CMR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BANGALORE

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

(Scheme: BPHYS102/202& BPHYE102/202)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

PAGE
SI. NO EXPERIMENTS NO.
INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS &
1 LINEAR FIT USING EXCEL 2-5

2 TRANSISTOR CHARCATERISTICS 6-10

3 DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY 11-14

4 MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 15-19

5 DIFFRACTION GRATING 20-23

LCR CIRCUITS - FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN
6 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 24-29

7 NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER 30-31

8 BENDING LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBERS 32

9 DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD 33-36

10 VERIFICATION OF BIOT- SAVART LAW 37

11 PHOTODIODE CHARACTERISTICS 38-42

12 BLACK BOX 43-48

ENERGY GAP OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR
13 49-51
ARDUINO PROGRAMIMG FOR SMART DEVICES –
SOLAR DRIVEN MOTOR
14 52-53
CURVE FITTING USING PHET VIRTUAL LAB
15 SOFTWARE 54-55

16 REFERENCES 56

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
https://www.cmrit.ac.in/departments/department-of-physics/
1
Experiment: 1

INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & LINEAR FIT

USING EXCEL

Part-A

Aim:

a) To measure the thickness of a meter scale using Screw gauge

b) To measure the breadth of a meter scale using Vernier caliper

Apparatus: Screw gauge, Vernier caliper, meter scale

Screw Gauge

Theory

The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring the diameter of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet
of metal. The head of the screw has a ratchet which avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the thimble
there is a circular scale known as head scale which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. When the screw is
worked, the sleeve moves over the pitch scale.

Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution.

The pitch is given by;

Least Count (LC)

The LC of any instrument is the minimum value that it can measure (eg: the LC of a standard wrist watch is
1sec).

The LC is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the screw is turned through 1 division of the
head scale.

The LC of screw gauze is given by:

2
Tabulation: To measure the thickness of a meter scale using Screw gauze

Least count = …………….mm

Zero error = …..div Zero correction = …..div
TR = PSR + (CHSD X LC)
PSR (mm) HSD(div) CHSD(div)
(mm)

Average thickness =

b) Vernier Caliper

Theory

A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. The Vernier
Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external distances accurately. The
main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one edge and in inches at the other
edge. It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws.

Least Count

Total Reading:

Tabulation: To measure the breadth of a meter scale using vernier calliper

Least count = …….cm

TR = MSR + (CVD X LC)

MSR (cm) CVD (div)
(cm)

Average breadth =

Part-B

Aim: a) To measure voltage and frequency with a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) and digital storage
oscilloscope (DSO)
b) Basic understanding of use of bread boards
3
Apparatus: CRO, DSO, breadboard, Signal generator

Measurement of Voltage:

No. of divisions between Peak to peak voltage = NxS

Channel gain along y-axis (S)
crest and trough of a single
(V) (V)
wave along y-axis (N) (units)

Measurement of Frequency:

No. of divisions between Frequency

consecutive crest or Time constant along Time period (f=1/T)
trough along x-axis (N) x-axis (S) [Sec(s)] (T=NxS) [sec(s)]
(units) (Hz)

A breadboard is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. Because the solderless breadboard does
not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary prototypes and
experimenting with circuit design.

Figures shows the layout of a segment of a typical breadboard (fig a) and the wiring diagram of its
backplane (fig b).

In both figures, the top two horizontal rows and the bottom two horizontal rows of the breadboard are
typically used for power busses and ground busses. A bus is simply a node with multiple connection points
all of which are at the same electrical potential or voltage. The rows on the breadboards are typically labeled
with letters (A, B, C,) " while the columns are numbered (1, 5, 10,) " thus allowing specific identification of
each node. Some boards may be marked differently or may be unmarked.
4
PART C: Linear Fit Using Excel

X Y
10 2
20 3
30 4
40 6

50 8
60 10
70 12
80 13
90 14
100 16

Steps to Plot the Graph in the Excel

1. Open a new excel worksheet
2. Enter the values of X variable in column A and Y variable in column B
3. Select the columns A and B by dragging the cursor.
4. Go to INSERT tab on top and choose the scatter chart in the section CHART which is displayed below the tab.
5. Right click on the graph on any one of the points
6. Select Trend line and choose the option " Linear fit " in the display on the right
7.Select Display equation on chart
8. The equation for the best fit line will be displayed on the top right coner of the plot in the fom y=mx+c.
9. Identify and note down the slope from the equation and compare it with the value obtain from the manual plot
result.

5
Experiment: 2

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of the given npn transistor in common emitter
configuration and hence to determine β, α, input resistance and the knee voltage.

APPARATUS: Transistor, variable DC power supplies, micro-ammeter, milli-ammeter, digital voltmeter

and resistor.

INTRODUCTION: The transistor is an active device. A bipolar transistor has three separately doped
regions and two p-n junctions. Typical impurity concentrations in the emitter, base and collector are of the
order of 1019, 1017 & 1015 cm-3 respectively.
There are three modes of operation.
• Forward-active (Base-Emitter Forward Bias, Base-Collector Reverse Bias)
• Cut-off (Base-Emitter Reverse Bias, Base-Collector Reverse Bias)
• Saturation (Base-Emitter Forward Bias, Base-Collector Forward Bias)
When a transistor is in the fully-off state (like an open switch), it is said to be cutoff. Conversely,
when it is fully conductive between emitter and collector (passing as much current through the collector as
the collector power supply and load will allow), it is said to be saturated. These are the two modes of
operation explored thus far in using the transistor as a switch.
However, bipolar transistors don't have to be restricted to these two extreme modes of operation. If
the collector current is greater than zero but less than the maximum allowed by the power supply and load
circuit, the transistor will “throttle” the collector current in a mode somewhere between cutoff and saturation.
This mode of operation is called the active mode.
In active operation mode, input circuit is forward biased and output circuit is reverse biased. In cut-off mode,
both the Input & output circuits are forward biased.
Common emitter configuration: Here emitter is common to both input and output terminals. The basic
amplifying action is produced by transferring the source current from a low to a high resistance circuit.
There are three major types of transistor
• Bipolar junction transistor or BJT
• Metal-oxide field effect transistor or MOSFET
6
• Junction FET or JFET
Amplification: A signal is actually a small variation in input voltage. When a small voltage difference is
given to the input circuit the current IE will be very high because the resistance in the B-E junction (Rin ) is
low. As the base is very thin and doped in a low level it cannot handle this electron flow. Therefore most of
the electrons (almost all the electrons) slip to the collector which means IC ≈ IE . But as mentioned above
the resistance in the B-C junction (Rout) is very high. Therefore the voltage difference in the output circuit
which is equal to ICRout will be greater than the original voltage difference of IERin .

