volume V and pressure P2,

55
 2-3 in the boiler water is converted into steam at pressure P2, with volume V3 which is then
fed into the turbine.
3-4 the steam is expanded frictionless adiabatic ally in the engine or turbine.
4-1 steam after expansion, is passed from the turbine into a condenser in the condenser the
volume of the steam is reduced.

2-3 shows constant pressure formation of steam in the boiler

3-4 isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine
4-1 constant pressure and temperature formation of steam.
1-2 pumping of water into the boiler at constant volume.

Heat supplied to unit mass of water in the boiler = h3 –h2

Specific work done in the turbine = h3 –h4
Feed pump work = ( p2- p1) v1

where v1 is the specific volume of water

net work done/cycle = (h3 –h2) -( p2- p1) v1

total energy of water entering the boiler at 2 h2 = liquid enthalpy at 1 + work done by pump

h2 = h1 +( p2- p1) v1
Heat transfer required in the boiler = ( h3 - h1 )+( p2- p1) v1

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = workdone per cycle

heat received per cycle
Thermal efficiency of rankine cycle = (h3-h4)- ( p2- p1) v1
( h3 - h1 )+( p2- p1) v1
if the feed pump work is neglected, then the efficiency
= (h3-h4) …………..7.3
( h3 - h1)

to calculate h4, from s3= s4 isentropic expansion in the turbine

then s4 = sf + x4 sfg x4 =( s4-sf)/sfg
therefore h4 = hf + x4 hfg

7.3 The reheat cycle:

56
 The pressure ratio through the turbine can be considerable, therefore after partial expansion in
high pressure side of the turbine, the partially wet steam is fed back to the boiler were it is
reheated at constant pressure to a higher temperature it is then passed to the lower pressure
side of the turbine, the expansion which follows is largely dry and superheated.
The reheat cycle reduces erosion and corrosion by wet steam. It also results in higher thermal
efficiency.

fig7.5 reheat cycle

Work done in the turbine = ( h3-h4) +(h5-h6)

S3 = S4 Isentropic expansion in the high pressure side of the turbine

S5 =S6 Isentropic expansion in the low pressure side of the turbine

Work done by the pump = v1(P2-P1)

Heat supplied in the boiler = (h3- h2) + (h5 –h4)

Net work output = work done by turbine – work of pump

=( h3-h4) +(h5-h6) - v1(P2-P1)
also h2 = h1 + v1(P2-P1)
thermal efficiency = net work
heat supplied
= h3-h4) +(h5-h6) - v1(P2-P1)
(h3- h2) + (h5 –h4)

Neglecting work done by the pump

Thermal efficiency = h3-h4) +(h5-h6)

(h3- h2) + (h5 –h4)………………………….7.4

7.4 The regenerative cycle:

Also known as the feed heat

The steam is made to expand from condition 1 through the turbine. At the pressure corresponding
to point 5, aquantity of steam, say ykg per kg of steam supplied from the boiler, is bled off for
feed heating purposes. The rest of the steam,(1-y)kg,completes the expansion and is exhausted at
state 4. This amount of steam is then condensed and pumped to the same pressure as the feed
steam, y kg is such that, after the mixing and being in the second feed pump the condition is
defined by state 7
The heat to be supplied in the boiler is given by =h1-h7
to determine the bled pressure when one or more feed heaters are used this can be based on the
assumption that the bleed steam temperature to obtain maximum efficiency the arithmetic mean of
the temperatures at 4 and 7

57
t –bleed =(t4 + t7)/2

Fig 7.6 T-s diagram for regenerative cycle

m5 =y, m2 = (1-y)

h2(1-y) +yh5 =h6

y = h6-h2
h5-h2
also s3 = s5 = s4

heat supplied in the boiler = h3-h7

total work output -W = -W35 –W54

= h3-h5 +(1-y)(h5-h4)

cycle efficiency = h3-h5 +(1-y)(h5-h4) …………………………..7.5

(h3-h7)

58
Worked Example

In a regenerative cycle employing three closed feed heaters the steam is supplied to the turbine at
42 bar and 5000C and is exhausted to the condenser pressure at 0.035 bar. The bled steam for
feed heating is taken at a pressure of 15, 4, and 0.5 bar. Assuming ideal process and neglecting
pump work, calculate,
 The fraction of the boiler steam bled at each stage;
 the power output of the plant per unit mass flow rate of the boiler steam;
 the cycle efficiency
T.D Eastop

i) using the tables and h-s chart:

h1 = 3443 kJ/kg, h2 = 3127 kJ/kg
h3 = 2815 kJ/kg h4 = 2458 kJ/kg
h5 = 2114 kJ/kg h6 = 112 kJ/kg
h7 = 340 kJ/kg h8 = 605 kJ/kg
h9 = 845 kJ/kg

Applying an energy balance to each feed heater assuming that the bleed steam fractions are y1, y2
and y3 as shown in the figure:

3127y1 + (1 - y1)605 = 845

i.e. y1 = 0.0952

2815y2 + (1 – 0.0952 - y2)340 = (1 – 0.0952)605

i.e. y2 = 0.0969

2155y3 + (1 – 0.0952 – 0.0969 – y3)112 = (1 – 0.0952 – 0.0969)340

i.e. y3 = 0.02

59
 42 bar 1 kg/s
500oC
1

TURBINE
2
3
4

5
bar
15 ar
4b ar
BOILER 0. 5b
42 bar (1-y1-y2-y3)kg/s
s
kg/ /s /s
y1 kg kg
y2 y3
1 kg/s

P P CONDENSER
P 9 8 7 0.035bar

ii) Power output per unit mass flow rate of boiler steam is given by

Power output = (h1 –h2) + (1 - y1)(h2 –h3) + (1 - y1 – y2)(h3 –h4) + (1 - y1 – y2 – y3)(h4–h5)

=(3443-3127)+(1-0.0952)(3127-2815)+(1-0.0952-0.0969)(2815-2458)+(1-0.0952-0.0969-
0.0902)(2585-2114)

i.e. Power output = 1 133.6 kW per kg/s

iii) heat supplied per unit mass of boiler steam

= h1 –h9 = 3443 – 845 = 2598 kJ/kg

then, cycle efficiency = 1134/2558 = 43.6%

60
 Tutorial Questions
Vapor power cycle

1. Steam at a pressure of 30 bar and temperature of 2500C is fed into a steam turbine from the
boiler. In the turbine the steam is expanded isentropically to a pressure of 1 bar. The steam is then
exhausted into the condenser where it is condensed but not under cooled. The condensate is then
pumped back into the boiler, determine
 the dryness fraction of the steam after expansion
 the Rankine efficiency
[0.823; 23.88] R.J
2. Steam at 1.7MN/m and with a temperature of 2500C is fed into a steam engine in which it is
2

expanded adiabatically to arelease pressure of 0.35MN/m2. From this pressure it is released at

constant volume to a condenser pressure of 50kN/m2.the steam is then exhausted from the engine
into the condenser where it is condensed but not undercooled the condensate is then pumped back
into the boiler. The stem flow rate is 1500kg/h determine
 the power output of the turbine
 the Rankine efficiency
 the Carnot efficiency for the same temperature limits of the cycle
[ 187kW; 17.4%; 32.25%]R.J
3. In a steam turbine plant, the initial pressure and temperature of the steam are 3MN/m2 and
3200C, respec tively and the exhaust pressure is 0.06NM/m2 . after isentropic expansion to
1MN/m2 the steam is reheated isobarically to 2500C and after further isentropic expansion in the
turbine to 0.4MN/m2 it is again reheated isobarically to a temperature of 2000C. the steam is
finally expanded isenropically in the turbine to exhaust pressure. Determine,
 thermal efficiency of the arrangement
[ 26.5%] RJ

