Mathematical Reasoning | chapter 30.1. INTRODUCTION Logic is the study of methods of reasoning of general nature i.e., without reference to any particular context. For example if a child is either a male or a female and if it is not male then logic says that it is a female. Logic has very wide area of applications such as in computer science, social science, circuit designs etc. 30.2. SOME DEFINITIONS [I] Sentence Ideas or thoughts are communicated through sentences in any language. Sentences are of the following four types : 1. Assertive or declarative sentence : A sentence is said to be an assertive sentence or a declarative sentence if it makes an assertion. An assertive sentence is either true or false but not both. EXAMPLES : (i) Seven is less than ten. Here it is asserted that seven is less than 10 which Is true, (ii) The Sun rises in the East. Here it is asserted that the sun rises in the East (which is true). (Gil) Tt is hot today. Here it is asserted that it is hot today. (iv) Ten is less than eight. Here it is asserted that ten is less than 8 (which is false). () Rajeev is a good boy. Here it is asserted that Rajeev is a good boy / (vi) Delhi is the capital of India, Here it is asserted that Delhi is the capital of India.(IESE, i Mathematical Reay mn NI 2. Exelaimatory sentence : 4 sentence ts said t be exelaimatory if expresg Sse exclamation ¢ it it expresses strong: feeling PN aurit (0) Hurrah | Indians won the match. (1) How high thts building 1s 1 4. Interrogative sentence: A sentence ts satd 10 be an interrozative senmtenee y asks some question PN aMPLe 4) Is 2 less than 5 7 Here it has been asked whether 2 1s less than 5 (i) What is your name Here it has been asked what your name is: 4. Imperative sentence : A sentence is said to be Imperative if it expresses y request or command, EXAMPLE (1) Please give me a glass of water. Here a request has been expressed. ii) Come with your books. Here a command has been expressed (iii) Go to school Here a command has been expressed. (iv) Do not go out. Here a command has been expressed. {II] Statement Now we will discuss a special type of sentence called a statement or proposition Definition : A declarative or assertive sentence is said to be a statement of proposition which is either true or false but not both. EXAMPLE : (i) 7 is less than 5 (ii) 5 is less than 8. It is a statement which is false. It is a statement which is true. (iv) Give me a glass of water. It is not a statement. (iii) Write down your name. Itis not a statement, (v) Every rhombus is a parallelogram. This is a statement which is true. (vi) Ten minus eight is three. This is a statement which is false. (vil) What is your name ? This is not a statement as it cannot be decided whether itis true or fase (viii) May God bless you ! This is not a statement as it cannot be decided whether it is true o false (ix) Do not go out. This is not a statement. (CBSE-2/MATHS X1)Pee syahematical Reasoning Pee (x) Please give me your pen This is not a statement. (xi Delhi is the capital of India This is a statement which is true. Note : A sentence which is both irue and false is called a paradox. A paradox is not a statement {111| Logical variables In logic, statements are denoted by small letters p,q. % Ss. ete, The letters representing the statements are called logical variables. EXAMPLE : (i) If p represents the statement “3 is greater than then we write. p:3 is greater than 2 (ii) If q represents the statement “Delhi is the capital of India", then we write q.: Delhi is the capital of India [IV] Quantifiers The symbols denoting a phrase or a group of words are cal EXAMPLE = (i) V = this symbol stands for “for all” or “for every”, Hence the symbol V is led quantifiers. a quantifier. (ii) J: this symbol stands for “there exis The symbol 3 is a quantifier. IV] Quantified statement A statement is said to be a quantified statement if it contains quantifier(s). EXAMPLE : n> 0, natural number 7. This is a quantified statement as it contains & quantifier V IVI] Open statement an open statement if it contains one or more variables and A statement is said to be or values are assigned to the variable or it becomes statement when a definite value Variables. EXAMPLE ; x +1=0 This is an open statement. This is a true statement when This is a false statement when = -1 0 IVI] Truth set The set of all values of the Variable(s) for which an open statement 15 true is called the truth set of the open statement EXAMPLE : (x= W)(0t 2) 3)= 0 For this open. statement, the truth set ts the set {1,-2.3}EEN’ | , we) Mathematical Reasoning 30.3. TRUTH VALUE OF A STATEMENT The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value The truth value of a statement is denoted by T or F according as it is true op false EXAMPLE : (i) The truth value of the statement “Delhi is the capital of India” is T a this statement is. true. (ii) The truth value of the statement “3 is an even number” is F as this statement is false. Worked Out Examples TYPE | [| Problems based on examining whether a sentence is a statement or not, WORKING RULE : 1. A statement is a sentence which is either true or false but not both. 2._A sentence which is both true and false is called a paradox. EXAMPLE 1. Examine which of the following sentences are statements and which are not (i) A quadrilateral has three sides. (ii) The sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°. (iii) The moon revolves around the sun, (iv) Please do me a favour. (v) Good moming Sir (vi) What are you doing ? (vil) Have you seen Taj Mahal ? (viii) Hurrah ! we have won the match. SOLUTION : (i) A quadrilateral has four three sides” is false. les and hence the sentence “a quadrilateral has ‘Thus the given sentence is false and hence a statement. The given sentence “the sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360 is true and hence it is a statement, ai) Gi) ‘Since the moon revolves around the earth and not around the sun, Hess? the given sentence is false. Thus the given sentence is a statement (iv) The given sentence “please do me a favour" cannot be ass igned true false and hence it is not a statement (¥)_ The given sentence “good morning sit” is a wish and cannot be assist! true or false. Hence it is not a statement, (vi) The given sentence “what are you doin be 1 2” is a question and it cannot assigned true or false. Hence the given sentence is not a statement =vfathematical Reasoning 1 305 (vii) The given sentence “Have you so en Taj Mahal 2” cannot be assigned true or f; Se. Hence it is not a xclaimatory and hence it cannot be assigned true given sentence is not a statement is a question and it statement (vii) The given sentence is e or false. Therefore, TYPE " iy Problems based on truth values of imple statements, WORKING RULE : Use the following informations whichever are required ; |. A statement p has truth value T or F according as it is true or false. 