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R _ + K
H mA
µA _
+
33 KΩ AA
IB C IC
+
+ B
VCE
VBB VBE _E VCC
_ npn E

J L

FORMULAE:
I C

I B
Where β is the current gain in the common emitter configuration
ΔIc is the change in collector current in A
ΔIB is the change in base current in A


1 
Where α is the current gain in the common base configuration.
1 V
Input resistance, Rin   BE Ω
Slope I B

7
 NATURE OF GRAPH:

Input characteristics Output characteristics

IC
=
(mA)
A
IB =
(µA)
C B
=

VK
VBE (V) VCE (V)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the circuit connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. To study input characteristics, VCE is set to 2V.
3. VBE is increased from zero to 0.8V in steps mentioned in the table and the corresponding IB values
are noted from micro ammeter.
4. For output characteristics IB is set at 40µA by varying VBE and VCE is varied as given by varying VCC.
5. Corresponding readings of current are noted from milliammeter and this process is repeated for
IB=60 µA and IB=80 µA.
6. Now a graph of IB vs VBE is plotted and input resistance and the knee voltage are calculated.
7. IC vs VCE is plotted and current amplification factors α and β are calculated.

8
TABULAR COLUMN & OBSERVATION:
Input characteristics Output characteristics

VCE=2V constant IB=40µA IB=60µA IB=80µA

VCE
IC IC IC
(V)
VBE IB
(mA) (mA) (mA)
(V) (µA)
0
0
0.05
0.1 0.10
0.2 0.15
0.3 0.20

0.4 0.25

0.5 0.30
0.40
0.55
0.50
0.6
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.7 0.80
0.75 0.90
0.8 1.0

CALCULATIONS:

I C2  I C1
1  
I B2  I B1

I C3  I C2
2  
I B3  I B2

I C3  I C1
3  
I B3  I B1
9
 1   2   3
 
3

 
1 

RESULT:
The input and output characteristics of the given npn transistor in common emitter configuration are
studied.
1. The knee voltage VK is ……………V
2. The value of β ……………………….
3. The value of α …………………….
4. Input resistance Rin ……………..Ω

References:
1. Semiconductor devices, Kannan Kano,1998,PHI,Indian Edn, (page 220 – 228)
2. Basic principles of Electronics,V K Mehta,1988,S Chand Publn, (Page 174-181)
3. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Robert Boylestad, PHI publn,1998, (Page 114 - 128).

10
Experiment: 3

DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY

AIM: To determine the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature of the given metal wire.

APPARATUS: Heating arrangement, copper wire, thermometer and multimeter.

INTRODUCTION:
“Fermi level” is the highest energy level occupied by the valence electrons (free electrons in metals)
at absolute zero temperature. This concept comes from Fermi – Dirac statistics. Electrons are fermions and
by the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle cannot exist in identical energy states. So at absolute zero they pack into
the lowest available energy states and build up a “Fermi sea” of electron energy states. At absolute zero no
electrons have enough energy to occupy any energy levels above the Fermi level. In semiconductors the
Fermi level sits between the valence band and the conduction band. The size of the so called band gap
between Fermi level and the conduction band determines if the metal is a conductor, insulator and
semiconductor.

The concept of the Fermi energy is important for the study of metals, insulators, semiconductors and
in understanding other material properties such as electrical and thermal conductivity. Knowledge of the
Fermi energy of a material allowed deeper study in many areas of science, such as the thermal and electrical
properties of non-conductive materials, like diamonds, electron tunneling and the kinetics of free electrons.
The concept of Fermi energy allowed us to understand more about the interactions of electrons and the
correlation between energy states and physical properties. Both ordinary electrical and thermal processes
involve energies of a small fraction of an electron volt. But the Fermi energies of metals are of the order of
few electron volts. This implies that the vast majority of the electrons cannot receive energy for these
processes because there are no available energy states for them to go to within a fraction of an electron volt
of their present energy. At higher temperatures a certain fraction, characterized by the Fermi function, will
exist above the Fermi level. For a metal, the density of conduction electrons can be implied from the Fermi
energy. The Fermi energy also plays an important role in understanding the mystery of why electrons do not
contribute significantly to the specific heat of solids at ordinary temperatures.

Further, in metals, Fermi energy gives us information about the velocities of the electrons which
participate in ordinary electrical conduction. The Fermi velocity VF of these conduction electrons can be
calculated from the Fermi energy EF using (EF = ½ mvF 2) the relation,

2E F
VF  (1)
m

Where m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg is the mass of electron.

EF is Fermi Energy
11
 VF is Fermi Velocity

This speed is a part of the microscopic Ohm’s Law for electrical conduction. A Fermi gas is a
collection of non-interacting fermions. It is quantum mechanical version of ideal gas. Electrons in metals
and semiconductors can be approximately considered as Fermi gases. The energy distribution of the
fermions in a Fermi gas in thermal equilibrium is determined by their density, the temperature and the set of
available energy states using Fermi-Dirac statistics. It is possible to define a Fermi temperature below which
the gas can be considered degenerate. This temperature depends on the mass of the fermions and the energy.
For metals, the electron gas’s Fermi temperature is generally many thousands of Kelvin, so they can be
considered degenerate. Since energy possessed by the free electrons at thermal equilibrium is directly
depends on T (E = kT), Fermi temperature TF can be obtained by the relation

EF = kTF (2)

Where k = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 is Boltzmann constant.

