Groups(sequel)

The isomorphism theorems

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 1 / 26

Groups(sequel)

The isomorphism theorems

Proposition
(The fundamental isomorphism theorem)
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then there is an unique
isomorphism
f : G /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ) ,
such that πKer (f ) · f · iIm(f ) = f .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 1 / 26

Groups(sequel)

The isomorphism theorems

Proposition
(The fundamental isomorphism theorem)
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then there is an unique
isomorphism
f : G /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ) ,
such that πKer (f ) · f · iIm(f ) = f .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 1 / 26

Remark
The isomorphism f : G /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ) is the unique application
which makes the following diagram commutative:
f
G −−−−→ T
π↓ ↑i
f
G /Ker (f ) −−−−→ Im(f )

Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then

G /Ker (f ) ∼
= Im(f ) .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 2 / 26

Remark
The isomorphism f : G /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ) is the unique application
which makes the following diagram commutative:
f
G −−−−→ T
π↓ ↑i
f
G /Ker (f ) −−−−→ Im(f )

Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then

G /Ker (f ) ∼
= Im(f ) .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 2 / 26

Proposition
(The first isomorphism theorem)
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a surjective group homomorphism, H E G with
Ker (f ) ⊆ H, and U = (H)f , then G /H ∼ = T /U.

Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and

H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 3 / 26

Proposition
(The first isomorphism theorem)
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a surjective group homomorphism, H E G with
Ker (f ) ⊆ H, and U = (H)f , then G /H ∼ = T /U.

Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and

H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .

Proposition
(The third isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group and K , N E G , with K ⊆ N. Then N/K E G /K and

(G /K )/(N/K ) ∼
= G /N .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 3 / 26

Proposition
(The first isomorphism theorem)
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a surjective group homomorphism, H E G with
Ker (f ) ⊆ H, and U = (H)f , then G /H ∼ = T /U.

Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and

H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .

Proposition
(The third isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group and K , N E G , with K ⊆ N. Then N/K E G /K and

(G /K )/(N/K ) ∼
= G /N .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 3 / 26

Proposition
(The corespondence theorem for groups)
Let (G , ·) be a group, K E G and πK : G −→ G /K the canonical
projection. The function πK establishes then a bijective corespondence
M ←→ M ∗ between the set of subgroups of G which include K and the set
of all subgroups of G /K . Also, for any L, M ≤ G with K ⊆ L, M we have

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 4 / 26

Proposition
(The corespondence theorem for groups)
Let (G , ·) be a group, K E G and πK : G −→ G /K the canonical
projection. The function πK establishes then a bijective corespondence
M ←→ M ∗ between the set of subgroups of G which include K and the set
of all subgroups of G /K . Also, for any L, M ≤ G with K ⊆ L, M we have
1) M ∗ = M/K = (M)πK .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 4 / 26

Proposition
(The corespondence theorem for groups)
Let (G , ·) be a group, K E G and πK : G −→ G /K the canonical
projection. The function πK establishes then a bijective corespondence
M ←→ M ∗ between the set of subgroups of G which include K and the set
of all subgroups of G /K . Also, for any L, M ≤ G with K ⊆ L, M we have
1) M ∗ = M/K = (M)πK .
2) L ⊆ M ⇐⇒ L∗ ⊆ M ∗ , and in this case [M : L] = [M ∗ : L∗ ].

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 4 / 26

Proposition
(The corespondence theorem for groups)
Let (G , ·) be a group, K E G and πK : G −→ G /K the canonical
projection. The function πK establishes then a bijective corespondence
M ←→ M ∗ between the set of subgroups of G which include K and the set
of all subgroups of G /K . Also, for any L, M ≤ G with K ⊆ L, M we have
1) M ∗ = M/K = (M)πK .
2) L ⊆ M ⇐⇒ L∗ ⊆ M ∗ , and in this case [M : L] = [M ∗ : L∗ ].
3) L E M ⇐⇒ L∗ E M ∗ , and in this case M/L ∼ = M ∗ /L∗ .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 4 / 26