2. The statement ~ p (negation of p) has the truth v: ‘alue T or F according as p is false or true. EXAMPLE 2, Write down the truth v; () Every set is an infinite set alues of the following statements (ii) 13 is a prime number. (iii) The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle. (iv) Number of irrational numbers is finite. SOLUTION : (i) The given statement is false and therefore its truth value is F, (ii) Since 13 is a prime number, therefore the given statement is true. Hence the truth value of the given statement is T. (ii) The angle in a semicircle is a right angle and hence the given statement is true, Thus the truth value of the given statement is T. (iv) Since number of irrational numbers is not finite, therefore, given statement is false. Hence truth value of the given statement is F. Exercise - 30.1 |. Examine which of the following sentences are statements and which are not : ) The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees (ii) Every square is a rectangle. (ii) A triangle has four sides () Open the door. \) New Dethi is in India i) May God bless you ! ii) Dethi is the capital of India. (vill) Do your home work. (ix) The sun is a star. "V3 is an irrational number, ix) Asia is a continent. (xii) Give me a glass of water “~<=) The number 12 has two prime factors. Alas I have failed. Where are you going ? The earth is a star. (xviii) Three plus seven is eleven. (xix) May you live long ! Listen to me Rajeev ! persons is "p). Mathematical Reasoning (xxi) The number of ways of seating two persons in two chairs out of n (xxii) There are only finite number of rational numbers (xxiii) Sky is blue. (xxiv) Two plus two is four. State the truth value of each of the following statements Every square is a rectangle. All integers are natural numbers. ‘A quadratic equation has always real roots. There are only finite number of rational numbers. Sky is blue. S+7< 10, Zero is a complex number. 17 is a prime number, A real number js either rational or irrational. Taj Mahal is in Delhi. not a statement not a statement (xix) not a statement Oxxii) statement. 2) T Gil) F ill) F (ivy F (WT wi not a statement (iii) (vi) (ix) (xii) (xy) (xviii) (xxi) not a statement not a statement not a statement (xxiv) statement i) T (vii) T (viii) F (ix) T (x) F 30.4. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS 1, Simple statement : A statem, called a simple statement. Delhi is the capital of India. 2. Compound statement : EXAMPLE ; 3 is greater than 2 and 5 is an integer, rent which has no other statement as its component © IUis a combination of two or more simple stateme"Mathematical Reasoning { 30.7 30.5. BASIC LOGICAL CONNECTIVES ‘The phrases or words which connect two simple statements pand q are called logical connectives or connectives. The following are the basic logical connectives. 1. Conjunction : Two simple statements pand g connected by the word *and” is called a conjunction of pand q and is denoted by pag. EXAMPLE : p : Ram is a student of class XI. q : Rajeev is a student of class XII paq: Ram is a student of class XI and Rajeev is a student of class XII. ‘The statement pA q is true whenever both pand q are true otherwise it is false. 2. Disjunction : Two simple statements pand q connected by the word ‘or’ is called a disjunction of pand g and is denoted by pvg. EXAMPLE : p : It is day. q: It is night. pvq: It is day or it is night The statement p vq is false whenever both pand q are false otherwise it is true. Conditional and biconditional statements 3. Implication or conditional : Two simple statements pand q connected by the word ‘If... then’ is called an implication and is denoted p> q or p=3q (If p then q). EXAMPLE : p : \t rains today q : Mohan will not go to school today. Pq: If it rains today, then Mohan will not go to school today. Pq is false only if p is true and q is false otherwise it is true. 4. Biconditional or equivalence : Two simple statements pand g connected by the word “If and only ‘if? is called a biconditional or equivalence and is denoted by Pq or peg (p if and only if 4). EXAMPLE: p : Crops are good. q: Rains are good. bq: Crops are good if and only if rains are good Logical connectives Symbol Compound statement ] AND 7 Conjunction | OR v Disjunetion | IF ... THEN Sor Conditional statement | IF AND ONLY IF ore Biconditional statement —_| 30.6. NEGATION The age snag Simial Of a statement pis called its negation and 1s denoted by ~ p and read as p place he MRHtion of a statement is made by writing the word mot at some suitable een It the given stater Mung “I is talse that - rent. Sometumes negation of a statement 1s also made by or “It is not the case that” before the given statementSe 308 | Mathematical Reason, ning EXAMPLE : Let p= All rectangles are parallelograms. Then ~ p : Not all rectangles are parallelograms. p : Wis false that all rectangles are parallelograms ps It is not the case that all rectangles are parallelograms Note : (1) The statement “all rectangles are not parallelograms™ is ny y ie negation of p. (2) The statement there exists a rectangle which is not a parallelogram is aly ie negation of given statement p. Truth value for negation ~ p (ee } i F F T ~p is true whenever p is false. / ~p is false whenever p is true. y 30.7. NEGATION OF A COMPOUND STATEMENT 1. Negation of conjunction : The negation of the conjunction pag is the disjunction of the negation of p and the negation of g. Thus, ~(paq)=~pv~q 2, Negation of disjunction + The negation of the disjunction pvg is the Conjunction of the negation of p and the negation of g Thus ~(PYQ)=~ pa~q 3. Negation of a