FORMULAE:
2
 ne 2 πAr 2   ΔR  2
(a) E F    x 
 L (2m)   ΔT 
Where EF is the Fermi energy of the material of the given coil in J
n is the number density of electrons in m-3
m is the mass of electron in kg

e is the charge of the electron in C

A is λF X T

λF is the mean free path of electrons in m

T is the reference temperature of the wire in K

r is the radius of the copper wire in m

L is the length of the copper wire in m

ΔR
is the slope of the straight line obtained by plotting resistance of the
ΔT
metal against absolute temperature of the metal in ΩK-1
2 2
 T   ΔR 
Also, Fermi Energy can be written as, E F  C    
 R   ΔT 
Where, C = constant = 11.22 x 10-19 J and

R is resistance at reference temperature T

12
 (b) TF = EF / k

Where, TF is the Fermi temperature in K

K = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K,

EF is Fermi energy in J

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Thermometer

+ +
- Ω
- Hot water

Copper coil

NATURE OF GRAPH:

R( ) A Slope =

C B

T (K)

13
TABULAR COLUMN:

Temperature Resistance
T ( ºC ) T(K) ( Ω )

85
80
75

70

65

60

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are to be made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Thermometer is immersed in the glass test tube containing copper coil.

3. The water is heated to a temperature around 85 ºC.

4. The value of resistance to be noted from the multimeter at every interval of 5 ºC as the temperature
gradually decreases up to 60 ºC.

5. A graph is drawn taking temperature in kelvin along X-axis & the resistance on Y-axis .The slope
(ΔR/ΔT) of the straight line is calculated.

6. Fermi energy and Fermi temperature are to be calculated using the given formulae.

RESULT:
1. The Fermi energy of the given metal is found to be EF = ………………… J
………………. eV

2. The Fermi temperature of the given metal is TF = ………………………… K

References:

1. Solid State Physics, S O Pillai, New Age International publn, 6th Edn, (page 230-249).
2.University Physics, Hugh D Young, Pearson Education, Eleventh Edition, 1999, (Page 1627- 1629,1708-
1719).
14
Experiment: 4

MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

AIM: To determine the dielectric constant of the dielectric medium present in a parallel plate capacitor by charging
– discharging method.

APPARATUS: 5V DC power supply, digital voltmeter, timer, capacitor and resistor of known values, toggle switch
INTRODUCTION: Relative permittivity of a dielectric medium is commonly known as dielectric constant.
Relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric (Cx), compared to a
similar capacitor that has vacuum as its dielectric (C0).

Relative permittivity is a dimensionless quantity that is in general complex-valued; its real and imaginary
parts are denoted as

A parallel plate condenser is formed by keeping two metallic plates parallel to each other. By applying a
potential across the two plates an electric field is produced inside the space between the two plates. By placing
an electrically insulated material within the plates the capacitance can be increased. The resulting capacitance of
the parallel plate condenser is given by
K 0 A
C
d
Where, C is the capacitance in Farad. K is dielectric constant,  0 is the permittivity 8.85x10-12 Fm-1, A is the area
of the plate and d is the distance between the plates or thickness of the dielectric material.

Charging of Capacitor

As soon as the switch is closed in position 1 (Fig 1) the battery is

connected across the capacitor, current flows and the potential
difference across the capacitor begins to rise but, as more and more
charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current and the rate of
rise of potential difference both fall. Finally no further current will
flow when the p.d. across the capacitor equals that of the supply
voltage Vo. The capacitor is then fully charged.

15
Discharging of Capacitor

As soon as the switch is put in position 2 a 'large' current starts to

flow and the potential difference across the capacitor drops. (Fig 2). As
charge flows from one plate to the other through the resistor the
charge is neutralized and so the current falls and the rate of
decrease of potential difference also falls. Eventually the charge on the
plates is zero and the current and potential difference is also zero - the
capacitor is fully discharged. The value of the resistor does not
affect the final potential difference across the capacitor – only the
time that it takes to reach that value. The bigger the resistor the
longer the time taken.

There are many different types of capacitors ranging from ceramic capacitors to electrolytic capacitors and
silver mica capacitors to various forms of plastic (e.g. polyester) capacitors. Each capacitor type has its own
advantages and disadvantages and therefore the uses of the capacitor can be different. Capacitors are used
in virtually every area of electronics and they perform a variety of different tasks. Capacitors are used for
coupling, decoupling, filters, for power supply smoothing, in low frequency circuits and in high frequency
circuits.

FORMULA:

K =
Where, K is the dielectric constant of the material within the capacitor
d is the thickness of the dielectric material in m
A is the area of the dielectric material in m2
t1/2 is the time taken by the capacitor to charge /discharge to 50% of maximum
voltage in s
is the permittivity of free space in F-m-1
R is the resistance in the circuit in Ω

NATURE OF GRAPH:

Voltage (V)
Charging curve

Discharging curve

t1/2 Time (s)

16
Fig: Charging and discharging curves
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R

100 KΩ

Charging mode +
+ +
C V
5V
- Discharging mode - -
S1

TABULAR COLUMN :

Time Voltage in charging mode Voltage in discharging mode

(s) (V) (V)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100

17
 110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Set the timer to zero by pressing the reset button and short the capacitor so that the voltage across it
is zero.
3. Keep the toggle switch in charging mode and turn on the power supply.
4. Note down the voltage V across the capacitor in the at intervals of 10s till the capacitor is completely
charged (around 200s).
5. After 200s, turn the toggle switch to discharge mode and note down the voltage in intervals of 10s
till the capacitor is completely discharged (around 200s).
6. Draw the charging and discharging curves for the capacitor by plotting the time‘t’ along x-axis and
voltage 'V’ along y-axis.
7. Obtain the value of t1/2 from graph (where charging and discharging curves meet) and calculate ‘K’,
the dielectric constant of the given material using the formula.