Proposition
(The corespondence theorem for groups)
Let (G , ·) be a group, K E G and πK : G −→ G /K the canonical
projection. The function πK establishes then a bijective corespondence
M ←→ M ∗ between the set of subgroups of G which include K and the set
of all subgroups of G /K . Also, for any L, M ≤ G with K ⊆ L, M we have
1) M ∗ = M/K = (M)πK .
2) L ⊆ M ⇐⇒ L∗ ⊆ M ∗ , and in this case [M : L] = [M ∗ : L∗ ].
3) L E M ⇐⇒ L∗ E M ∗ , and in this case M/L ∼ = M ∗ /L∗ .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 4 / 26

Cyclic groups

Proposition
Let (Z, +) be the additive group of the integers, and H ≤ Z. Then there
is a nonnegative integer n ∈ N such that H = nZ.

Remark
Let n ∈ N∗ be a positive integer. Then the binary relations on Z of
congruence modulo n, respectively modulo the subgroup nZ, coincide:

k ≡ l(mod n) ⇐⇒ n|k − l ⇐⇒ k − l ∈ nZ ⇐⇒ k ≡ l(mod nZ) .

Hence, Zn := Z/≡(mod n) = Z/nZ.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 5 / 26

Cyclic groups

Proposition
Let (Z, +) be the additive group of the integers, and H ≤ Z. Then there
is a nonnegative integer n ∈ N such that H = nZ.

Remark
Let n ∈ N∗ be a positive integer. Then the binary relations on Z of
congruence modulo n, respectively modulo the subgroup nZ, coincide:

k ≡ l(mod n) ⇐⇒ n|k − l ⇐⇒ k − l ∈ nZ ⇐⇒ k ≡ l(mod nZ) .

Hence, Zn := Z/≡(mod n) = Z/nZ.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 5 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
with 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
P0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).
with
4) (d)ϕ = n.
d|n

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a cyclic group. Then either G ∼
= Z, or there is a positive
integer n ∈ N∗ such that G ∼ = n
Z .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
P0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).
with
4) (d)ϕ = n.
d|n

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 6 / 26

Direct and semidirect products of groups

Direct products

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 7 / 26

Direct and semidirect products of groups

Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 7 / 26

Direct and semidirect products of groups

Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Proposition
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , then
hk = kh, (∀)h ∈ H, k ∈ K and for any g ∈ G there are unique elements
h ∈ H and k ∈ K such that g = hk.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 7 / 26

Direct and semidirect products of groups

Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Proposition
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , then
hk = kh, (∀)h ∈ H, k ∈ K and for any g ∈ G there are unique elements
h ∈ H and k ∈ K such that g = hk.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 7 / 26

Remark
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 = k2 , with h1 , h2 ∈ H, k1 , k2 ∈ K , then

g1 g2 = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = h1 (k1 h1 )k2 = h1 (h2 k1 )k2 = (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) .

Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by

(h1 , k1 ) · (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )

defines on H × K a structure of a group.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 8 / 26

Remark
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 = k2 , with h1 , h2 ∈ H, k1 , k2 ∈ K , then

g1 g2 = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = h1 (k1 h1 )k2 = h1 (h2 k1 )k2 = (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) .

Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by

(h1 , k1 ) · (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )

defines on H × K a structure of a group.

Definition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. The group defined in the previous
proposition is called the external direct product of the groups H and K .
M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 8 / 26
Remark
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 = k2 , with h1 , h2 ∈ H, k1 , k2 ∈ K , then

g1 g2 = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = h1 (k1 h1 )k2 = h1 (h2 k1 )k2 = (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) .

Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by

(h1 , k1 ) · (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )

defines on H × K a structure of a group.