61
 Chapter eight

Refrigeration cycles
8.0 Introduction

In general refrigeration is defined as any process of heat removal, specifically it is defined as the
branch of science that deals with the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a
space or material below the temperature of the surrounding.

Fig. 8.1 T-s refrigeration cycles

8.1 Components of vapor refrigeration cycle

62
1.Compressor
Work is input by a compressor, which increases the pressure of the vapour and also the
temperature through isentropic compression in the ideal cycle.

2.The condenser.
From the compressor the vapour enters the condenser, where heat is extracted, resulting in
saturated liquid. The heat extracted is released to the surrounding.
3. Expansion valve
The pressure of the saturated vapour is then reduced through the expansion valve or the
Throttle valve. The expansion takes place at constant enthalpy.

4. Evaporator
From the expansion valve the refrigerant enters the evaporator, where it absorbs heat from
the refrigerated space. This was the actual refrigeration of the items takes place. The items
release the heat to the refrigerant, resulting in them getting cooler and the refrigerant
getting hotter.

8.2 The refrigeration cycle

1-2 isentropic compression in the compressor

s1 = s2 , for an isentropic compression

work done by the pump= h2- h1

to find h1; at pressure p1

s1 = sf + x1 sfg
x1 = (s1 - sf )/ sfg

then, h1 = hf + x1 hfg
to get h2, at pressure p2, assume the temperature at 2 to be t2 and the saturation
temperature at p2 to be tf , then,
the degree of superheat = t2 - tf

if (t2 - tf )  15 K, choose the value h, under this column

if (t2 - tf ) > 15 K choose the h, value under the 30K value.

2-3 heat rejection in the condenser,

heat rejected = h2 – h3
h3 = hf at p2

3-4. Expansion of the refrigerant at constant enthalpy.

h3 = h4
also x4 =( h4 – hf1)/ hfg1

4-1 constant pressure heat addition to the refrigerant

Refrigerating effect = h1 – h4

63
Coeffient of performance C.O.P. = heat absorbed from the refrigerated space.
Heat energy equivalent of the energy supplied by comp.

= refrigerating effect ……………….. 8.1

heat of compression

64
8.3. The absorption refrigerating cycle

fig 8.2 diagrammatic presentation of absorption

it replaces the compressor in the conventional refrigerating cycle with an absorber, pump, heat
exchanger and a generator.

Saturated low-pressure refrigerant enters the absorber, where it is absorbed in aweak carrier
solution. Heat is released in the process. In the absorber the temperature is maintained low by
removing heat Q`A. The much stronger solution leaves the absorber and is pumped into the
higher condenser pressure using little power., it goes through the heat exchanger which
increases its temperature and enters the generator, the added heat boils off the refrigerant
which then passes off into the condenser. The remaining weak carrier solution is then returned
from the generator to the absorber. To be recharged with the refrigerants on its way to the
65
 absorber the temperature of the carrier solution is reduced in the heat exchanger. And its
pressure is reduced in the regulating valve.
From the condenser the refrigerant is passed through the expansion valve where its pressure is
reduced before being fed into the evaporator where absorbs heat from the refrigerated space
and is then fed into the absorber.
The solutions normally used are that of ammonia in water or water and lithium bromide for air
conditioning.

The concentration fraction of liquid ammonia x` = mass of NH3 liquid

Mass of mixture
Concentration of vapour ammonia x`` = mass NH3 vapour
Mass of mixture

Enthalpy of liquid mixture = hL, enthalpy of vapour mixture =hv

fig 8.3 concentration versus temperature

8.4 Gas refrigeration cycle

66
 fig. 8.4 T-s diagram for gas refrigeration cycle

1-2 the refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space at constant pressure
2-3 isentropic compression in the compressor
3-4 the gas releases heat at constant pressure
4-1 isentropic expansion in the turbine to a low exit temperature

The net work input to the plant  W =W14 + W23

Applying steady – flow energy equation
W14 = -(h4- h1 ) and W23 =h3-h2
For a perfect gas

W 41 =cp(T4- T1) and W23 =cp(T3- T2)

The refrigerating affects Q1 = (h2-h1)

= cp(T2-T1)

The actual cycle would be as shown below

67
 T
3
3s

4
2

1S 1
S
Fig. T-s diagram for gas turbine

The cycle would have W23 = cp(T3-T2)

W34 = -cp(T4-T1)

Isentropic efficiency of the compressor  c = T3s –T2 ……………………………… 8.2

T3-T2

Isentropic efficiency of the turbine  T = T4- T1 ………………… 8.3

T4- T1s

Then the refrigerating effect Q1 =cp (T2-T1)

Worked Example

In a refrigerating plant using R12 the vapour leaves the evaporator dry saturated at 1.826 bar and
is compressed to 7.449 bar. The temperature of the vapour leaving the compressor is 45ºC and the
liquid leaves the condenser at 25ºC and is throttled to the evaporator pressure calculate:
 the refrigerating effect
 the specific work input T
 the COPref 45oC 2

30oC
Solution 25oC 3

i) h1 = 180.5 kJ/kg -15oC 1

After compression the refrigerant is superhe 4
ated by (45 – 30) = 15K at 7.449 bar therefore
from tables,
S
h2 = 210.63 kJ/kg
also h3 = 59.7 kJ/kg = h4

the refrigerating effect = h1 – h4

= 180.67 – 59.7
= 121. 27 kJ/kg

68
ii) Work in put = h2 – h1 = 210.63 – 180.97
= 29.66 kJ/kg

Refrigerat ing effect 121.27

iii) COPref = 
Work in put 29.66
= 4.09

Chapter eight
Refrigeration

69
 Tutorial questions

1. A heat pump using ammonia as a refrigerant operates between saturation temperatures 6 and
38ºC. the refrigerant is compressed isentropically from dry saturation and there is 6K of
undercooling in the condenser, calculate
 the COPhp
 the mass flow of refrigerant per kilowatt power input
 the heat available per kilowatt power input
( 8.77; 25.03kg/h; 8.77Kw) eastop

2. Freon 12 leaves the condenser of the refrigerating plant as saturated liquid at 5.673 bar. The
evaporator pressure is 1.509 bar and the refrigerant leaves the evaporator at this pressure and at a
temperature-50C. Calculate,
 the dryness fraction of the refrigerant as it enters the evaporator
 the refrigerating effect per kg

70
 Chapter nine

Nozzles and Jet propulsion

9.0 Nozzles
A nozzle is a duct of whose cross-sectional area varies with length such that when a fluid is
passed through it is either accelerated or decelerated.