Precautions: The electrolytic capacitor has polarities and must be connected properly as indicated in the
circuit diagram.

18
CALCULATIONS:
R= 100 kΩ
d= 0.1 x 10-3 m
t1/2= ………..s
A= 1440 x 10-6 m2
ε0= 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1

K =

K=

RESULT: The dielectric constant of the given dielectric material is _____________.

Reference:
1. Basic Electronics, M.V.N. Rao, Wiley Eastern Publn, 3rd Edn, 1999, (Page 423-428)
2. Solid State Physics, S.O. Pillai, New Age International Publn, 6th Edition, 2006, (Page 625-626)

19
Experiment: 5

DIFFRACTION GRATING

AIM: To determine the wavelength of the Laser light using diffraction grating.

APPARATUS: Diffraction Grating, meter scale, Diode laser

INTRODUCTION: Diffraction is the bending of light waves after they pass through narrow openings (or
around the small obstacles).The diffraction of light wave is possible only when the size of the obstacle is of
the order of wavelength of incident light. The diffraction pattern consists of variation of intensity of the
image being formed.
Laser stands for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”. Laser is a special type of light
source, which emits a light of high monochromaticity, high directionality, high coherence and high intensity.
The emission of laser beam is mainly due to process called stimulated emission. To diffract the laser light,
diffraction gratings are used. A diffraction grating is an optically plane glass plate on which a number of
equidistant parallel lines are ruled.
When a parallel beam of laser light falls normally on the grating, it diffracts at every slit and interference
between these waves gives rise to diffraction pattern with central maxima, I order and II order diffraction as
shown in figure.
RAY DIAGRAM:

Screen

II order (n = 2)

Grating

Central maximum
2x2 2x1
Laser source

II order (n = 2)

20
FORMULAE:

1. λ =

2. d =

x 
3.   tan 1  m 
 S 
Where m is the order of the diffraction
λ is the wavelength of the laser in m
d is the grating constant in m
θ is the angle of diffraction in degree
N is the number of lines per unit length of the grating in m-1
xm is the distance between the central maxima and the mth order in m
S is the distance between the grating and the screen in m

21
TABULAR COLUMN :

1 inch = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m

d= = = ………………. m = …………………. nm

500 LPI grating, S = …..cm

xm
Order 2xm xm θ m = tan-1 λ=
s sin θm
m ( cm ) ( cm ) ( nm )
( degree)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Average λ = nm
PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the experimental set up as shown in the figure, such that the laser source, 500LPI grating and
screen are in the same line.

2. The diffraction pattern of laser light is observed on the screen. Equally spaced light spots are observed.
The total numbers of spots are counted. A central bright ray and consecutive dots of higher order
(which will be of lesser intensity) are observed on the screen.

3. Set the distance between the plane of grating and the screen (S) as 100 cm. For this particular distance,
mark the center of the spots of the diffraction pattern on the screen using a pencil. The distances
between consecutive order of diffraction is measured using a scale and tabulated in table.
4. The distance between the two first orders diffraction spots are measured, 2x1 cm. Similarly the
distance between two second order diffraction spots are measured and recorded in Table, 2x2 cm. This
is continued up to 8th order, 2x8 cm.
x
5. The angles of diffraction for all orders can be calculated using the formula θm = tan-1 m and the
s
respective wavelengths are calculated using a formula λ = and the average value of wave
length is calculated.

22
RESULT: The wave length of the given laser source is ………………..………..nm

Reference:
1. Optics, Ajoy Ghatak, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 3rd Edn,1991, (Page 325-326)
2. An advanced course in Practical Physics, Chattopadyay, Central Publn, 2002, 6th Edn,
(Page 261 – 263)
3. Optics, E. Hecht, Pearson Education 4th Edn, 2002, (Page 476-478)

23
Experiment: 6

LCR CIRCUITS - FORCED OSCILLATIONS IN ELECTRICAL

CIRCUIT

AIM: To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
And to determine the resonant frequency, bandwidth and quality factor

APPARATUS: Signal generator, Inductor, Capacitor, resistor, ammeter

INTRODUCTION:

LCR circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor, connected in series or in
parallel. Resonance in AC circuits implies a special frequency determined by the values of the resistance, capacitance ,
and inductance . For series resonance the condition of resonance is straightforward and it is characterized by
minimum impedance and zero phase. For Parallel resonance , impedance is maximum at resonance.

SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT:

The resonance of a series RLC circuit occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactance are equal in magnitude but
cancel each other because they are 180 degrees apart in phase. The sharp minimum in impedance which occurs is
useful in tuning applications.

In a circuit containing R, L and C connected in series the impedance is given by

1 2
│Z│= R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 Or │Z│= R 2  (L  )
C

The effective reactance is inductive or capacitive depending upon XL >XC or XL<XC. The inductive reactance XL is
directly proportional to the frequency and increases as the frequency increases from zero onwards. The capacitive
reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency, decreases from an infinite value downwards. At certain frequency
both reactances become equal and this frequency is called resonant frequency (fr). At resonant frequency the two
reactances are equal i.e., XL = XC (or) XL - XC = 0.

1 1
Therefore fr = Hz
2 LC

The sharpness of the minimum depends on the value of R and is characterized by the "Q" of the circuit. Q- factor of
LCR circuit is defined as the ratio of energy stored to the energy dissipated across resistance .i.e.