Definition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. The group defined in the previous
proposition is called the external direct product of the groups H and K .
M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 8 / 26
Proposition
Let (H × K , ·) be the external direct product of the groups (H, ·) and
(K , ·), and H,
b Kb ⊆ H × K the subsets of the cartesian product H × K
defined by
b := H × {1K } = {(h, 1K )| h ∈ H} ,
H
b := {1H } × K = {(1H , k)| k ∈ K } .
K

Then H,
b Kb E H × K, H ∼ b K∼
= H, =Kb, H × K = H
bK b ∩K
b and H b = 1.

Remark
According to the previous proposition, the external direct product
H × K is the internal direct product of the isomorphic copies H b and Kb
of the groups H and K . Consequently, we can identify the notions of
internal and external direct product. If a group (G , ·) is the internal
direct product of its subgroups H, K E G , we write G = H × K and we
shall simply call G the direct product of H and K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 9 / 26

Proposition
Let (H × K , ·) be the external direct product of the groups (H, ·) and
(K , ·), and H,
b Kb ⊆ H × K the subsets of the cartesian product H × K
defined by
b := H × {1K } = {(h, 1K )| h ∈ H} ,
H
b := {1H } × K = {(1H , k)| k ∈ K } .
K

Then H,
b Kb E H × K, H ∼ b K∼
= H, =Kb, H × K = H
bK b ∩K
b and H b = 1.

Remark
According to the previous proposition, the external direct product
H × K is the internal direct product of the isomorphic copies H b and Kb
of the groups H and K . Consequently, we can identify the notions of
internal and external direct product. If a group (G , ·) is the internal
direct product of its subgroups H, K E G , we write G = H × K and we
shall simply call G the direct product of H and K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 9 / 26

We shall generalize the notion of a direct product to arbitrary families of
groups in the following way:
Definition
If {Hi }i∈I is a family
Q of groups, its direct product, denoted ×i∈I Hi is the
cartesian product Hi , endorsed with the binary operation defined by
i∈I

(hi )i∈I · (hi0 )i∈I = (hi hi0 )i∈I .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 10 / 26

We shall generalize the notion of a direct product to arbitrary families of
groups in the following way:
Definition
If {Hi }i∈I is a family
Q of groups, its direct product, denoted ×i∈I Hi is the
cartesian product Hi , endorsed with the binary operation defined by
i∈I

(hi )i∈I · (hi0 )i∈I = (hi hi0 )i∈I .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 10 / 26

The following characterisation of finite direct products is often useful:
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn E G . Then
G = H1 × H2 × . . . × Hn if and only if

G = H 1 H2 . . . Hn ,
(H1 H2 . . . Hi−1 ) ∩ Hi = 1, (∀)i = 2, n .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 11 / 26

The following characterisation of finite direct products is often useful:
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn E G . Then
G = H1 × H2 × . . . × Hn if and only if

G = H 1 H2 . . . Hn ,
(H1 H2 . . . Hi−1 ) ∩ Hi = 1, (∀)i = 2, n .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 11 / 26

Semidirect products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and K E G . A subgroup H ≤ G is called a
complement of the subgroup K in G if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 12 / 26

Semidirect products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and K E G . A subgroup H ≤ G is called a
complement of the subgroup K in G if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 12 / 26

Semidirect products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and K E G . A subgroup H ≤ G is called a
complement of the subgroup K in G if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 12 / 26

Semidirect products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and K E G . A subgroup H ≤ G is called a
complement of the subgroup K in G if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .
3) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 k2 ∈ G , we have

g1 g2 = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = h1 h2 · (h2−1 k1 h2 )k2 .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 12 / 26

Semidirect products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and K E G . A subgroup H ≤ G is called a
complement of the subgroup K in G if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.

Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .
3) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 k2 ∈ G , we have

g1 g2 = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) = h1 h2 · (h2−1 k1 h2 )k2 .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 12 / 26

Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups and ϕ : H −→ Aut(K ) a group
homomorphism. Then the binary operation defined on the cartesian
product H × K by
ϕ
(h1 , k1 ) · (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , (k1 )(h2 ) k2 )

determines on H × K a group structure.