negation : The negation of the negation of a statement p is the statement p itself. Thus ~(p)=p Connective Nature of the Symbol Symbolic Negation | word compound form of the | statement statement after | introducing | connective and conjunction A PAG pee or disjunction v pvq poe | not negation = ~p ~(~plaP If..then implication or Dor prqor pg = prn~d | conditional | If and biconditional or == or > pesg or peag (pr | | only if equivalence viga~ Pl-—— sasoning ae shematical Re 30.8. CONVERSE, OPPOSITE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF AN IMPLICATION two statements. Mat tat pandg be Let the implication be p= 4 1, Converse = The statement y= p is called the converse of the statement pad 2. Opposite = The statement ~ p= ~q is called the opposite of the implication pag 3, Contrapositive = e implication p => 4- The statement ~g =~ p (not gq implies not p) is called the contrapositive of th EXAMPLE : Let p : ABC is an equilateral triangle q: all the sides of AABC are equal. If ABC is an equilateral triangle, then all the sides of A ABC are then p=>q: equal, (True statement). 1. Converse of p= 4 : Converse of the statement p= 4 'S the statement q > P ie, If all the sides of AABC are equal, then AABC is an equilateral triangle. If p=>q is true, then q= p may or may not be true. I sides of | ABCD is a square, then all the statement “If all is false EXAMPLE : The statement “if a quadrilateral the quadrilateral ABCD are equal” is true. But its converse Le. sides of a quadrilateral ABCD are equal, then quadrilateral ABCD is a square” as rhombus is not necessarily a square. 2. Opposite of p=>q : Here opposite of the abc statement ~ p = ~q ie. “If a AABC is not equilateral, then all th This statement is true. Opposite of a given statement may or may not be tru 3. Contrapositive of statement p = * Contrapositive ove given statement is the e sides of 4 ABC are not equal” re of above given statement P=>q is ~g>~pie., “If all the sides of a AABC are not eq) Statement is true. 30.9. JOINT DENIAL ual, then AABC is not equilateral” This a two simple statements pand q connected by the word “Neither - 99F ss called Joint denial and is denoted by pl gq Thus neither p nor g ie. ply = pa~q =-(pvq) 7 «aee eam Mathematica 30.10 | athematical Reasonin : Truth table for pl gq or ~( py q) is P og pyq i T T 7 F 7 F le iy F F i Worked Out Examples TYPE | Problems based on conjunction and disjunction of two simple statements.) WORKING RULE : Use the following informations whichever is required 1. If two simple statements pand q are connected by the word ‘and’, then | the resulting compound statement “p and q’ is denoted in symbolic | form by *p aq’ and is called the conjunction of pand g 2 If two simple statements pand q are connected by the word ‘or’, then the resulting compound statement is denoted in symbolic form by ‘pv q° | and_is called the disjunction of pand g | and the disjunction of the following EXAMPLE 1, Write down the conjunction statements (p= Rajeev is hardworking q: Rajesh is intelligent (ii) ps Dinesh is a boy. qs Nagma is a girl (iii) p It is cold 42 Wis raining. (iv) ps Mohan is honest. 4: Mohan is quali SOLUTION : ed. ( The conjunction of the statements pand gy is given by Pq: Rajeev is hardworking and Rajesh is intelligent ‘The disjunction of the PY q = Rajeev ©) The conjunetion of the aq The disjunction tatements pand q is given by ts hardworking or Rajesh 1s intelligent statements pand q is given by Dinesh is a boy and Nagmia is of the statements PY: Dinesh is (1 The conjunction of the stat a gil Pand q is given by @ boy or Nagma is a gut tements pand is given by The dined: HAS 80M and is caitiny he disjunction of the state " Ne Sultements pand y is given by vg Was cold or it as rauningMathematical Reasoning / 30.11 (iv) The conjunction of the statements pand q is given by pq: Mohan is honest and qualified The disjunction of the statements pand g is given by pvq: Mohan is honest or qualified EXAMPLE 2. Write the following compound statements in symbolic form (i) The sky is blue and grass is green (ii) Ashok reads ‘paper A’ or “paper BY SOLUTION : (i) Let p: The sky is blue and q 2 grass is green. Then given compound statement in symbolic form is pag (ii) Let. ps Ashok reads paper A and q: Ashok reads paper B Then given compound statement in symbolic form is pv g TYPE I Problems based on negation of a simple or compound statement. WORKING RULE : Use the following informations whichever is required L x Denial of a statement p is called its negation and is denoted by *~ p The negation of a simple statement p is obtained by putting the word ‘not’ at some proper place or by writing “It is false that” or “It is not the case that” before the statement p. The negation of a statement like ‘all @ are 6° may also be, “there exists at least one a which is not b* or “there is a a which is not h* Here it is to be noted that to disprove a statement, one counter example is sufficient. The negation of the compound statement pag is ~pv ~q order to find the negation of the compound statement pq. obtain the Thus in negation of p and q and form their disjunction The negation of the compound statement py g is ~pa~q order to find the negation of the compound statement pv q, obtain the negation of pand g and form their conjunction Thus in EXAMPLE 3. Write down the negation of the following statements (i) All integers are rational numbers. (ii) All squares are rectangles, (iii) New Delhi is a city (iv) V2 is an irrational number. (v) Some even numbers are prime numbers (vi) Every rational number is a real number. SOLUTION : (i) Let p: All imegers are rational numbers. Then ~ p : Not all integers are rational numbers. Or There exists an integer which is net a rational number Or Some integers are not rational numbersa 30.12] Mathematical Reasoning Or It is not the case that all integers are rational numbers, Or It is false that all integers are rational numbers. (ii) Let p: All squares are rectangles. Then ~ p : Not all square: are rectangles. There exists a square which is not a rectangle. Or Some squares are not rectangles Or It is not the case that all squares are rectangles Or It is false that all squares are rectangle. (iii) Let p: New Dethi is a city. Then ~ p : New Delhi is not a