2 f r L 1 L fr
Q=  
R R C f 2  f1

24
 PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT:

Here a coil (L) and capacitor (C) are connected in parallel with an AC power supply. When XL equals XC, the reactive
branch currents are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out each other to give minimum current in the main line.
Since total current is minimum, in this state the total impedance is maximum. The resonant frequency of a parallel
LCR circuit is given by,

1 1 R2
fr =  2 Hz
2 LC L

If (R/L)2 is negligible in comparison to (1/LC) then

1 1
fr = Hz
2 LC

This is same as for series circuit. For parallel LCR circuits, the current at resonance is minimum.
There are many applications for this circuit. An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at a
specific frequency, the resonance frequency. They are used in many different types of oscillator circuit. Another
important application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or television sets, where they are used to select a narrow
range of frequencies from the ambient radio waves. An RLC circuit can be used as a band-pass filter or a band-stop
filter.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Series LCR circuit: Nature of graph:

mA
I max
L I ( mA)
Generator
Signal

C I max
2
330 Ω R

f1 fr f2
f in Hz

25
 Parallel LCR circuit: Nature of graph:

mA
I(mA)

L x
Generator
Signal

C
Imin
330 Ω
R

f1 fr f2 f in Hz

FORMULAE:

1. L =

2. f = f2- f1
1 L
3. Quality factor (Series LCR) (Theoretical) = Q =
(R  r) C

4. Quality factor (Experimental) = Q =

Where, C is the capacitance of the capacitor in F

f is the bandwidth in Hz
r is the internal resistance of the inductor in Ω
L is the inductance of the inductor in H
R is the resistance of the resistor in Ω
fr is the resonant frequency in Hz
f1 is the upper cut off frequency in Hz
f2 is the lower cut off frequency in Hz

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections for series LCR circuit are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The frequency of ac signal is increased in the steps given and corresponding current readings are
tabulated.
3. A plot of frequency v/s current is drawn.
4. From the graph, the resonant frequency (fr) and bandwidth are calculated.
5. The Quality factor (Q) and inductance (L) are calculated using the given formulae.
6. The same procedure is repeated for parallel LCR circuit as well.

26
TABULAR COLUMN :

Series LCR circuit

Frequency (f) Current (I)
( Hz) ( mA)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5100
5200
5300
5400
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000

27
Parallel LCR circuit

Frequency (f) Current (I)

( Hz) ( mA)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
4900
5000
5100
5200
5300
5400
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000

28
RESULT:

The frequency response of series and parallel LCR circuits are studied.

Series LCR Parallel LCR

Inductance H H

Resonant frequency Hz Hz

Bandwidth Hz Hz

Quality factor (graph)

Quality factor (calculation)

References:
1. Electricity & Magnetism, Chattopadhyay, P.C.Rakshit, New Central Publn, 5th Edn, 1998,(Page 345)

2. University Physics, Hugh D Young, Pearson Education, Eleventh Edition, 1999, (Page 114 - 128).
3. 2. An advanced course in Practical Physics, Chattopadyay, Central Publn, 2002, 6th Edn,
(Page 461)

29
Experiment:7

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: To determine the acceptance angle and the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Single strand plastic optical fibers of different core diameter/length, Laser Source, screen

INTRODUCTION: Numerical aperture represents the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber. In optics,
the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of
angles over which the system can accept or emit light. By incorporating index of refraction in its definition,
NA has the property that it is constant for a beam as it goes from one material to another, provided there is
no refractive power at the interface. The exact definition of the term varies slightly between different areas
of optics. Numerical aperture is commonly used in microscopy to describe the acceptance cone of an
objective (and hence its light-gathering ability and resolution), and in fiber optics, in which it describes the
range of angles within which light that is incident on the fiber will be transmitted along it.
n12  n 22
N.A = sin θA = where θA is the angle of acceptance in degree. Here, no is the refractive index of
n0
the medium from which light is entering the fiber , n1 is the refractive index of the core & n2 is the refractive
index of cladding.

FORMULA:

N.A = sin θA

Where D is the diameter of the light spot on the screen

L is the distance between thr optical fiber & the screen
N. A is the numerical aperture of the given optical fiber
θA is the angle of acceptance in degree

RAY DIAGRAM :

30
TABULAR COLUMN:

Tr. Distance from the fiber Diameter of Angle of acceptance Numerical Aperture
no end to the screen, L the spot, D N.A= sin θA
(cm) (cm) deg.
1 0.25
2 0.5
3 0.75
4 1.0
5 1.25
6 1.5
Mean θA = …………. degree ; Mean N.A = …………

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the fiber to the Laser source.

2. Take the other end of the fiber and project the light output on to the screen to obtain a bright
circular spot of size say 5mm.
3. Determine the diameter D of the bright spot and the distance L from the fiber end to the screen
and measure the diameter of the spot (D) and the distance between the screen & the optical
fiber end (L).
D
4. Calculate the acceptance angle using the formula  A  tan 1  
 2L 
5. Numerical aperture is given by N.A = sin.θA
6. Now for the same fiber repeat this procedure for at least four other values of distance L and
calculate the acceptance angle and numerical aperture in each case. Finally take the average of
the four numerical aperture values.
7. Now repeat the above procedure for the remaining fibers.

RESULTS: 1. The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber is ……..

2. The numerical aperture for the given optical fiber is found to be …………..
`

Note: This exercise may be repeated for optical fibers of different diameters. Length of the optical fiber
could be 1m. We used single strand plastic optical fiber (POF) of core diameter 1000µm. µcore = 1.49 -1.59,
µcladding =1.46. This experiment works better for distances L in the range of 0.2mm to 1cm.

References :
Optical fiber communication by John M Senior, Pearson Publication, page no 429, 911, and 912.