Applications;
 Steam and gas turbines
 Jet engines
 Rocket motors
 Inflow measurements

General nozzle shapes

 Convergent divergent nozzle, at the entry the area of the nozzle converges down to the
throat and then diverges up to the exit
 Convergent nozzle, the cross-sectional area converges from entry down to the exit.
 Diffuser, is the opposite of the above the fluid is decelerated and the pressure is increased.

throat

exit
entry

convergent divergent

fig 9.1 divergent- convergent nozzle

9.2 Flow analysis

A1, c1 A2, c2

P1,V1,T1,
h1 P2,V2,T2h1

Neglecting change in potential energy and putting W =0 since no work is done in the nozzle, the
steady flow energy equation for the nozzle becomes
h1 + c12/2 +Q = h2+c22/2………………………………………………………………9.1

The time taken by the substance to pass through the nozzle is very small hence there is little time
for heat exchange. Hence Q =0

71
The above equation becomes
h1 + c12/2 = h2+c22/2
c22 - c12 = h1 - h2
2
but c2 >> c1

therefore c2 = 2(h1-h2)1/2………………………………………………………………9.2

for gas,
h1-h2 =cp(T1-T2) = R(T1-T2)………………….……………………………….9.3
( -1)

Since cp = R…………………………………………………………………………9.4
( -1)

substituting equation 9. 3 into 9. 2

c= {2 R(T1-T2)}………………………………………………….9.5
(-1)
since Pv = mRT, then

c= {2 P1V1(1- P2V2)}………………………………………….9.6

(-1) P1V1
At any section of the nozzle
.
mv =AC
.
Where m = mass flow rate in kg/s

v =specific volume in m3/kg

A = the crosssectional area in m2
C = velocity in m/s

9.2 Steam turbines

72
 Cai θ
α
Cfi Cri
θ INLET
U Axis of rotation
Cwi
Direction of
motion

Plane of rotation
Cwe U
β Cae Φ EXIT
Cfe Cre

Fig 9.3 Velocity diagram for impulse turbine

INLET

Cai = is the absolute velocity at inlet, is the velocity of steam as is leaves the nozzle
The nozzles are inclined at an angle  to the plane of rotation of the turbine blade
U = is the mean blade speed at the mean height of the blades
Cri = is the velocity of steam relative to the blades is obtained by compounding U and Cai.
It is inclined at angle  to the plane of rotation, if the steam enters without shock then the
angle  must be the inlet angle of the blades
Cwi = is the velocity of whirl at inlet is the component of Cai in the plane of rotation
Cfi = is the velocity of flow at inlet is the component of Cai along the axis of rotation

OUTLET
Cre = is the exit relative velocity, at an angle  to the plane of rotation, which also the exit
angle of the blade
U= is still the mean velocity of the blades
Cae= is the absolute velocity at exit is obtained by compounding U and Cre
It is inclined at an angle  to the plane of rotation.
Cwe= is the velocity of whirl at exit it is the component of Cae in the plane of rotation.
Cfe = is the velocity of flow at exit, is the component of Cae along the axis of rotation

9.3.1 The combination of inlet and outlet velocity triangles.

73
 -Cwe
Cwe
A U B
β α Φ θ
Cae
Cfe Cri
Cre Cai Cfi

Cfi-Cfe Change of velocity of whirl

= -Cwe-Cwi= -(Cwe+Cwi)
fig 9.4 combination of inlet and outlet velocity triangles

The exit velocity triangle remains as originally shown. The inlet velocity triangle is drawn sa the
other half of the parallelogram of velocities the original triangle is shown dotted. Absolute
velocities start at A. For no friction Cri = Cre

Work done by the blades

The whirl velocities are the effective part in producing motion in the blades

From Newton`s
The force to change the velocity of whirl of steam
Force = rate of change of momentum
=mass x change of velocity change in V = – Cwe – Cwi
.
= m x[-(Cwi +Cwe)] m is the mass flow rate in kg/s

The negative sign shows that this force acts in opposite direction to that of rotation, then the
actual force being exerted on the blades

.
F = m (Cwi + Cwe)

Work done = force x distance

Power = force x mean velocity

.
= m U( Cwi + Cwe)

Kinetic energy of the steam supplied = C2ai J/kg steam/s

2

Blade or diagram efficiency = work done by blade/kg steam

energy supplied /kg steam

= U(Cwi + Cwe)

74
 C2ai
2

= 2U( Cwi + Cwe)

C2ai

The velocity of flow is that velocity which passes the steam across the blades, this also causes
end thrust along the turbine shaft.

End thrust force =mass rate x change of velocity

.
= m (Cfe –Cfi)

9.3.2 The blade height

The blade height at any particular section of turbine will be a function of the following
 Mass flow rate in kg/s
 specific volume of steam in m3/kg
 the area through which the steam is passing in m2
 the velocity of steam as it passes the section in m/s

For a given section we have

.
m v = AC

9.3.3 Blade height for impulse turbine

Cri
psinθ

θ
p

(a)
θ
Cri
Cfi = Crisinθ

(b)

Cfi=Cri Sin 

For an impulse turbine blade row,let,

M=mass flow of steam,kg/s
V=specific volume of the steam,m3/Kg
N=number of blades covered by nozzles
75
P=pitch of blades,m(taken at mean blade height)
H=blade height,m
 =blade inlet angle
Cri=relative velocity of steam at inlet,m/s
Cfi=velocity of flow at inlet,m/s

Then,from equatin (1)

.
m v =AC
=N p sin
=NPH x Cri sin , which from equation (2)
=N P H Cfi
.
H =m v
NPCfi

NP= circumference at the mean blade diameter

=d
Where d = mean blade diameter, m.

(b) Reaction turbine

In this case, let,

D =mean blade diameter, m.

Then, since the reaction turbine has full admission, from equations (3) and (5)

.
H = m v
 d Cfi

9.4.0 Jet propulsion

Aircraft propulsion is achieved by using a heat engine to drive an airscrew or propeller, or by

allowing a high-energy fluid to expand and leave the aircraft in a rear direction as a high velocity
jet. In the propeller type of aircraft engine the propeller takes a large mass flow and gives it a
moderate velocity backwards relative to the aircraft. In the jet engine the aircraft induces a
comparatively small airflow and gives it high velocity backwards relative to the aircraft. In both
cases the rate of change of momentum of the air provides a reaction forward thrust which propels
the engine.