city. Or It is false that New Delhi is a city. Or It is not the case that New Delhi is a city. (iv) Let p :V2 is an irrational number. Then ~ p:¥2 is not an irrational number. It is false that V2 is an irrational number. Or It is not the case that J2 is an irrational number. (vy) Let p: Some even number are prime number. Then ~ p: No even number is a prime number. (vi) Let p : Every rational number is a real number. Then ~ p : Not every rational number is a real number. Or It is false that every rational number is a real number. It is not the case that every rational number is a real number. EXAMPLE 4. Write down the following statements as negation of some statement into symbolic form : [HOTS] (i) It is false that the sky is not blue. (ii) It is not the case that roses are not red. (iii) It is false that the grass is green. (iv) Some prime numbers are not odd numbers. SOLUTION : (i) Let p: The sky is blue. Then ~ p : The sky is not blue. Therefore ~(~ p) : It is false that the sky is not blue. Thus the given statement in symbolic form is ~(~ p), where p denotes Statement “the sky is blue”. (ii) Let p: Roses are red, Then ~ p : Roses are not red. Therefore, ~(~ p) : It is not the case that roses are not red. 3a Thus the given statement in symbolic form is ~(~ p), where Pp &™ the statement. “roses are red”. (iii) Let p: the grass is green. Then ~p : It is false that the grass is green. the Thus the given statement in symbolic form is ~ p, where p det!o% statement “the grass is green”.Mathematical Reasoning f 30.13 (iv) Let_p: All prime numbers are odd Then ~p: Some prime numbers are not odd numbers. Thus the given sta where p denotes the statement “all prime numbers ement in symbolic form is ~ p, odd.” EXAMPLE $. Write the negation of the following compound statement : /HOTS/ (i) Ram is in class XI or Karim is in class XII (ii) Amit is smart and healthy. (iii) x is not a real rational number. (iv) 2+3=5 and 8<10, (v) Sanjeev is cruel or he is strict SOLUTION : (i) Let p: Ram is in class XI and q: Karim is in class XII Then pvq : Ram is in class XI or Karim is in class XII ~ p: Ram is not in class XI. and ~q: Karim is not in class XII. Hence negation of given statement is given by ~(pvq)=(~ p)a(~q): Ram is not in class XI and Karim is not in class XII (ii) Let_p: Amit is smart, and q: Amit is healthy. Then pag: Amit is smart and healthy ~ p: Amit is not smart, and ~q: Amit is not healthy. The negation of given statement is given by ~(paq)=(~ p)v (~q): Amit is neither smart nor healthy. (iii) Let_p:x is not a real number. and q:x is not a rational number. Then paq:x is not a real rational number. Hence the negation of the given statement is given by ~(paq) =(~p)y (~q):x is a real number or x is a rational number, ie, x is a rational number. Note : Every rational number is a real number: (iv) Let p:2+3=5 and q:8<10 Then the given statement is given by paq:2+3= Sand 8<10 then~ p:2+3#45 and ~q: 8410 The negation of the given statement is given by ~(PAg)=(~ p)v (~4):243#5 of BEIO ~ (y) Let p: Sanjeev is cruel ® and q: Sanjeev is strict *| 30.14 J Mathematical Reasonin z Then the given statement is given by pvq : Sanjeev is cruel or he is strict Now ~ p: Sanjeev is not cruel and ~q: Sanjeev is not strict, The negation of the given statement pv is given by ~(pvq)=(~ p)a(~q) : Sanjeev is not cruel and he is not strict. EXAMPLE 6. Are the following statements negation of each other ? (i) “x is not a rational number.” “x is mot an irrational number.” (ii) “tx is not a real number.” “yx is not an imaginary number.” SOLUTION : (i) Let p:x is not a rational number. and q:x is not an irrational number. Then ~ p:x is a rational number. and ~q:x is an irrational number. If x is a rational number, then x is not an irrational number. ~PHq Again if x is an irrational number. then is not a rational number. ~q=P. Thus pand g are negation of each other. (ii) Let p:x is not a real number. and q:x is not an imaginary number. Then ~ p:x is a real number. and ~q:x is an imaginary number Since if a number is an imaginary number, then it is definitely not a real number. Therefore ~4 = p. “ Again if x is a real number, then x is definitely not an imaginary number Therefore, ~ p= 4. Thus pand q are negation of each other. Problems based on truth values of negation of a statement - a2) EXAMPLE 7. Write the truth value of the negation of the following statements (i) Every rhombus is a parallelogram (ii) The earth revolves round the moon SOLUTION ; (i) Let_p : Every thombus is a parallelogram Since the statement “every rhombus is a parallelogram’ is true. therefore the statement phas the wuth value T Hence the statement — p has the truth value F (ii) Let_p > the earth revolves round the moon Since the carth does not revolve round the moon, therefore the statenk®! the earth revolves round the moon’ is. false Hence the statement p has the truth \tlue F and therefore the stateme® p bas the truth value 1Mathematical Reasoning [3015 TYPE Ill Problems based on truth values of py q and statements. pq, where pandg are two | Use the following results whichever is required 1. If both pandg have the truth value 1 truth value T 2. Weither porg or both have the truth value F, has the truth value F. 3. If both pand q have the truth value F truth value F. | 4. If either p or q or both have the truth value T, then py has the truth | “WORKING RUL | then the statement pag has the | | then the statement pag then the statement pv has the | value T. EXAMPLE & Write down the truth value of each of the following statements (i) Delhi is an India and V2 is an irrational number. [HOTS] (ii) India is in Asia and 10<5 (iii) Delhi is an India or 74+3=11. (iv) India is in Europe or V2 is a rational number. SOLUTION : (i) The statement “Delhi is in India” is true and the statement “V2 is an irrational number” is also true, therefore the given compound statement is true and its truth value is T. ii) The statement “India is in Asia” is true and the statement. “I0< 5" is false, therefore, the given compound statement is false and its truth value is F. (iii) The statement “Delhi is in India” is true and the statement 7+ 3= 11 is false. Therefore the given compound statement is true and its truth value is T. (iv) The statement “India is in Europe” is false and the statement V2 is a rational number is also false. Hence the given compound statement is false and its truth value is F. Exercise - 30.2 Write down the conjunction and disjunction of the following statements (i) ps Jack went up the hill. 4: Jill went up the hill Gi) p At is raining 4:2 is a prime number. (ii) p : Dethi is in India. q: (%) p India is in Asia q:24+2=4. (CBSE-2 MATHS Xb auate] Mathematical Reasoning (v)p: Paris is in France gq: London is in England (vi) p: It is raining today q : There are twenty chairs in this room (vii) p: Ram is a boy q : Sita is a girl (viii) p: It is not raining. q i It is hot. (ix) p: The sun shines. q : It rains (x) p: Delhi is in India g:243=5. (xi) p: Rajeev is rich q : Rajeev is happy. 