31
Experiment: 8

BENDING LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBERS

AIM: To determine the attenuation constant of the given optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Optical fibers of length 1m & 100m, Laser source, small solar panel, Screen

FORMULA:

10 Poutput
The attenuation constant is obtained from   log10 dB/km
L1  L 2 Pinput

RESULT: The attenuation constant is found to be ………..dB/km

Note:

1. This exercise maybe repeated for optical fibers of different length.

2. Replace solar panel with LDR. Find the attenuation constant.

32
Experiment: 9

DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

AIM: To determine the magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying current
using deflection method.
APPARATUS: Circular coil, Power supply, Ammeter , Magnetometer

INTRODUCTION:

Magnetic field Intensity at any point on the axis of a plane circular current loop

Consider a current loop of radius R carrying current I. For the small current element dl subtending an angle
θ, the flux density at P is

dB = dB  Idl sin 


2
4r

  IRd 
dB  dl = R dθ
4r 2

2
 I
B   dB  4 R  d
0
 I
B  aˆ
2R
 I 
H  a
2R

The direction is perpendicular to plane containing dl and the radius vector and in to the page.
33
A vertical circular coil carrying current produces a magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the circle.
The plane of the circle is placed in magnetic meridian so that the magnet experiences a couple twisting it out
of the meridian, while the Earth’s horizontal component of magnetic field BH tends to retain it in the
meridian.

Deflecting couple = BCoil .m. cos

Restoring couple = B H .m. sin 
Here m is the magnetic moment of the magnet of the magnetometer
BCoil .m. cos   BH .m.sin 
H  BH . tan 
B
H  H tan 

nI
H centre 
2r
2rH
Current 
n
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

34
FORMULA:
B H tan 
Magnetic field Intensity, H  (A/m)
o
Where BH is the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field in T
θ is the angle of deflection in the magnetometer in degree
µ0 is the permeability of free space in Hm-1

nIR 2
H Theoretical  3

2 R2  X 2  2

Where H is magnetic field intensity in A/m

n is no of turns in the coil
I is the current through the coil in A
R is the radius of the coil in m
X is the distance from the center of the coil in m

PROCEDURE:

1. The coil is set in magnetic meridian by orienting the plane of the coil parallel to the North-
South direction. Look a little above the coil and rotate the instrument till the coil, magnetic
needle and its image in the mirror lie in same vertical plane.
2. Rotate the magnetometer so that the pointer reads 00-00.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
4. Adjust the current through the coil such that the magnetometer gives a deflection of 600.
5. Adjust the distance as given in the tabular column and note the θ values from the magnetometer.

OBSERVATIONS:

Permeability of free space µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m

Relative permittivity µr = 1 (for Air)

35
 BH
Magnetic field Intensity H  tan 


BH is the Horizontal component of Earth’s field = 0.36 X 10-4 T

TABULAR COLUMN:
Number of turns in the circular coil n =……….
I= ………A Radius R= 7 x 10-2 m

Tr. no Distance from Magnetometer tanƟ BH nIR 2

the center of reading Ɵ H tan  H Theoretical 
0 3
the coil ‘ X’ (deg) 
2 R2  X 2  2

(m)
(A/m) (A/m)

1 0

2 0.02

3 0.04

4 0.06

5 0.08

RESULT: The magnetic field intensity along the axis of a current carrying circular coil is determined for
various distances and the experimental and theoretical values are compared.

36
Experiment: 10

VERIFICATION OF BIOT SAVART LAW

AIM: To verify Biot-Savart law

THEORY:

1
BK 3
R 2
X2 2 
3
log B  log K  log R 2  X 2
2
 
(Slope of logB versus log (R2+X2) is - 3/2.
Intercept is log K)

Number of turns in the circular coil n =……….

I= ………A Radius R= 7 x 10-2 m

Distance
from the
Deflection, Ɵ B = BH tanƟ R2+X2
center of tanƟ log10B log10(R2+X2)
(degree) (T) (m2)
the coil
‘ X’ (m)
0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

RESULT: The slope of logB versus log (R2+X2) graph is …………….. . Hence Biot –Savart
law is verified.
37
Experiment: 11

PHOTODIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To obtain reverse bias characteristics of the given photo-diode and hence to determine its photo
responsivity.
APPARATUS: Photodiode, Light emitting diode (LED), DC regulated power supply, Ammeter,
Voltmeter and connecting wires.
INTRODUCTION: A Photodiode is semiconductor diode (p-n junction) which converts light energy
into electric current. When a photon of sufficient energy (hν > Eg) is incident on the diode, it generates
an electron-hole pair. If electron hole-pairs are generated within the depletion region or one diffusion
length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the
depletion region. This causes separation of charge carriers and generation of photo current.
If the photodiode is short circuited externally, current flows between p and n regions. It is known
as photoconductive mode of operation. The diode is reverse biased for photoconductive operation. On
the other hand, if the diode is left open (unbiased), an externally measurable voltage appears between p
and n region. This is known as photovoltaic mode. This mode of operation is used in solar cells. A
traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode which works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
A semiconductor photodiode is a reverse biased p-n junction. When the reverse bias is applied
across the junction, depletion layer widens as mobile carriers are swept to their respective majority side.
If the depletion region is wider, most of the incident photons are absorbed in this region and hence,
efficiency of the device increases.
The Photodiode has a p-n junction or PIN structure. The P-N junction is made up of a light
sensitive semiconductor. Silicon (190-1100 nm), Germanium (400-1700 nm), Indium Gallium Arsenide
(800-2600 nm), Lead sulphide (1000-3500 nm) etc. are the semiconductors used for making different
types of photodiodes. The photodiode is similar to an LED in construction but its p-n junction is highly
sensitive to light.
The p-i-n diode has wide intrinsic semiconductor layer between p and n region. In this type of
photo diode depletion region is very wide and extends throughout the intrinsic region and hence reverse
bias applied is small, of the order of 5 V.
The photo responsivity of a photodiode is defined as the ratio of the output photocurrent
measured in Ampere to its input optical specified in Lux.
The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI derived unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, measuring luminous
flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen per square meter. In photometry, this is used as a measure of
the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronic devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from
televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be
used. Either type of photo sensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to
respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.