Definition
The group defined in the previous proposition is called the semidirect
product of the group H with the group K via the homomorphism ϕ and is
denoted H nϕ K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 13 / 26

Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups and ϕ : H −→ Aut(K ) a group
homomorphism. Then the binary operation defined on the cartesian
product H × K by
ϕ
(h1 , k1 ) · (h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , (k1 )(h2 ) k2 )

determines on H × K a group structure.

Definition
The group defined in the previous proposition is called the semidirect
product of the group H with the group K via the homomorphism ϕ and is
denoted H nϕ K .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 13 / 26

Remark
Similar to the case of direct products, considering the semidirect product
H nϕ K , the subsets Hb = H × {1K } and K b represent two subgroups
H,
b Kb ≤ H nϕ K , with the properties:

b∼
H = H, b ∼
K = K, H
b E H nϕ K , H nϕ K = H
bKb, b ∩K
H b = 1.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 14 / 26

Group actions

Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and M 6= ∅ a nonempty set. An application
α : G × M −→ M is called a (left) action of G on M if it satisfies the
properties:

1) (gh, m)α = (g , (h, m)α )α , (∀)g , h ∈ G , m ∈ M .

2) (1, m)α = m , (∀)m ∈ M .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 15 / 26

Group actions

Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and M 6= ∅ a nonempty set. An application
α : G × M −→ M is called a (left) action of G on M if it satisfies the
properties:

1) (gh, m)α = (g , (h, m)α )α , (∀)g , h ∈ G , m ∈ M .

2) (1, m)α = m , (∀)m ∈ M .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 15 / 26

Remark
1) If we denote g · m := (g , m)α , the above conditions can be rewritten
as:
1) (gh) · m = g · (h · m) , (∀)g , h ∈ G , m ∈ M .
2) 1 · m = m , (∀)m ∈ M .
2) In a similar way one can define the notion of a right action of a
group on a nonempty set, for which one can prove similar properties to
those we shall prove about left actions. In the sequel we shall only refer
to left actions, which we shall call simply actions.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 16 / 26

Remark
1) If we denote g · m := (g , m)α , the above conditions can be rewritten
as:
1) (gh) · m = g · (h · m) , (∀)g , h ∈ G , m ∈ M .
2) 1 · m = m , (∀)m ∈ M .
2) In a similar way one can define the notion of a right action of a
group on a nonempty set, for which one can prove similar properties to
those we shall prove about left actions. In the sequel we shall only refer
to left actions, which we shall call simply actions.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 16 / 26

Definition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, we define
on M the association relation ∼α with respect to α by
def
x ∼α y ⇐⇒ (∃)g ∈ G : g · x = y .

Proposition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, the
association relation with respect to the action α is an equivalence relation
on M.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 17 / 26

Definition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, we define
on M the association relation ∼α with respect to α by
def
x ∼α y ⇐⇒ (∃)g ∈ G : g · x = y .

Proposition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, the
association relation with respect to the action α is an equivalence relation
on M.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 17 / 26

Definition
The equivalence class of an element x ∈ M with respect to the relation
∼α is called the orbit of the element x with respect to the action α.

Remark
The orbit of an element x ∈ M withe respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is

[x]∼α = {y ∈ M| x ∼α y } = {y ∈ M| (∃)g ∈ G : y = g · x} =
not
= {g · x| g ∈ G } = G · x .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 18 / 26

Definition
The equivalence class of an element x ∈ M with respect to the relation
∼α is called the orbit of the element x with respect to the action α.

Remark
The orbit of an element x ∈ M withe respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is

[x]∼α = {y ∈ M| x ∼α y } = {y ∈ M| (∃)g ∈ G : y = g · x} =
not
= {g · x| g ∈ G } = G · x .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 18 / 26

Definition
The stabilizer of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is the set

StabG (x) := {g ∈ G | g · x = x} .

Proposition
The stabilizer StabG (x) of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M of a group (G , ·) on a set M is a subgroup of the group
G.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 19 / 26

Definition
The stabilizer of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is the set

StabG (x) := {g ∈ G | g · x = x} .

