Weldment in Engineering Design
1 Introduction
Welding is a process of joining two or more pieces of metals through localised application of
heat. In the process of welding the temperature of metal to be jointed is raised to a level so
that the metal becomes plastic or fluid. When metal is just plastic then pieces to be welded
are pressed together to make the joint. When metal is melted to fluid state another metal is
filled in the region of the joint and allowed to cool to solidify. Connections between metal
plates, angles, pipes, and other structural elements are frequently made by welding.
Metals may also be joined by resistance welding in which a small area or spot is heated under
high localized pressure. The material is not melted with this type of welding. Other joining
methods for metals include brazing and soldering, in which the joining metal is melted but
the parts to be connected are not melted. Such connections are usually much weaker than the
materials being connected. Fusion welding is the most effective method when high strength is
an important factor.
In general;
- Many structural parts are fabricated through welding as oppose to casting owing to
lower initial cost.
- Welded assemblies usually provide greater strength at a reduction in weight. The
weight added due to filling of metal is much less than the weight added in other
joining techniques e.g. riveting. The butt welded joints do not require any cover
keeping the weight low.
- The amount of machining needed in a welded design is smaller than that for an
equivalent casting
- The design must provide accessibility to the welds so they can be made and inspected.
- Tight and leak proof joints are ensured by welding.
- Welding is a noiseless operation whereas riveting can never be noiseless
- Curved parts are easily joined by welding
However, designer must also take into consideration limitation of welding as a joining
technique. For instance:
- The parts to be joined have to be prepared carefully along the seam and arranged to
have sufficient clearance so that filler metal can easily be filled.
- Since metal is heated to a very high temperature (to melting point in most cases) there
exists a strong possibility of metallurgical changes taking place in parent metals,
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Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
particularly in the close vicinity of the joint. These changes may deteriorate the
mechanical properties. The loss of ductility is a major problem.
- Since the metal to be joined is held by clamping, residual stresses develop in the
region of weld. These residual stresses are often tensile in nature and greatly affect the
behaviour of metal under fatigue loading.
- The quality of weld is highly dependent on the welder if automated process is not
used.
- The residual stresses may be removed and metallurgical changes reversed by heat
treatment (annealing and normalising). But very large structures are difficult to heat.
- Stress concentration is produced where filler metal joins with the parent metal. Care
must be taken in post welding clearing and grinding of joint to eliminate such stress
concentration.
- The welded joints are particularly found to lose their ductility at low temperature.
Combination of possible existence of defects, stress concentration and loss of ductility
has been the reason of various structural failures in ships, reservoirs, pressure vessels
and bridge structure.
2 Fusion welding
In fusion welding process, parts to be joined are heated to the fusion temperature (using
electric arc or oxyacetylene flame) and joined together with addition of molten filler material
from a welding rod. A gas shields is provided when welding certain metals to prevent rapid
oxidation of the molten metal. A good welded joint will usually develop the full strength of
the material being joined unless the high temperature necessary for the process changes the
properties of the materials
Fig.1. Arc welding with coated electrode
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Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
2.1 Types of weld joints
Two types of welding joints are clearly recognized viz. joints between two plates that overlap
(fillet joint) and joints between two plates that butt with each other (butt joint).
Fillet Joint Butt joint
In the design of a welded joint it is reasonable to assume uniform distribution of shearing
stress. However, the fillet welds are designed on the assumption that failure will occur by
shearing the minimum section of the weld. This minimum section is called the throat of the
weld.
The permissible shearing stress is chosen as 50% of permissible tensile stress of parent’s
metal for manual welding. In case of automated process the permissible shearing stress in the
weld is assumed as 70% of permissible tensile stress of parent metal. If the load on the joints
varies between Pmin and Pmax, the permissible stress is multiplied by a factor , where
2.2 Loading of fusion welds
The tensile stress (σ) in a butt joint loaded in tension (see Fig.2) is given by
Eq. 1
Where: P = applied load on a butt joint, h = butt weld height which does not include the
bulge or reinforcement, l = length of the weld (normally, this length is increased by 12.5 mm
to take care of starting of weld in each segment).
(a)
Fig.2. Tensile loading of a butt joint
Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
The shear stress (τ) in a butt is calculated as follows
Eq. 2
(a)
Fig.3. Shear loading of a butt joint
Shear loading of fillet joint (see Fig.4)
- Stresses are calculated for the throat or the minimum cross section located at 45° to
the legs h.
- Determination of throat area parallel to load
Eq. 3
Thus, height of triangle (x) is
Throat area (At)
The average shearing stress on the throat area is
Eq. 4
The factor of safety for static loads is given by
Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
Eq. 5
Where: τyp = shear yield stress, σyp = tensile yield stress
Fig.4. Fillet weld joint in shear
Tensile loading of fillet joint is illustrated in Fig.5. The stress situation on the throat area is
very complex and no exact design equations are available. However, it is common practise to
consider tensile stress as being the force divided by the throat area and to consider it as shear
stress derived similarly as Eq. 4.
Fig.5. Fillet weld in tension perpendicular to its length
Worked example
A 6 mm fillet weld 50 mm long carries a steady load of 13kN lying along the weld. The weld
metal has yield strength of 360 MPa. Find the value of the factor of safety.
Solution
Thus factor of safety is
Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
Worked example
A steel plate strip of 150 mm width and 10 mm thickness is welded by a compound fillet
weld to another plate. The strip is required to carry an axial load P such that P is equal to
tensile load capacity of the strip with a factor of safety of 2.5 on ultimate tensile strength of
strip. Calculate the length of the fillet weld and show on diagram. Ultimate tensile strength of
strip material is 380 MPa. Find fillet length if Pmin =P/2 and Pmax = P
Solution
The permissible tensile stress in strip material is 380/2.5 = 152 MPa. Hence permissible
shearing stress in the weld, with the assumption of manual welding
The axial load on the joint as shown
Apparently the vertical weld length, = 150 mm
When P varies between Pmin = P/2 and Pmax = P, the factor
Dr. David Githinji
Weldment in Engineering Design
3 Standard practice in welding
3.1 Welding safety
Safety is paramount during welding and the following are standard practice for safe
operation;
i). Use of protective clothing
These are important during welding or when removing slag and include heavy cotton shirt,
cuffless trousers, high shoes and a cap protect against molten metal splashes.
ii). Use of welding helmet with visor shade
Arc rays from the welding process produce intense visible and invisible (ultraviolet and
infrared) rays that can burn eyes and skin.
iii). Use of safety glasses
Safety glasses with side shields are necessary to protect your eyes while welding and
removing slag.
iv). Use of leather welding gloves
Welding gloves protect hands and wrists from hot sparks and radiation burns while welding
and removing slag.
v). Ventilation
Welding may produce hazardous fumes and gases and it should therefore be carried out in a
well-ventilated area.
vi). Weld in an area free of flammables
Welding generate intense heat and the resulting sparks and hot slag can cause fire when in
close proximity to flammable products such as paint, solvent, gasoline, paper etc. These
products should therefore be kept away from the welding area.
vii). Protect others
Protective screens or barriers should be set-up to protect other persons from flash and glare.
viii). Use of welding table
All welding should be conducted on a welding table to avoid floor damaging by intense heat
from electric arc.
ix). Tanks or containers previously holding flammable materials
Even though it may be empty, a tank or container that previously held a flammable material
may still contain combustible vapors or residue that can result in an explosion.
x). Welding equipment
The welding equipment should be operated properly protects welder against any harm and the
equipment from damage.
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