9.4.1 Turbojets

Ca turbojet Cj

Air craft velocity, Ca

76
Thrust per unit mass flow rate = Cj – Ca
Propulsive power, thrust power per unit mass flow rate = Ca( Cj – Ca)
The above is the rate at which work is done inorder to keep the air craft moving.

The net work output from the engine is given by the increase in kinetic energy
( Cj2 -Cj2)/2
the work output can be divided into two:

 It provides the thrust work as given by Ca( Cj – Ca)

 Gives the air a kinetic energy (Cj-Ca)2/2
Ca( Cj – Ca) +(Cj-Ca)2/2 =CaCj -Ca2 +Cj2/2 +Ca2/2 –2CjCa/2
Therefore workoutput = C2j –C2a
2

the propulsive efficiency p = thrust work

rate at which work is done on the air in the air craft

= 2 Ca( Cj – Ca)
C2j –C2a
= 2Ca
Cj + Ca

9.4.1The ram jet

Is the simplest form of jet engine. In this engine the air is compressed by the conversion of
the kinetic energy of the atmospheric air relative to the aircraft, it is known as the ram
effect. Fuel is burnt in the compressed air stream at approximately constant pressure and
the hot gases are allowed to expand through the nozzle reaching a high velocity backwards
relative to the aircraft

Fuel ramjet velocity nozzle

Ca
1 2 3 4

air inlet exhaust

1 2 3 4
77
 T PI

P2=P3
I 3
T2=T1 2
2S P1=P4
4S 4
1

The ramjet velocity is Ca, the air enters the diffuser with a kinetic of =C2a/2 per unit mass

Assuming isentropic, using flow equation

h1 +C2a/2 = hi +Ci2/2
cpT1 +C2a/2 = cp(Ti + C2 i/2) =cpToi
C2a/2 = cp (Toi –T1)

Toi –T1 = C2a/2 cp

The total pressure Poi is the pressure the air attains when the diffusion process is isentropic, when
the procee is irreversible, though still approximately adiabatic, then the total pressure attained
isPo2 which is less than Poi
The kinetic energy available, C2a/2 is the same whether or not the process is irreversible the
temperatures remain the same Toi =To2

To2 –To1 =Ca2/2cp

Intake efficiency = Tt2s –T1

Tt2 – T1

Worked Example
A convergent–divergent nozzle expands air at 6.89 bar and 427oC into a space at 1 bar. The throat
area of nozzle is 650 mm2 and the exit area is 975mm2. the exit velocity is found to be 680m/s
when the inlet velocity is negligible. Assuming that friction in the convergent portion is
negligible, calculate:
i) the mass flow through the nozzle, stating whether the nozzle is underexpanding or
overexpanding;
ii) the nozzle efficiency and the coefficient of velocity

78
Solution

1.4
pc  2  0.4
i)     0.5283
p1  2.4 
therefore,
pc = 6.89 x 0.583 x 3.64 bar
also,
T 700
Tc = 1   583.3 K
1. 2 1.2
And, Cc = 1.4  287  583.3  483 m / s
287  583.3
Vc =  0.459m 3 / kg
3.64  10 5
Therefore,
483  650
Mass flow rate =  0.684 kg/s
0.459  10 6

To determine whether the nozzle is underexpanding or overexpanding it is necessary to

find the correct exit pressure
680  975
V2 = 6
 0.97 m 3 / kg
0.684  10
Also.
C2 = 2  1005  T1  T2   680 m / s

T1  T2 = 230 K
T2 = 700 – 230 = 470 K
therefore,
287  470
p2 =  1.39 bar
0.97  10 5

since the actual back pressure is 1 bar the nozzle is underexpanding.

ii) For isentropic expansion between pressures of 6.89 bar and 1.39,
0.4
T1  6.89  1.4
    1.58
T2  1.39 

700
i.e. T2 =  443 K
1.58
T1  T2 = 700 – 443 = 257 K

Then,
230
Nozzle efficiency =  100 = 89.5%
257
And,
Coefficient of velocity = 0.985 = 0.946

79
Worked Example
A turbo air craft is traveling at 625 km/h in atmospheric conditions of 0.45 bar and –26oC. The
compressor pressure ratio is 8, the air mass flow rate is 45 kg/s, and the maximum allowable cycle
temperature is 800oC. The compressor, turbine, and jet pipe stagnation isentropic efficiencies are
0.85, o.89, and 0.9 respectively, the mechanical efficiency of the drive is 0.98, and the combustion
efficiency is 0.99. Assuming a convergent propulsion nozzle, a loss of stagnation pressure in the
combustion chamber of 0.2 bar, and a fuel of calorific value 43 300 kJ/kg, calculate:

i) the require nozzle exit area;

ii) the net thrust developed;
iii) the air-fuel ratio
iv) the specific fuel consumption.
For gasses in the turbine and propulsion nozzle take γ = 1.333 and Cp = 1.15 kJ/kg K;
for the combustion process assume an equivalent Cp value of 1.15 kJ/kg K.

Solution

i)  1000
Kinetic energy at inlet = 12 9253600  
2

= 33 kJ/kg

= cp(T01 – T0)

i.e. T01 = (-26 + 273) + (33/1.005) = 279.85 K

then, 247 + (279.85 - 247) x 0.9 = 276.6 K

3.5
 276.6 
therefore, p01 = 0.45 x   = 0.5585 bar
 247 

For the process in the compressor:

T02s = T01 x 80.4/1.4 = 1.8115 T01

i.e. T02s = 279.85 x 1.8115 = 506.9 K

then, T02 - T01 =

506.9  279.85 = 267.16 K
0.85

i.e. T02 = 279.85 + 267.16 = 547 K

3
800
Temperature/(oC)

4
4s
2 5
5s
2s

1s ar
5b
1 0.4
-26
0
80
Entropy/(S)
Also, p02 =8 x p01 = 8 x 0.6685 = 5.348 bar

Therefore, p03 = 5.348 – 0.2 = 5.148 bar

cpg(T03 – T04) = cpa(T02 – T01)/0.98

267.16
i.e.(T03 – T04) = 1.005 
1.15  0.98

= 238.2 K

therefore T04 1073 – 238.2 = 834.8 K

1073  834.8
and, (T03 – T04s) = = 267.7 K
0.89

i.e. T04s = 1073 – 267.7 = 805.3 K

1.333
p 03  1073  0.333
then,    = 3.154
p 04  805.3 

i.e. p04 = 5.148/3.154 = 1.632 bar

For an isentropic nozzle,

1.333
pc  2  0.333
   = 0.5398
p 04  2.333 

pc = 1.632 x 0.5398 = 0.881 bar

Since the back pressure is 0.45 bar the nozzle is underexpanding. The actual exit nozzle pressure,
p5 is slightly different from the above since there is friction in the nozzle.