2. Write down the following compound statements in symbolic forms (i) Paris is in France and London is in England. (ii) Javed reads “paper X or paper Y.” (iii) Ram is in class XI or Rahim is in class X. Type II 3. Write the negation of the following statements : (i) | went to my class yesterday, (ii) Complex numbers are real numbers. (iii) All triangles are squares. (iv) All natural numbers are integers. (v) Every rational number is a real number. (vi) 24+5=8 (vii) There are twenty chairs in this room. (viii) It is raining today. 4. Write the negation of the following statements : (i) Paris is in France and London is in England. (ii) x>8 or x<8 (iii) Rekha is smart or beautiful. (iv) 8 is greater than 5 or 4 is less than 10. (v) Sky is blue and 5< 8, (vi) I like tennis and football. F som? Write all of the following statements in symbolic form as negation of S" Statement. (i) It is false that all natural numbers are integers. (ii) It is not the case that all triangles are squares. (iii) Not all real numbers are complex. numbers. (iv) There is an integer which is not a natural number. (v) Some mathematicians are not men. (CBSE-2/MATHS. XD)LIT Mathematical Reasoning £501 6. Are the following statements negation of each other ? (i) “x is not a rational number.” “x is an irrational number.” (i) “x> 10" and “x< 10". (x being a real number) Type TI 7. Write the truth value of the negation of the following statements : (i) The earth is a star. (ii) 12 is a prime number. Gil) 2434, (iv) Every square is a rectangle. (¥) Equilateral triangle is an isosceles triangle. Type IV 8. State the truth value of each of the following compound Statement : (i) India is in Europe or 2+2=5, (ii) India is in Asia or 24+2=4 V3 is an irrational number or 10 is divisible by 3. (iv) Delhi is in India and 2+3=6. (v) Taj Mahal is in Dethi or 2 is an even number. (vi) Delhi is in England and zero is a purely imaginary number. (ii) 29 is a prime mumber and a quadratic equation has only two roots, ANSWERS I. (i) paq: Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill. Pq + Jack went up the hill or Jill went up the hill, (ii) paq: It is raining and 2 is a Prime number. PVq: It is raining or 2 is a prime number. (ii) p Aq : Delhi is in India and 2+3=6 Pq: Delhi is in India or 243=6 (iv) pq : India is in Asia and 2+2=4. Pq: India is in Asia or 2+2=4, (¥) pag: Paris is in France and London is in England, Pq: Paris is in France or London is in England, (Wi) pg : It is raining today and there are twenty chairs in this room, PYq : It is raining today or there are twenty chairs in this room. (vil) pag : Ram is a boy and Sita is a girl. Pq : Ram is a boy or Sita is a girl (ill) p.0q : It is not raining and it is hot. Pq: It is not raining or it is hot. (i) pag: The sun shines and it rains, Pq: The sun shines or it rains,Os 30.18 J Mathematical Reasoning : Delhi is in India and 24+3=5. &) PA + Delhi is in India or 2+ 3=5. PY (xi) pag : Rajeev is rich and happy. pvq: Rajeev is rich or happy. 2. (i) Let p: Paris is in France. and q : London is in England. Then given statement in symbolic form is p Aq. (i) Let p : Javed reads ‘paper X’. and q : Javed reads ‘paper Y’. Then given compound statement is pv 4. (iii) Let p : Ram is in class XI. and q : Rahim is in class X. Then given compound statement is pv 4- 3. (i) I did not go to my class yesterday. Or It is false that I went to my class yesterday. Or It is not the case that I went to my class yesterday. (ii) There is a complex number which is not a real number. Or It is false that all complex numbers are real numbers. Or It is not the case that all complex numbers are real numbers. Or Not all complex numbers are real numbers. (iii) It is not raining today. Or It is false that it is raining today. Or It is not the case that it is raining today. 4, (i) Paris is not in France or London is not in England. (ii) xS8 and x28 i.e, x=8 (iii) Rekha is neither smart nor beautiful. (iv) 8 is not greater than 5 and 4 is not less than 10. (v) Sky is not blue or 528 (vi) I do not like tennis and I do not like football. Or I neither like tennis nor like football. : 5. (i) Let p: All natural numbers are integers. Then the given statement ~ (ii) Let p : All triangles are squares. Then the given statement is ~ 7 (ii) Let p : All real numbers are complex numbers. Then the given statement is ~ p. (iv) Let p : Every integer is a natural number. Then the given statement is ~ p. (v) Let p: All mathematicians are men. Then the given statement in symbolic form is ~ p. 6. (i) No (ii) Yes. 7. (i) T (ii) T (ili) T (iv) F (vy) F 8. (i) F (ii) T itd) T ivy F (WT vi) T (wit) T = (CBSE: 2/MATHS XI)Mathematical Reasoning can 30.10. TRUTH TABLES Let S(p,q,r..) be a compound statement having components (substatements) Pilon ‘The table showing the truth values of components p,q,7,... and the compound statement S is called the truth table for the statement S. Tn a truth table, there are rows and columns. The last column contains the truth values of the compound statement S' and the initial columns contain the truth values of component statements. 