38
p-i-n photo diode: To increase the sensitivity, the depletion region width should be made as large as
possible. This can be achieved in p-i-n photodiode. The p-i-n photodiode consists of a p region and n
region separated by intrinsic region.

FORMULA:
1. R = =

Where I is the current through the photodiode in A

V is the voltage across the photodiode in V
R is the Resistance of the photodiode in reverse bias in Ω

Photocurre nt ( Ampere )
2. Photo responsivity =
Inputoptic alpower ( Lux )

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R
µA
1K

P
V

39
NATURE OF THE GRAPH:

1. Reverse bias characteristic of photo diode 2. Variation of photocurrent with intensity

R = 1/ Slope

= BC/AB

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Keep the light source at a distance of 2 cm from the photodiode.
3. Switch on the light source and vary the reverse bias voltage from 0 to 5V. Note the
corresponding current through the photodiode for each voltage keeping the distance between the
photodiode and the light source constant.
4. Plot current (I) v/s voltage (V) on a graph & determine reverse bias resistance of the photodiode
from the plot.
5. Fix the reverse voltage to 5V and vary the distance between the light source & the photodiode.
6. For each distance (D) note down the current (I) through the photodiode.
7. Plot a graph of reverse current (I) versus input optical intensity in Lux.
8. Calculate the slope of the above graph to obtain photoresponsivity.

40
TABULAR COLUMN:

Reverse bias characteristics:

For fixed distance (D) =…..cm

Applied Reverse
voltage Current
(V ) (μA )
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

Photo responsivity:
For fixed voltage (V) =…….V

Distance (cm) Reverse current ( μA ) Intensity of light(Lux)

1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0

41
RESULT:
Resistance of the photodiode in reverse bias R = …………………….. .

The photo responsivity of the given photodiode is =……………….Ampere/Lux

42
Experiment: 12

BLACK BOX

Aim: To identify various circuit elements –Inductor ( L),Capacitor (C), and Resistor (R) in the given black
box and to determine its their values.

Apparatus Required: Given Black Box, Function Generator, AC voltmeter (0-2 V), AC Ammeter (0-20
mA), connecting wires.

Introduction:

Black box
Black box is a device, system or object which can be viewed in terms of its input, output (or transfer
characteristics) without any knowledge of its internal workings. Its implementation is "opaque" (black).
Almost anything might be referred to as a black box: a transistor, an algorithm, or the human brain.

Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric
current through that conductor. The purpose is to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit.
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor depends mainly on the
length, cross sectional area of the conductor and also the material of which the conductor is made.

Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component which has the ability or “capacity” to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates.
The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic field is called the
Capacitance of the capacitor with the unit of capacitance being the Farad.
Inductor

An inductor is a passive two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in electric current passing
through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through
it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor
changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which opposes the change in current that created it. Inductance is the property
of a conductor by which a change in current flowing through it "induces" a voltage (electromotive force) in
both the conductor itself (self-inductance) and in any nearby conductors (mutual inductance) with the unit
of inductance being the Henry.

Capacitive and Inductive reactance

Reactance is the opposition to current flow in AC circuits only. Like resistance, reactance is also measured
in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X to distinguish it from a purely resistive value. As reactance is a quantity
43
that can also be applied to Inductors as well as Capacitors, when used with capacitors it is more commonly
known as Capacitive Reactance (XC ). Capacitive reactance depends on the capacitance of the capacitor in
Farads as well as the frequency of the AC waveform and the formula used to define capacitive reactance is
given as:

Capacitive Reactance
1 1
XC   Where: F is in Hertz and C is in Farads. 2πf can also be expressed collectively
2fC C
as the Greek letter Omega, ω to denote an angular frequency.

The reactance of an inductor is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is measured in Ohms. Its value can
be found from the formula.

Inductive Reactance
X L  2fL  L

Where: XL is the Inductive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and L is the inductance of the
coil in Henry.

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

From the capacitive reactance formula above, the
capacitive reactance of the capacitor decreases as the
frequency across it increases therefore capacitive
reactance is inversely proportional to frequency. As
the frequency approaches infinity the capacitors
reactance would reduce to zero acting like a perfect
conductor. Also as the frequency increases the current
flowing through the capacitor increases in value
because the rate of voltage change across its plates
increases. However, as the frequency approaches zero
or DC, the capacitors reactance would increase up to
infinity, acting like a very large resistance. Then we
can see that at DC a capacitor has infinite reactance
(open-circuit), at very high frequencies a capacitor has
zero reactance (short-circuit).

44
Inductive Reactance against Frequency

The inductive reactance of an inductor increases as the

frequency across it increases therefore inductive
reactance is proportional to frequency ( XL α ƒ ) as the
back emf generated in the inductor is equal to its
inductance multiplied by the rate of change of current
in the inductor. Also as the frequency increases the
current flowing through the inductor also reduces in
value.

Formulae:
Impedance of Z1 VZ 1
X Z1 
I Z1

Impedance of Z2 VZ 2
X Z2 
IZ2

Impedance of Z3 VZ 3
X Z3 
IZ3

VL2
 r2
Inductance I L2
L
2f

IC
Capacitance C
2fVc

VR
Resistance R
IR

VC is the voltage across the capacitor

VR is the voltage across the resistance

VL is the voltage across the Inductor

45
 Circuit diagram:

Z3

Z2

Z1
mA
A
C D

a. Identifying Inductor/Capacitor/Resistor
Frequency Voltage across the component Impedance of Z1 Impedance of Z2 Impedance of Z3

f (Hz) VZ 1 VZ 2 VZ 3
X Z1  X Z2  X Z3 
I Z1 IZ2 IZ3
Z1 Z2 Z3
Vz1 IZ1 Vz2 IZ2 Vz3 IZ3 ( Ω ) ( Ω ) ( Ω)

( V) ( mA ) (V ) ( mA ) ( V ) ( mA )

1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Xz1 is increasing Xz2 is increasing Xz3 is increasing
with frequency with frequency with frequency
/decreasing with /decreasing with /decreasing with
frequency frequency frequency
/constant. /constant. /constant.
Inference Hence Z1 Hence Z2
is ........... is …………. Hence Z3 is ……..