Assuming that since the nozzle is choked the actual temperature at exit is the critical temperature,

Tc 2
 = 0.8573
T04 2.333

i.e. T5 = Tc = 834.8 x 0.8573 = 715.6 K

therefore

834.8  715.6
T5s = 834.8  = 702.4 K
0. 9

81
 1.333
p 04  834.8  0.333
And,    = 1.996
p5  702.4 

i.e. p5 =0.8176 bar

287  715.6
Then, v 5  5
= 2.5146 m3/kg
0.8176  10

And, c5  1.333  287  715.6 = 523.5m/s

Therefore

2.5146  45
Nozzle exit area = = 0.216 m2
523.5

ii) momentum thrust = m c 5  c a  a


= 45523.5 
925  10 3 

 
 3600 

=11 996 N

and, Pressure thrust = (0.8176 – 0.45) x 105 x 0.216

= 7940 N

i.e. total thrust = 11 996 + 7 940 = 19 936 N

= 19.94 kN

iii) Heat supplied = 45 x 1.15 x (1073 – 547)

= 27 220 kJ/kg

27 200
therefore, mass flow rate of fuel =
0.99  43 300

= 0.635 kg/s

45
ie. Air-fuel ratio = = 70.87
0.635

0.635
iv) specific fuel consumption = = 0.0319 kg/kN s
19.936

82
 Chapter nine

Tutorial questions

1. Air enters the nozzle at a pressure of 3 MN/m2 and with a temperature of 4000C. it leaves at
a pressure of 0.5 MN/m2. the exit area is 5000 mm2 the expansion through the nozzle is
adiabatic according to the law PV =C. Determine
 the mass flow through the nozzle
 the throat area
 the mach number at the exit

take  =1.4 and R = 0.287 KJ/kgK [15.86 kg/s, 3390mm2, 1.55 ]

2. Air enters the nozzle with a pressure of 700kN/m2 and with a temperature of 1800C. Exit
pressure is 100kN/m2. the law connecting pressure and specific volume during the expansion in
the nozzle is PV1.3 = C. Dtermine the velocity at exit from the nozzle takeCp =1.006kJ/kgK and
Cv = 0.717kJ/kgK [576m/s]

3. Steam leave as the nozzle of a single stage impulse turbine with a velocity of 1000m/s. the
nozzles are inclined at an angle of 24o to the direction of motion of the turbine blades. The mean
blade speed is 400m/s. and the blade inlet and exit angles are equal. The steam enters the blades
without shock and the flow over the blades is considered to be frictionless.
Determine i) the inlet angles of the blades
ii) the force exerted on the blade in the direction of their motion
iii) the power developed when the steam flow rate is at 4000kg/h
39o, 1.133kN, 453.2kW

83
 Chapter ten

Effects of temperature change

10.Introduction

When matter is subjected to heat energy, the particles which make up the body absorbs the heat
energy and they start vibrating showing that the inter –atomic/ inter molecular forces holding the
particles will be weakened
Weakening of solid particles will result in the formation of liquid
Further addition of heat to liquid would result in the formation of gas
The degree of vibration of particles of a substance is a measure of its temperature

10.1 Thermal expansion and contraction

It is the increase in size or reduction in size of a body when heat is added or subtracted
Most substances increase in size when they are being subjected to heat energy
Their size is reduced when they are cooled, with the exception of water, which expands when it is
cooled to 4 oC

10.2. Linear Expansion

It is the increase in length when a body is subjected to heat energy

Coefficient of Linear Expansion ()

It is the increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature
The change in length L of a solid bar when heated or cooled through a temperature change t is
given by the experimental relation L = lo  t

 1
   -----------------------------------------------------------(10.1)
L o t
 l = change in length
lo = original length
t = change in temperature

Final length L1 = l0 + l

By transposing in (1) for  l ,

l = lo  t
L1 = lo + lo   t
= l0(1+  t)

but t = (1 – 2)

L1 = l0 { 1+  (2 – 1)}---------------------------------------------------------------(10.2)

84
10.3 Superficial expansion / area expansion ()

It is the increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temperature
A 1
=  ---------------------(10.3)
A 0 t
b1
A1 = a1 b1 A1
a1 = a0 + a b0
= a0{1+  (2 – 1)} but for 1degree ;
a1 = a0(1+) A0 a0 a1
b1 = b0(1+ )

A1 = a1b1 = a0(1+) b0(1+ )

= a0b0(1+ )2
= a0 b0(1+2 + 2)

but  = small change

then 2 would be approaching 0

A1 = a0b0(1+ 2)

For temperature change of ( 2 -1)

A1 = a0b0{1+ 2 (2 -1 )}--------------------------------------------------(10.4)

10.4 Volumetric or cubical expansion

It is the increase in volume of an object when subjected to heat energy

Coefficient Of Cubical Expansion ()

It is the increase in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature

V1 = a1b1c1

But a1 = ao + a
b1 = bo + b
c1 = co + c

for change in length of one side a,

a1 = ao{1 + (2 – 1)} but for 1o

a1 = ao (1 + )
b1 = bo (1 + )
c1 = co (1 + )

V1 = a1b1c1
85
 c1 V1

= ao (1 + ) bo (1 + ) co (1 + ) co Vo
= aoboco(1 + )3
= aoboco{1 + 3 + 32 + 3}
b2
2 3
but  is very small therefore 3 and  approach b1
zero
giving V1 = aoboco{1 + 3 } ao

for a change in temperature from 1 to 2 a1

V1 = aoboco{1 + 3 (2– 1)}

V1 = Vo{1 + 3 (2 – 2)} but  = 3

V1 = Vo{1 +  (2 – 2)}----------------------------------------(10.5)

10.5 Change of phase

All matter exists in one of the three states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
Heating a solid enough will result in the formation of a liquid and further application of heat will
result in the formation of gas.

Enthalpy

It is the energy content of a given mass of a substance. Units are J/kg K.

Specific heat capacity

It is the energy, which is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a body by 1 degree.

Latent heat

It is that amount of energy which when added or subtracted from a body system will cause a phase
change at a constant temperature.

Sensible heat

It is the amount of energy which when supplied to a body will cause a temperature rise.

86
 Latent

TEMPERATURE OC
heat of
Vapour-
isation
Latent
heat
of
fusion

GAS
LIQUID
&
SOLID GAS
& LIQUID
LIQUID
SOLID

ENTHALPY
``
In general if an amount of heat Q produces a rise in temperature t in a body of mass m and
specific heat capacity c and the same heat produces the same rise in temperature in a mass mw of
water then mw is the water equivalent of the body, thus:

Q = cm t = cwmw t
c
i.e. equivalent mass of water, mw = m
cw

WORKED EXAMPLES

QUESTION 1
AN 80 mm Ø aluminium piston fits into a cast iron cylinder with uniform radial clearance of 0.75
mm at room temperature. Determine the percentage increase in area of the gap between piston and
cylinder at 130°c. For aluminium,  =24x10-6/K and for Cylinder, =10X10-6/K.