1. The truth table for one statement p is : P a: F 2. The truth table for two statements p and q is : os for | fe fo bos fa fot fa fis 3. The truth table for three statements p,q,r is : rs ees Pes fos a Ja fa fs fos prs ors J Ja fom [os Ja | Js raf fa ff fs fa] 30.11. TRUTH TABLES FOR DIFFERENT CONNECTIVES Truth table for pag : op q PAW TE 7 T 7 E E F Tt E EF F E Truth table for pvq : P q py4 ir T T T E rT r Tes ipso) Eee)ae 30.20 J Mathematical Reasons, Truth table for p=>q = . P q Pq i: T zr i z F F a 7 F F 7 Truth table for poog : P 7 p=>q q>p Poq (P29) (9 > p) . - T 7 T Tt FE F es F F T = r F r F ef 2% i Worked Out Examples Problems based on truth tables of a given simple or compound statement. WORKING RULE : Use the following informations whichever is required : | 1. A truth table consists of rows and columns. | 2. Truth table of a simple statement has only two rows. But the truth table of @ compound statement S$ having components has 2” rows. Thus the truth table of a compound statement having two components will have four rows | and the truth table of a compound statement having three components will | have 23 =8 rows. | 3. The columns of the truth table are filled with the possible truth values of | the component statements of the compound statement S and the last | of the truth table contains the truth values of the compound statement S. | Use the following informations whichever are required : df @ Truth value of negation : Truth value of the statement ~ p is F ot 7 according as the truth value of the statement p is T or F. (i) Truth value of conjunction : th) @) The truth value of conjunction pag is T iff pand q have the value T. (b) The truth value of conjunction PAG is F iff at least one of P : q has the truth value ¥F. Gil) Truth value of disjunction : 4| (@) The truth value of disjunction PV q is T iff at least one of pans ' has the truth value T. b) The truth value of disjuncti is Fi and q hi ti q Se isjunction p vq is F iff both p and ave the 4Mathematical Reasoning EXAMPLE 1. Construct the truth table for PAalt~ [ 30.21 P). SOLUTION : The compound statement p»(~p) consists of only one simple statement p. Hence truth table will have 2' i.e, 2 rows in addition to the top row. In the truth table there will be column for p, will be three columns. Truth table for pA (~ p) is : ~ pand p \~ p. Hence, there P ~P PAC?) T F FE FE 7 F EXAMPLE 2. Construct the truth table for ~(p vq). SOLUTION : The compound statement ~(p vq) has two component statements and q, therefore the truth table will have 2? i.e, 4 rows in addition to the top row. In the truth table there will be columns for p,q. pvq and ~(pvq). Truth table for ~(p Aq) : P q PYG ~(pyq) iT T T F aT FE FE T FE T F iT FE FE FE Te EXAMPLE 3. Construct the truth table for the compound statement ~(p Aq). SOLUTION : Here the pand q and therefore, the truth table Tow. In the truth table there will be columns for p, Hence there will be four columns, Truth table for ~(p aq) : compound statement consists of two simple statements will have 4 rows in addition to the top Pag and ~(paq). P q pad [evr iT T. T F T F FE iT: F T E 7 gE F FE T EXAMPLE 4. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (~ p)v q. SOLUTION ; Here the compound statement consists of two simple statements pand q, therefore, the truth table will have 2? =4 rows in addition to the top row. There will be columns for p.q.~ p (~ p)vq. Hence number of columns in the truth table will be four. Truth table for (~p)vq is :Math 30.22 J ‘ExampLe 5. Construct the truth table for the compound statement ~(; SOLUTION : The given statement has two component statements and will be 2? =4 rows in the truth table except the top row. In the there will be columns for p,q,~q,pV¥~q and ~(pv~q). Hence columns in the truth table will be 5. Truth table for ~(pv~q) is PB q ~q | py~g | ns fa Ps Paps fH Pa EXAMPLE 10. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (pagyi[-(pag) [HOTS] Given compound statement consists of two simple statements pand q and hence there will be 2? =4 rows in addition to the top row in the truth table. Also in the truth table, there will be columns for P19, PAG,~(p Aq) and (prg)v[~(pAq)]. Hence number of columns in the truth table will be 5. Truth table for (p Aq) vI~(p.aq)lis : SOLUTION : z q pag |~(ag| (paavi-(pag)l T T T F T T F F T T FE T F T T F F F T T EXAMPLE 11. If pandgq are two statements, construct the truth table for the compound statement, ~(p v~qya pvr) SOLUTION : Given statement has three compound statements p,q and r and hence there will be 2? =8 rows in the truth table except the top row. In the truth table, there =~ will, = be = columns for pg. ~ 4s Ph PY~q.~(PV~q).(~ pvr) and ~(py~q)a- pvr). Nence there will be 9 columns in the truth tableee 30.24 | Mathematical Rey, Truth table for ~(p v~4) A(~ pvr) is as given below ; mee p|a|or | ~e | ~4 | py~ql~(pv~q)) ~ evr) ie Td? F F T F T pte Tanti ee F F i F fo | Tee ole T F T ro T[Fl Fr F/T it F F F Palette oar F T T ; F{[r[rt[tfl Fe F t T a Flee te ean T F i F Folr[lrf[rf{t i F T a < Exercise - 30.3 1. If p,g,r are statements, construct the truth table for each of the following statements : (i) py~p Gi) ~paq (iii) py~q (iv) ~(pa~q) (vy) ~(~pa~q) (vi) (pyq)v(~q) (vil) (pv q) Vv (~ p) (vill) (pagq)vr (ix) (pag)ar &) (pya)yr (xi) (pag)v(-r) (xii) (~ p vg) a pv~q) (xiii) (pv~n)agv~r) ANSWERS 1. (i) Pp ~P DY~D | a F by | F c Ty | | Gi) P q eRe lee DAD, 7 7 F F | T F F F FR T iw Tt | F F T F (iii) . a ree i T T F T ' T F T T \ F T F F F F T T —$———————————1t[ 30.25 Mathematical Reasoning s T < ae] = z = = > L 5 < v i ~ = 5 £ J 5 7 <| of > S Ss x g > t = t - s : = 12 x < : > S 4 > = SI Fa) | a > >. > mo > 8 x t F a > x a Sal = & a q v > 3 ole} > Ps = 1 a a] a) = 8 =| i z = g = = =Mathematica, Reason; ing 30.26 ] (pvqyvr r (pager PYG = ~r PAY P (x) (xi) <3 : at > <= < ae : vel 7 i colin : 2 > 7 = v < : . DPE pepe) ete lol = 2 x ? : a 2p epee elle a] = = = ? ? se i) fea a aoe sfefalele « [+/+] ote ofa lefe] om [|| 5 a ay “fel -/+|-| g zMathematical Reasoning [ 30.27 30.12. TAUTOLOGY A compound statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all possible truth values of its component statements. EXAMPLE : Let p be any statement. Then the statement p v (~ p) is a tautology. P ~p_| py~p T E T FE ia T Contradiction : A compound statement is said to be a contradiction if it is false for all possible truth values of its components. Contradiction is also called a fallacy. value Fallacy : A compound statement is said to be a fallacy if it is false for all truth es of its component statements. EXAMPLE : Let p be a any statement then the statement pa(~p) is a contradiction. P ~P__|patp) 7. id - F <= F 30.13. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE Two or si statements Sj (p,q,r,...) and S> (p,q,r,...) are said to be logically equivalent imply equivalent if their truth values are same for all possible truth values of their components. If statements S; and Sy are equivalent, we write S; =S5 Thus two statements S| and 5) are equivalent if they have same truth values in the last column of the truth table. EXAMPLE : Let Pp be any statement. Then p=~(~p) P aoe ~Cp) T F T FE T E Clearly truth values for p and truth values for ~(~ p) are same. TYPE | Pi not or contradiction or not. roblems based on examining whether a given statement is a tautology or WORKING RULE : cs 4. Construct the truth table of the given statement. | If the given statement has the truth value T for all possible truth vaiues of the component statements (i.e. if the given statement has truth value T in each row of the truth table), then it is a tautology otherwise it is not a tautology If the given statement has the truth value F in each row of the truth table then it is a contradiction otherwise it is not a contradiction. : Negation of a tautology is a contradiction and negation of # contradignon | is a tautolo; : SpeeOs Mathematical 30.28 } on EXAMPLE 1. If p is a statement, show that pV~ p is a tautology, SOLUTION : The truth table for pv ~p is as given below ; (eee ee T F = F if i. Since the truth table for pv ~ p has only T in the last column, therefore Py~p tautology. 7 eae 2 It p is a statement, show that ~[pv(~ p)] is a contradiction, SOLUTION : The truth table for ~[p v(~ p)] is : > ~P | pv(~p) |~[py(~p)} 7 F T Fi F c Taal fr Since the truth contains only F in the last column, therefore, ~[pv(~ contradiction. EXAMPLE 3. If pand q are two statements, then show that (pvq)7(~ p) is a tautology SOLUTION : The truth table for (pvq) v(~ ‘P) is: P)lisa P| 4 [pva] ~p (pyq)v(~p) eel pen eer FE iT pat eee: F a (ce ee iT Pe ereer fe) a Since the last column of the truth table for (pvq)v(~ p) contains T only, therefore, (pv gy v(~ P)is a tautology. EXAMPLE 4. Examine whether the statement pv ~(p aq) is a tautology or not SOLUTION : The truth table of the given statement is as given below : - q PAqd | ~(paq) | pv~(paq) T 7 fr F r T F F T I F if F T I / F F E i T wanes the last column in the truth table Tor PY~(p.q) contains T only therefore, the given statement isa tautology. EXAMPLE 5. Show that (p aq JA~(pvq)isa contradiction. SOLUTION : The truth table for the given Statement is as given below : PY4a| ~(pvq) | (pagy(pvq) 7 F E zr F F T F iE F T Ea = Since the last column in the truth table for therefore, the given statement is a contradic (Prag) a~ (pq) contains F only tionMathematical Reasoning [30.29 EXAMPLE 6, Show that (p aq) v[~(pAq)] is a tautology. SOLUTION : The truth table for the given statement is : P 9 | PAG |~(paq)| (pagy~ (pag) iT: T T F T T id 2 Zr = F > F Z as 2 FE FE 7 7 Since all entries in the last column of the truth table is T, therefore, statement (p Aq) v~(p Aq) is a tautology. Second method : If p Aq has the truth value T, then ~(pAq) has the truth given value F and if p Ag has the truth value F, then ~(p 0 q) has the truth value T, therefore, (pAq)v~(paq) has always the truth value T. Hence (paqga~(paq) is a tautology. EXAMPLE 7. Show that (pq) v(~ p)v(pa~q) is a tautology. SOLUTION : Truth table for (pq) v(~p)V(pa~q) is : P| 4d) ~P|~@| Pag \(paq)y) pa~q | (paq)y &p) (p) v(pa~q) i eee T F a is Ee |e Ro) oT |r F T 7 Beet || eee T F T Fee ter or a F T ~. For all possible truth values of pand q, the compound statement (PAQ)v(~ P)V(pa~q) is true. Hence (p.aq)v(~ p)v(p A~q) is a tautology. EXAMPLE 8 Examine which of the following statements is a tautology and which is a contradiction, @ @pvq)v(pa~q) Gi) [ PAg)Aana~q). SOLUTION : (i) Truth table for (~ pv q) v (p A~q) is : P| @ |~p| ~¢ |~pvalpa~d evan (pa~q) 7 fe ee iT; E T T F fe F i. T F Tae |e Ti i T Fi[rFir{[t T F t . : T only Since the last column in the truth table for (~ p vg) v (p A~4) contains therefore, this statement is a tautology.<= 30.30 ] Mathematica Reasoniy (i) Truth table for [(~ pag) AQ anla~q is : DG rol ~P | ~@ |~pagq| gar |i~pargy Aan) ee) ene |e FE F c F Tere F FE F E Tlritl|e r F F F TlrFfirfr i FE F F Fe ae ok FE iT a iT Eee ean FE a F F Fea Ree E F F Bee ee es F F F Since the last column for the truth table of the given statement [¢ Pag Aan] A~q has only F, therefore, this statement is a Contradiction, TYPE Il Problems based on equivalence of two statements. WORKING RULE : If it is to be examined whether two statements S; and S> are logically equivalent or not, then 1. Construct the truth table for both th tables. 2. The two statements Sjand S_ are logically equivalent iff they have the same truth values for all Possibilities, i.e, iff the truth values in the last column of both the tables are same. e statements in one table or in separate EXAMPLE 9. If p is any statement prove that ~(~ P)=P. SOLUTION : Truth table for p and ~(~p) is : 1 2 3 PB =p ~Cp) T EF T F iT F From columns 1 and ~( p) are same. Hence ~(~ p)= p, | EXAMPLE 10. If pand q are two Statements, prove that | @ ~@vg=ep)acwq) Gi) ~(pagep)v(-a) SOLUTION : (i) Truth table for ~@v4q) and (~p)a(~q) is : and 3 of truth table it is clear that truth values for P aE 3 4 3 of Z Pii4 | ~p | ~g¢ [oval ~@vq | eprcn Tee |e F T F FE Te ere ear T T F F Ee eae ear F z E F F FE T T EF T ee SSMathematical Reasoning [30.31 From columns 6 and 7 of the truth table it is clear that ~(pvq) and (~ p)A(~q) have the same truth values. Hence ~(pv q)=(~p)A(~q) Truth table for ~(p aq) Truth table for ~P v~g P_|_@ | pagq| ~(pag P q |~p | ng |Caven See eaten | aa F eee eee |e F Tl FF T Tl FEL RLT T Fi[TlF T Reed ae sen ne T Pee ber T eee ean T From truth tables for ~(p Aq) and (~ p)v(~q), it is clear that they have the same truth values. Hence ~(p aq)=(~ p)v(~4)- Note : Truth tables for ~(p nq) and (~ p)v(~q) may be made in one table. EXAMPLE 11. Determine which of the following pairs of statements are logically [HOTS] equivalent : @ @p)vq and ~(pvq) Gi) ~Lp v (~a)land (~ p) ag (ii) ~(p v q)and (~ p) nq (iv) pv (~q)and ~ (~ pag) SOLUTION : (i) Truth table for ~(pvq) and ~(pvq) is : 3 4 5 6 ~p_|@p)va| pya |-@yo F T T F T T T T F i T F T From columns 4 and 6 of the truth table, it is clear that the statements (~ p) v4 and ~(p vq) have not the same truth values. Hence (~ p)vq and ~(p vq) are not logically equivalent. 