Proposition
The stabilizer StabG (x) of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M of a group (G , ·) on a set M is a subgroup of the group
G.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 19 / 26

Proposition
The cardinal of the orbit of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is equal to the index of the stabilizer of the element:

|G · x| = [G : StabG (x)] .

Corollary
If M is a finite set, and R a representative system of the orbits defined by
the action α : G × M −→ M on M, then
X
|M| = [G : StabG (x)]
x∈R

(the class equation associated to the action α).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 20 / 26

Proposition
The cardinal of the orbit of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is equal to the index of the stabilizer of the element:

|G · x| = [G : StabG (x)] .

Corollary
If M is a finite set, and R a representative system of the orbits defined by
the action α : G × M −→ M on M, then
X
|M| = [G : StabG (x)]
x∈R

(the class equation associated to the action α).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 20 / 26

Definition
If α : G × M −→ M is an action a of a group G on a set M, and g ∈ G ,
we denote by Fix(g ) the set of fixed points with respect to g by the
action α:
Fix(g ) := {x ∈ M| g · x = x} .

Remark
For x ∈ M and g ∈ G we have

x ∈ Fix(g ) ⇐⇒ g · x = x ⇐⇒ g ∈ StabG (x) .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 21 / 26

Definition
If α : G × M −→ M is an action a of a group G on a set M, and g ∈ G ,
we denote by Fix(g ) the set of fixed points with respect to g by the
action α:
Fix(g ) := {x ∈ M| g · x = x} .

Remark
For x ∈ M and g ∈ G we have

x ∈ Fix(g ) ⇐⇒ g · x = x ⇐⇒ g ∈ StabG (x) .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 21 / 26

Proposition
Let α : G × M −→ M be an action of a finite group G on a finite set M.
Then number n of orbits determined by the action α in M is
1 X
n= Fix(g )|
|G |
g ∈G

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 22 / 26

Two structure theorems

Sylow’s theorem

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 23 / 26

Two structure theorems

Sylow’s theorem

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:

(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 23 / 26

Two structure theorems

Sylow’s theorem

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:

(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .

If we denote by π(G ) the set of prime divisors of the order |G | of the

group G ,
π(G ) = {p ∈ N| p − prime, p| |G |}
then G is a p−group if and only if π(G ) = {p }.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 23 / 26

Two structure theorems

Sylow’s theorem

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:

(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .

If we denote by π(G ) the set of prime divisors of the order |G | of the

group G ,
π(G ) = {p ∈ N| p − prime, p| |G |}
then G is a p−group if and only if π(G ) = {p }.
Generally, if π is a set of prime numbers, a finite group (G , ·) is called a
π−group if π(G ) ⊆ π.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 23 / 26

Two structure theorems

Sylow’s theorem

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:

(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .

If we denote by π(G ) the set of prime divisors of the order |G | of the

group G ,
π(G ) = {p ∈ N| p − prime, p| |G |}
then G is a p−group if and only if π(G ) = {p }.
Generally, if π is a set of prime numbers, a finite group (G , ·) is called a
π−group if π(G ) ⊆ π.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 23 / 26

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite subgroup H ≤ G of a group G is called a
p−subgroup of the group G if H is a p−group. Generally, if π is a set of
prime numbers, H is called a π−subgroup of the group G if H is a
π−group.

Definition
If the group G is finite and |G | = p k m, with k, m ∈ N, m 6= 0, p 6 |m, a
p−subgroup H of G is called a p−Sylow subgroup of G if |H| = p k . We
denote by Sylp (G ) the set of p−Sylow subgroups of a group G . Also,
we denote k = vp (G ), so that

Sylp (G ) = {H ≤ G | |H| = p vp (G ) } .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 24 / 26

Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite subgroup H ≤ G of a group G is called a
p−subgroup of the group G if H is a p−group. Generally, if π is a set of
prime numbers, H is called a π−subgroup of the group G if H is a
π−group.