Area of piston = r2 =  x 402 = 5027mm2

Area of cylinder = r2= x 40.752 =5217mm2
Initial gap area =  x 40.752 -  402
=190.3 mm2

Coefficient of superficial expansion for aluminium is,

= 2  = 2 x24 x10-6/k
Change in temperature = (130oC -15 oC)= 115 oC
Increase in area of piston =2tAo

87
 =2 x 24 x 10-6/k x 5027 x 115 = 27.8mm2
Increase in cylinder area =2 x 10 x 10-6/k x 52217 x 115
=12 mm2

Change in area of cylinder gap

=27.8 mm2 – 12 mm2
=15.8mm2
Percentage increase =15.8/190.3 x 100

= 8.3 %

QUESTION 2
A steel tank of mass 50 kg contains 200 kg of water at 15 oC. A further 100 kg of water is poured
into the tank at 95 oC. If the specified heat capacity of steel is 0.44 kJ/kg K, calculate the final
temperature of the water in the tank.

Let t be the final temperature of the mixture.

Heat given up by the liquid poured in the tank
= mct
= 4.2 x 100 x (95 – t)kJ
Heat gained by steel tank = mc t
=.45 x 50 x (t -15)KJ
=22.5 (t – 15)KJ
Heat gained by water in tank = mc t
= 4.2 x 200 x (t – 15)

Equating heat given up by the water poured into the heat taken by the tank and water then =
4.2 x 100 x (95 – t) = (22.5 (t – 15)) + 4.l2 x 200 (t – 15)
= 862.5 (t – 15)
t = 41.3 oC.

QUESTION 3

Calculate the heat required to convert 8 Kg of ice -10 oC to water at 60 oC. The specific Heat
capacity of ice is 2.1 KJ/Kg K and its latent heat is 335KJ/Kg.

Heat required to raise temperature of the ice from -10 oC to melting point 0 oC
= mct
= 2.1 x 8 x 10
=168 KJ

Heat to melt the ice at constant temperature = mass x latent heat

= 8 x 335
=2680 KJ

Heat to raise temperature of 8 Kg of water from 0 oC to 60 oC

= mct
= 8 x4.2 x 60
88
= 20166 KJ

Total Heat required = 2016KJ + 2680KJ + 168KJ

= 4864 KJ

Chapter ten
Tutorial questions

1.A duralumin piston slides in a cast iron cylinder at 20 oC. At this temperature, there is a radial
clearance of 0.13m and the piston diameter is 100 mm. Determine the area of gap at 20 oC and
also when the temperature is raised to 120 oC. When the coefficient of linear expansion is 22.5 x
10 -6 /k. [20mm²]

2. How much heat energy would be required to convert 20g of ice at -15 oC into water at 40 oC
take the relative specific heat capacity of ice as 0.5 and the specific enthalpy of fusion as
335kJ/Kg [10.69 KJ]

3 .A glass flask of volume 200 cm ³ is first filled with mercury at 20ºC. How much mercury will
over flow when the temperature of the system is raised to 100ºC? The coefficient of cubical
expansion of glass is 1.2 x 10 -6 and mercury is 18 x 10 -5. [27 cm ³]

4.A refrigerator produces ice by evaporation of to liquid ammonia. How much liquid ammonia
must be evaporated to convert 500g of water at 15ºC to ice at -5ºC. If no heat energy is
transmitted through the outside walls the refrigerator.
Specific enthalpy of fusion of ice is 335 KJ/Kg and specific heat capacity of ice is 2.1 KJ/Kg.
[204.25 KJ]

89
\\|
Chapter eleven

Heat transfer
11.0 Introduction

The laws of heat transfer find application in many engineering fields i.e. in process engineering,
manufacturing and in everyday life. Heat transfer is by virtue of temperature difference between
parts of material. There are three ways by which heat can be transferred. These are conduction,
convection and radiation.

11.1 Heat Transfer By Conduction

It is the main mode of heat transfer in solid materials. Heat transfer by conduction occurs by
virtue of temp difference between parts of a material. It also takes place in liquids and gasses.

11.2 Mechanism of Conduction

source
of
heat

particles

Figure 11.1.

The particles, which are in contact with the source of heat, absorb heat energy through contact. As
the particles get heated, they start vibrating, thereby getting in contact with the adjacent particles
thus passing heat to the next particle until the energy is distributed within the material.

Conduction within a solid material is the transfer of internal energy. This energy is the kinetic
energy of the constituent molecules, atoms and particles of the material. This kinetic energy is
proportional to the absolute temperature. Metals are generally considered as good conductors of
heat. Materials such as glass, wood, wool, paper, and asbestos are poor conductors or insulators. A
good conductor of heat has a high thermal conductivity. Good conductors of heat are usually good
electrical conductors.

11.3 Fourier’s Rate Equation Of Conduction

Molecular collision leads to energy transfer to regions of low kinetic energy. Under steady state
conditions, a molecule will pass on the same amount of energy as it receives.

The figure shows a section of a rod through which heat is flowing.

If the temperature T2 and T1 of a section are kept for a sufficient long time the temperature at
points within the rod is found to decrease uniformly with distance from the hot to the cold face.
However at each point the temperature remains constant with time. This condition is the steady
state.

Experiments have shown that:-

90
The rate of heat flow Q at steady state is proportional to area A and temperature difference T2—T1
is inversely proportional to the change in length .

AT2  T1 
Q


kAT2  T1 
Q


Q
 kA T
A
Q
 T2
T1

A is the area of transfer, m2. 

T1 is the inlet face temperature.
T2 is the outlet face temperature.
 is the change in thickness.
k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity
of the material (W/m K) Figure 11.2.
– negative sign shows that the temperature is
decreasing with increase in distance.

11.4 Conduction through A Flat Plate

The transfer of heat by conduction is found to depend upon: -

The area through, which heat transfer, takes place.

The temperature difference of the two faces through which the heat is passing.
The time taken for heat transfer.
The thickness of material through which the heat is passing.

The greater the area and temperature difference, the greater would be the heat transfer. The heat
transfer is, therefore, inversely proportional to the thickness of wall. Consider a flat plate, or wall
thickness  and heat transfer area A. Let the temperatures of its faces be T1 and T2. This is shown
on figure below

 kAt 2  t1 
Quantity of heat required 


kA T1  T2 
Q ------------------------11.1


91
 t1

Heat transfer t2
area A
Direction of
heat transfer Q


Figure 11.3.

11.5 Conduction through A Composite Wall

Consider the composite wall shown in figure 4. In this case there are three layers.

t1
t2
Heat transfer t3
area A k1 k2 k3 t4
Direction of
heat transfer Q
1 2 3
Figure 11.4.