1 mlalals || ala}a}a]s |e 7 (ii) Truth table for ~[pv(@~q)I and (~p) aq is : 3 4 5 6 py(~q) |~(evea) cas T FE ss (p) | ~ E: EF F T T F FL; T ae columns 6 and 7 of the truth table, it is clear that p)aq have the same truth values. Hee [pve pag 7 F F F T T T F Fi “pv ca} and | a]als fo 7” |m|m}alafs CORSE SMATTS NX30.32 J Mathematical Reasoning (ili) Truth table for ~(pvq) and (~p) aq is : 1 2 3 4 5 6 P q ~p PYG |~(Pva)| (~p)ng T T F c E F T F F T F F F T T a F T F F T F i F From columns 5 and 6 of the truth table, it is clear that have not the same truth values. Hence the statements ~(p vq) and (~ p)aq are not logically equivalent Gv) Truth table for pv(~q) and ~[(~p) aq] is : ~(pvq) and pag i 2 3 4 5 6 1 P\q ~P ~4_| Pv(~9)|~paq|~(~paq) Tl T E F T F T T|F F T T F T Flt[r F F T F FF a i T F T From columns 5 and 7 of the truth table, it is clear that the statements p v(~q) and ~[(~ p)q] have the same truth values, Hence PY(~q)=~[(~ p) ag] EXAMPLE 12. Let ¢ denote tautology and P be any statement. Then show that, pvtst {HOTS} SOLUTION : Truth table for Pvt is 1 2 3 Pp t pvt T T T F le T From columns 3 and 2 of the truth the table, it is clear that pvt and 1 have same truth values, Hence pvtst i a hal EXAMPLE 13. Let c denote contradiction and p be any statement. Then prove ! PYc=p. SOLUTION : Truth table for pve is : 1 2 3 PB ¢ pye T E a F F F 7 From columns 3 and 1 of the truth table, it is clear that pyeand p have truth values. Hence pve= p (CBSE-2/MATHS x1)Mathematical Reasoning [ 30.33 EXAMPLE 14. If p,q,r are any three statements, prove that (pva)v viqvr). SOLUTION : The truth table for (pvq)vr and pv(q vr) is as given below : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 4 e PYG gvr_l(pvg)vrl py(@gvr) Tr T i T T T T i T F T T T r F T T T T T i F F T F T T F T T T T ile fT: F T F T T T T F F T F T T T F F F F F F F From columns 6 and 7 of the truth table, it is clear that (pvq)vr and ) PY(qvr) have the same truth values. Hence (pvq)vr= pv(qvn). EXAMPLE 15. If p,q,r are any three statements, then prove that @ (Pagars pagar) Gi) ~((p 0g) A= ~Lpaqgar)] SOLUTION : The truth table for (pAg)ar,pa(gar), ~[M(pag)ar] and ~ PA ar) is: 1[2][3] 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 i P| @ r [Pag] (Pan Gar)|(prg)] Pr |~(pag] ~fpa ar |@an| ar | Gan) tTi[t[ tl Tt T T T T FE F Ti/[T[ F/T F F FE F T T Tlr[ Tt] F FE EF F FE T T TL FI F EF F FE F EF T T F[T[T F T T FE F T i F[T|F F F E F FE T T FlF[T F F F F F T T F[ FF F F F F F T T It is evident from columns 7 and 8 of the truth table that a (pagar pagar) Also from columns 9 and 10 of the truth table, it is clear that (ii) ~Mpagar=~[paqar)] EXAMPLE 16. For any three statements p,q.r prove that @ PA(IVT)=(PAg)V (par) (ii) PY(GAN=(pyga(pyr)| i °° 30.34 J Mathematical Reasoniy SOLUTION : The truth table for pv(q vr) and (pAq)v (par) ig ; 1)21)3 14 5 6 7 8 p | a | 7 javr| pag] par |pa@vnl wage (par) ee Teele ele bee T T T T[tilrFi[rt{ tT F 7 T TlFri[r[tT F it T T Ti[F[FI[F F F F F Fi[rT{[r[7T[r F F FE Reset Eee eee F F F Red eee estes eee eee F F F F[Ff[FfFr F F F F From columns 7 and 8 of the truth table it follows that PAYT)=(pAq)v (par) Similarly, (ii) can be proved. Very Short Answer Type Questions ee eee If p and q are any two true statement, what is the truth value of statement PAG. [Ans. T] 2. If p is any statement and ~ p denotes the negation of p, then what is statement PY~p called ? [Ans. a tautology] 3. Write the negation of the statement pvg. [Ans. ~ pa~q] 4. Write the truth value of the statement ‘Delhi is in England and 2+2=4. [Ans. T] 5. If both statements p and q are false, write the truth value of the statement ‘p>q [Ans. 7) § Write the contrapositive of the statement p = q. (Ans. ~99~ A) 7. Write the converse of the statement p =. fans. 997) 8. Write the truth value of the statement. "If a and b are given integers, then ab an even integers,” (ans. 1 —_— Multiple Choice Questions eee eae Choose the Correct Option : r Whi of the following is not a proposition ? (@) V2 is irrational 3 in x pie ©) 5 ai : y . ii integer (@) Mathematics is interesting sit ioe ie ear an Mathematics is interesting and let q be the prope mathematics is difficult, then the symbe PAq means : (a) mathematics is interesting implies and i implied by mathematics is diffictt (b) mathematics is interesting implies mathematics is difficult. ot tio (CBSE-2/MATHS XI)Fe w wn py 10. Mathematical Reasoning [ 30.35 (c) mathematics is interesting or mathematics is difficult. (d) mathematics is interesting and mathematics is difficult. The contrapositive of (p vq) r is : (a) r> (pvq) (b) ~r> ~(pvq) (c) ~r> (~pa~q) () po(pyr) Let p and q be two propositions then the contrapositive of the implication p—> q Is: @q>p (b) pog ()~q>~p (@d)~pr~q The contrapositive of statement p: If a number is divisible by 9, then it is also divisible by 3 is : (a) if a number is not divisible by 3, then it is also not divisible by 9 (b) if a number is divisible by 3, then it is also divisible by 9 (c) if a number is not divisible by 9, then it is also not divisible by 3 (d) none of the above Let p: All triangles are squares Then which of the following ‘is not the negation of p is : (a) there exists a square which is not a triangle (b) it is false that all triangles are squares ; (c) it is not the case that all triangles are squares (d) there exists a triangle which is not a square Converse of the statement p=>q is : (a) ~9>~p )g =p ()~q=>p Wd)~p>q Opposite of the statement p= q is : (a)~p>~q (b|)~gq>~p (c)q=p (d) none of these If p and q are two statements, then in which of the following case p vq is false : (a) p is true and q is true (b) p is true and q is false (c) p is false and gq is true (d) p is false and q is false Which of the following is true : (a) by contradiction, we can show that a statement is false (b) by contradiction we can show that a statement is true (c) by a counter example we can prove that a statement is true (d) by examples we can show that a statement is true ANSWERS 1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (©) 5. (a) 6 (d) 7. (b) 8 (@) % (d) 10. () ag