46
 b. Determining the value of Inductance/Capacitance/Resistance
Frequency Inductance Capacitance Resistance
f (Hz)
VL2 IC VR
 r2 C (F) R (Ω)
L
I L2 (H) 2f .VC IR
2f

1000
2000
3000
4000
5000

Procedure:
Part 1: To identify the circuit elements in the given Black box.

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram. Connect circuit element Z1 in the circuit.
2. Vary the frequency of ac signals from 1kHz in the steps of 1kHz and note down corresponding
current & voltage across the circuit element Z1.
3. Repeat step 3 for circuit elements Z2 and Z3 and find X (Impedance) for all frequencies.
4. If X varies directly with frequency, then the circuit element is Inductor ( XL α f)
If X varies inversely with frequency, then the circuit element is a capacitor (XC α 1/f)
If X is independent of frequency, then the circuit element is a resistor (XR is independent of
frequency)
Part 2: To determine the value of the Inductance, Capacitance & resistance
VL2
 r2
I L2
L
5. Inductance 2f

IC
C
6. Capacitance 2f .VC

VR
R
7. Resistance IR

47
Results:
i) Z1 is _____________ and its value is ______________
ii) Z2 is _____________and its value is _______________
iii) Z3 is _____________and its value is _______________

48
Experiment: 13

ENERGY GAP OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM: To determine the Energy gap of the semiconductor (Thermister)

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Multimeter, thermistor, heater, thermometer, beaker

FORMULA USED:

where,
Eg= Energy gap of given semiconductor in eV
K= Boltzman’s constant, 1.38 X 10-23 Jk-1
S= Slope of the graph

THEORY: Thermisters are made of semiconductors. The variation of resistance (R) of a

thermister with temperature ( T) is given by
R=Ro e (Eg/ /2KT)
+ Eg
Taking log on both the sides

LogR=LogRo+Eg/2KT
The plot of logR versus 1/T must
be a straight line whose slope is
given by

49
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

NATURE OF GRAPH:

50
TABULAR COLUMN:

Resistance
Sl No Temp( °C) Temp (K) log R 1/T ( K-1 )
(Ω)

1 80

2 75

3 70

4 65

5 60

6 55

PROCEDURE:

1. An ohmmeter is connected across the thermistor (Red to Red & Black to Black).
2. Then the thermistor is immersed in hot water which is heated to a temperature of 95°C.
3. Then while cooling, the resistance of the thermistor is noted from Ohmmeter for different
temperatures starting from 90°C till 60°C for every 5°C reduction in temperature.
4. The readings are tabulated. A plot of Log R versus 1/T is made. Slope (S) of the straight
line is determined.
5. The energy gap of the given semiconductor is calculated using the formula.

RESULT:

The energy gap of the given semiconducting material is Eg = …………..eV

51
Experiment: 14

ARDUINO PROGRAMIMG FOR SMART DEVICES – SOLAR DRIVEN MOTOR

Abstract:

Smart devices are those which operate based on the input provided by sensors. Microcontrollers
like ARDUINO are handy devices to integrate Electrical devices and sensors. Open source
software IDE is utilized for this experiment.

Description:

Smart doors, fans, water pumps etc operate under specific inputs from sensors. In this experiment a
motor is made to operate under bright light conditions as detected by a solar panel acting as a
sensor.

Apparatus: ARDUINO 2560 MEGA microcontroller, solar panel, connecting wires

PROGRAM:

The following program turns on the motor whenever bright light is detected by Solar panel.

float potval;
float potpin=A1;
String msg="working" ;

void setup() {
// put your setup code here, to run once:
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);
pinMode(potpin,INPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
}
52
void loop() {
// put your main code here, to run repeatedly:
potval=analogRead(potpin);
Serial.println(potval);
delay(100);
if(potval>1000)
{
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
Serial.println(msg);

}
else
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
}

CIRCUIT:

Result: The motor rotates whenever bright light falls on solar panel.

53
Experiment: 15

CURVE FITTING USING PHET VIRTUAL LAB SOFTWARE

AIM: Curve fitting for given set of points using PhET online module.

THEORY: Curve fitting is one of the most widely used analysis methods to construct a curve or
for the math functions that possess the close proximity to the original data sets. Curve fitting
method examines the relationship between one or more predictors and a response variable, by a
"best fit"; model of the relationship by calculating R2 error. In curve fitting, one can fit curves
using the linear regression method, which is the most common method. In this method we can
include the polynomial terms in the linear models. Polynomial terms are independent variables in
which we can raise to a power, for instance to the power of square or cube.

Most commonly the curve is fitted by the function y=f(x). Here the first degree of polynomial
equation can be considered as: y=ax+b which connects generally two points in the curve as a slope.
If the degree of the order is increased to the second degree polynomial the polynomial equation can
be considered as: y=ax2+bx+c. Similarly for third order.
There are four parameters used to choose a best fit which are:
 Sum of squares due to errors (SSE)
 R square
 Adjusted R square
 Root mean squared error.

SIMULATION:

1. Open the page https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/curve-fitting/latest/curve-fitting_en.html

2. Take points from the basket and place it on the graph of values "x" and "y" given in the
tabular column.
3. Click the options curve, Linear and best fit
4. Find the R2, m and c

I-V characteristics of the Resistor

54
 Table : I-V characteristics
S.No Voltage in Current
Volts in Amps
1 1 0.9
2 3 3.2
3 6 5.4
4 8 7.7

Results : The curve fitting was done for the set of values using PhET and found the best fit values of
R2 and 

55
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Intensity

56