If Q is passing through this wall, then Q is passing through each wall.

k1At1  t 2 
Thus Q ……………………………………..1
1

k 2 A t 2  t 3 
Q …….……………………..………..2
2

92
 k 2 A t 3  t 4 
Q ………………………………..……..3
3

Transposing equations 1, 2 and 3 gives,

Q1
t1  t 2   ………………………….…………………..4
k1A

Q 2
t 2  t 3   ……………………………………………..5
k 2A

Q3
t 3  t 4   ……………………………………………..6
k 3A

Adding equations 4, 5 and 6 gives,

Q  1  2 3 
t1  t 4       ……………………………….7
A  k1 k 2 k 3 

From equation 7,
AT1  T4 
Q  ------------------------11.2
1  2  2
 
k1 k 2 k 2

Therefore in general for n number of layers,

AT1  Tn 1 
Q  -----------------------11.3

 
k

Thus the heat transfer per second can be calculated. When this is known, by substitution in
equations 1, 2 and 3 the interface temperatures can be calculated.

93
11.6 Surface and Overall Heat Transfer

Now there must be a temperature difference a surface and its surroundings for heat transfer to
occur.
As before if heat transfer Q passes through wall, then Q passes through each layer of the wall.
Let ta1 = ambient temperature (temperature of surrounding) on inlet side
t1 = inlet surface temperature
t2 = interface temperature
t3 = exit face temperature
ta2 = temperature of surrounding on outlet side

a1
t1
Outlet surface
t2 film

t3
Inlet surface
film
k1 k2 ta2

Direction of
heat transfer Q
1 2

Figure 11.5.

Q = Us1A(ta1-t1)

= Us2A(t3-ta2)

U is called the surface transfer coefficient and has units W/m2 K

Q 1   1 
t a1  t a 2     1 2 
A  U a1 k1 k 2 U a 2 

A t a1  t a 2 
Q 
 1   1 
  1 2 
U
 a1 k1 k 2 U a2 

= UA(ta1-ta2)…………………………………………11.4

94
 1
U  …………………………11.5
 1   1 
  1 2 
U
 a1 k1 k 2 U a2 

= Overall transfer coefficient sometimes called the U coefficient value.

11.7 Conduction through A Thin Cylinder

A thin cylinder may be one whose internal surface area is almost the same as its external surface
area. From heat transfer point of view, if this is the case, then the area through which the heat is
passing is always very nearly the same. For a thin cylinder of radius r, (either external or internal)
and thickness x, then the area of heat transfer for a length of cylinder L = 2rL.

kA T1  T2 
Q 


k 2rLt1  t 2 
Q  L
 r1 t2
t1

Figure 11.6.

11.8 Conduction through A Thick Cylinder

Let L be the length of the cylinder. The internal surface area of a thick cylinder is much smaller
than the external surface area. The fig shows a thick cylinder of internal radius r1 and external
radius r2 with internal and external temperatures t2 and t2 respectively. Assume that the heat is
flowing from the inside to the outside. Consider the elementary cylinder of radius r and thickness
r, let the change across this elementary cylinder t.

r

r1 r
r

t1 Q Q
r2
t2

Figure 11.7.

95
  kA t
Hence the heat transfer Q 
r

t
Q   k 2rL
r

Make t the subject,

Qr
t  
k 2rL

t2 r2

Q 1

t1
t  
k 2L 
r1
r
r

Q r
 t 2  t 1   ln 2
k 2L r1
Q r
 t 2  t 1   ln 2
k 2L r1

k 2Lt 1  t 2 
Q 
ln r2 r1

2Lt 1  t 2 
Q  -------------------------------------11.6
ln r2 r1
k

11.9 Heat Transfer through A Composite Cylinder

Similarly Q is given by,
2Lt 1  t 4 
Q  r r
ln r2 r1 ln 3 r2 ln 4 r3
 
k1 k2 k3

96
 r2
r3

t1 r 1
t2
t3 Q
r4
t4

Figure 11.8.

For inner cylinder

t 1— t 2 = (Q/2Lk1) ln r2/r1 ……………………………………..1

For intermediate cylinder

T 2 — t3 = (Q/2Lk2) ln r3/r2 ……………………………………..2

For outer cylinder

T 3 — t4 = (Q/2Lk3) ln r4/r3 ……………………………………..3

Adding equations 1, 2 and 3 gives,

Q  ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 ln r4 r3 
t 1  t 4      
2 L  k1 k2 k 3 

2Lt 1  t 4 
Q  ----------------------------------------------------------11.6
ln 2 r1 ln r3 r2 ln r4 r3
r
 
k1 k2 k3

11.10 heat transfer by convection

It is the name given to gross motion of fluid itself so that fresh fluid is continuously available for
heating or cooling.

Mechanism
Air next to the source of heat is heated by conduction, due to its contact with the hot surface. The
heated mass of air will expand, increasing its volume and density decreasing. The cool air around
with higher density will displace the warm air, which is forced to rise. The cool air gets in touch

97
with hot surface and become warm by conduction. This process continues with heat getting
distributed within the fluid.

Types Of Convection Transfer

Natural convection — is the movement of fluid caused by differences in density
resulting from temperature differences.
Forced convection — is produced by mechanical means e.g. by fans.

Newton’s Law Of Cooling

The heat transfer from one fluid to another through a wall is understood by studying
how heat is transferred from one to a wall and vice versa.

Newton’s law of cooling states that:

Heat transfer from a solid surface of area A at temperature tw to a fluid of
temperature t is given by:
Q = hA(tw — t) ------------------------11.7

h is the heat transfer coefficient with units W/m2K. h depends on the properties of
the fluid and its velocity.

Transfer Of Heat From Fluid A To

Fluid B Through A Wall. Ta
t1 Fluid B
In fluid the temperature decreases
Fluid A
t2 Tb
suddenly from tA to t1 and in fluid B,
temperature decreases rapidly from t2
to tB. this is due to the thin film close k
to the wall where transfer is by Direction of
conduction. heat transfer Q

X is thickness of wall.   
K is thermal conductivity.

Figure 11.9.

Considering unit surface area

From fluid A to the wall the rate of heat transfer is,

kA
Q  t a  t 1 
A

98
 kA
Q  h A t a  t 1 , where h A 
A

From wall to fluid B

kB
Q  t 2  t b 
B

kB
Q  h B t 2  t b , where h B 
B

Transmission through the wall per unit area

k t 1  t 2 
Q 


For steady state, heat transfer flowing from fluid A to the wall = heat flowing
through the wall = heat flowing through from wall to the wall.

k t 1  t 2 
Q = hA(tb — t1) = hB(t2 — tb) =


Expressing in terms of temperature,

Q
(ta — t1) =
hA

Q
(t1 — t2) = k


Q
(t2 — tb) =
hB

Adding the corresponding sides,

99
 (tA — tB) = Q + Q + Q
hA k hB
X

(tA — tB) = Q 1 + X + 1
hA k hB

Q = (tA — tB)_______
1 + X + 1
hA k hB --------------------------11.8

Q = U(tA — tB)

1 = 1 + X + 1
U hA k hB

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient has the same units as h.