Definition
If the group G is finite and |G | = p k m, with k, m ∈ N, m 6= 0, p 6 |m, a
p−subgroup H of G is called a p−Sylow subgroup of G if |H| = p k . We
denote by Sylp (G ) the set of p−Sylow subgroups of a group G . Also,
we denote k = vp (G ), so that

Sylp (G ) = {H ≤ G | |H| = p vp (G ) } .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 24 / 26

Proposition
Sylow’s theorem
Let (G , ·) be a finite group, and p a prime number. Then the following
properties(traditionally called Sylow’s theorems) hold:
1) If for some k ∈ N, p k | |G |, then the number N(p k ) of subgroups of
order p k of G satisfies the congruence

N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 25 / 26

Proposition
Sylow’s theorem
Let (G , ·) be a finite group, and p a prime number. Then the following
properties(traditionally called Sylow’s theorems) hold:
1) If for some k ∈ N, p k | |G |, then the number N(p k ) of subgroups of
order p k of G satisfies the congruence

N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .

In particular, there are p−subgroups of any order p k , dividing the order

|G | of the group G . In particular, Sylp (G ) 6= ∅.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 25 / 26

Proposition
Sylow’s theorem
Let (G , ·) be a finite group, and p a prime number. Then the following
properties(traditionally called Sylow’s theorems) hold:
1) If for some k ∈ N, p k | |G |, then the number N(p k ) of subgroups of
order p k of G satisfies the congruence

N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .

In particular, there are p−subgroups of any order p k , dividing the order

|G | of the group G . In particular, Sylp (G ) 6= ∅.
2) If P ∈ Sylp (G ), and H is a p−subgroup of G , then there is g ∈ G such
that H ⊆ P g (:= g −1 Pg ). In particular, all p−Sylow subgroups of the
group G are conjugated with each other.

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 25 / 26

Proposition
Sylow’s theorem
Let (G , ·) be a finite group, and p a prime number. Then the following
properties(traditionally called Sylow’s theorems) hold:
1) If for some k ∈ N, p k | |G |, then the number N(p k ) of subgroups of
order p k of G satisfies the congruence

N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .

In particular, there are p−subgroups of any order p k , dividing the order

|G | of the group G . In particular, Sylp (G ) 6= ∅.
2) If P ∈ Sylp (G ), and H is a p−subgroup of G , then there is g ∈ G such
that H ⊆ P g (:= g −1 Pg ). In particular, all p−Sylow subgroups of the
group G are conjugated with each other.
3) If P ∈ Sylp (G ), and np = |Sylp (G )|, then np = [G : NG (P)] and
np ≡ 1(mod p).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 25 / 26

Proposition
Sylow’s theorem
Let (G , ·) be a finite group, and p a prime number. Then the following
properties(traditionally called Sylow’s theorems) hold:
1) If for some k ∈ N, p k | |G |, then the number N(p k ) of subgroups of
order p k of G satisfies the congruence

N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .

In particular, there are p−subgroups of any order p k , dividing the order

|G | of the group G . In particular, Sylp (G ) 6= ∅.
2) If P ∈ Sylp (G ), and H is a p−subgroup of G , then there is g ∈ G such
that H ⊆ P g (:= g −1 Pg ). In particular, all p−Sylow subgroups of the
group G are conjugated with each other.
3) If P ∈ Sylp (G ), and np = |Sylp (G )|, then np = [G : NG (P)] and
np ≡ 1(mod p).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 25 / 26

 The structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that

G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .

(n represents the minimal number of generators of the abelian group G ).

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 26 / 26

 The structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that

G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .

(n represents the minimal number of generators of the abelian group G ).

In particular, if G is a finite abelian group, then there are nonnegative
integers m ∈ N and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2 and
di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that

G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 26 / 26

 The structure theorem for finitely generated abelian groups

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that

G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .

(n represents the minimal number of generators of the abelian group G ).

In particular, if G is a finite abelian group, then there are nonnegative
integers m ∈ N and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2 and
di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that

G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm .

M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 26 / 26