11.11 transmission of heat by radiation

Thermal radiation consists of electromagnetic waves emitted due to the agitation of

the molecules of substance. These waves are similar to the light waves in that they
are propagated in a straight line at the speed of light. It requires no medium to be
transmitted. Heat energy from the sun to the earth is mainly transmitted by radiation
because the space between is largely vacuum.

 Radiation striking a body (absorptivity )

 Reflected from the body (reflectivity )
 Transmitted through the wall (transmissivity )

The emissivity of a body radiating energy at a temperature t is equal to the to the

absorptivity (α) of the body when receiving energy from the source from
temperature t.

The Boltzmann’s law

States that the emissive power of the black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.

100
 EB = s AT4

Where s is Boltzmann’s constant = 5.67-8 Wm2/K4

Energy absorbed by a grey body,

E = s T4

Where  is the emissivity of the body.

The heat transfer from the body to its surroundings per square metre is given by,

Q =  s(T14— T24) -----------------------------11.9

Worked Example

In a small furnace, the heat loss to the surroundings is to be kept down to 1 700 W/m2. The
internal temperature of 150 mm firebrick wall which lines the furnace is 650oC, and the
temperature of the air surrounding the furnace is 25oC. Neglecting the temperature drop through
the steel casing, calculate the thickness of exterior lagging required. Take the thermal conductivity
of the firebrick 1W/mK, the thermal conductivity of the lagging as 1.2W/mK and the convection
heat transfer coefficient of the lagging surface as 20W/m2K. Radiation from the lagging surface
may be ignored. Estimate also the temperature of the outer surface of the lagging.

0 .1 5 0 m lm

6 50 °C

F ir e
b ric k
L a g g in g
25°C

S te e l
sh e ll

Figure 11.10.

For conduction through the fire brick Q = 1700W/m2

kA650  1 
Q 


1650  1 
Q  W / m2 ............(1)
0.15
For conduction through the lagging

101
 1.21   2 
Q  W / m2 ............(2)


For convection from the lagging surface

Q  hA  2  25
Q  20  2  25 W / m 2 ............(3)
From (1)
650  1   1700  0.15
From (2)

1   2   1700 
1. 2
From (3)
1
 2  25  1700 
20
Adding:

 0.15    0.05 
650  25  1700   
 1.2 
 625
thus   0.15  0.05
1. 2 1700

l = 0.201 m

For temperature of the lagging surface, from equation (3)

1700 = 20(2 – 25)
2 = 1100C

Worked Example

A steel pipe shown in Figure 1 carries steam at 260 oC. The atmospheric temperature is 150C. The
heat transfer coefficient for the inside and outside surfaces are 550 and 15W/m2 K respectively,
and the thermal conductivities of steel, diatomaceous earth and asbestos felt are 50, 0.09, and
0.07W/mK respectively. Calculate:

The rate of heat loss by the steam per unit length of pipe

The temperature of the outside surface.

102
 Steel
Asbestos Felt

Ø 100
Ø 314
Ø 194
Ø 114

Diatomaceous Earth
all dimensions are in milimetres
Figure 11.11.
Rate of heat loss Q
7
2  L t s  t a 
Q 
1 ln r1 ln r 3 r 2 ln r 4 r3
r2 1
   
ha k st k de k af ha

2    1  260  15
Q 
1 ln 0.057
0.05 ln
0.097
0.057 ln
0.157
0.097 1
   
500 50 0.09 0.07 15

Q = 116W

Rate of heat loss per meter length of pipe = 116W

 t 4  15
Q  116 
0.0675

t4 = (116 x 0.0675) + 15

= 22.8oC

Temperat Chapter eleven

Tutorials

1.Calculate the quantity of heat conducted per minute through a circular disc of diameter 127 mm
19mm thick hen the temperature drop across he thickness of the plate is 5oC. Take the coefficient
of thermal conductivity as 150W/mK. [30kJ]

2.A cold storage compartment is 4.5m long by 4m wide by 2.5m high. The four walls, ceiling and
floor are covered to a thickness of 150mm with insulating material, which has a coefficient of
thermal conductivity of 5.8 x 10-2 W/mK. Calculate the quantity of heat leaking through the

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insulation per hour when the inside and the outside face temperatures of the material is 15oC and –
5oC respectively. [2.185MJ or 2185kJ]

3.One side of a refrigerated cold chamber is 6m long by 3.7m high and consist of 168mm
thickness of cork between outer and inner walls of wood. The outer wood wall is 13mm thick and
its outside face temperature is 20oC, the inner wood wall is 35mm thick and its inside face
temperature is –3oC.Taking the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the cork and wood as 0.042
and 0.2W/mK respectively, calculate:
(a) the heat transfer per second per square metre of surface area, [5.318J]
(b) the total heat transfer through the chamber side per hour, [425kJ]
(c) the interface temperatures. [19.2oC , -2.07oC ]

4.Hot gasses at 280oC flow on one side of metal plate of 10mm thickness and air at 35oC flows on
the other side. The heat transfer coefficient the gasses is 31.5 W/m2 K and that of air is 32W/m2 K.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the metal plate is 50W/mK. Calculate:
(a) the overall heat transfer coefficient, [15.82W/m2 K]
(b) the heat transfer from gasses to air per minute per square metre of plate area.
[232.7kJ ]
5.The wall of a cold room consists of a layer of cork sandwiched between outer and inner walls of
wood, the wood walls being each 30 mm thick. The inside atmosphere of the room is maintained
at –20oC when the external atmospheric temperature is 25oC, and the heat loss through the wall is
42W/m2. Taking the thermal conductivity of cork and wood as 0,2W /m K and 0.05 W/mK
respectively, and the rate of heat transfer between each exposed wood surface and their respective
atmospheres as 15W/m2k, calculate;
(a) the temperatures of the exposed surfaces, [22.2oC , -17.2oC]
(b) the temperatures of the interfaces, [15.9oC , -10.9oC]
(c) the thickness of the cork. [31.9mm]

6.A flat circular plate is 500 mm diameter. Calculate the theoretical quantity of heat radiated per
hour when its temperature is 215oC and the temperature of its surrounds is 45oC. Take the value of
the radiation constant as 5.67 X 10-11 kJ/m2 sK4
[1862kJ]

7.The steam drum of a water-tube boiler has hemispherical ends, the diameter is 1.22m and the
overall length is 6m. Under steaming conditions the temperature of the shell lagging was 230oC
and the temperature of the surrounds was 51oC. The temperature of the cleading after lagging was
69oC and the surrounds 27oC. Assuming 75% of the total shell area to be lagged and taking the
radiation constant as 5.67X10-11kJ/m2 sK4, estimate the saving in heat energy per hour due to
lagging. [167MJ]

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