Chapter One
1.1. Definition and concept of terrain and Terrain Analysis
Throughout history, the knowledge and physical effects of terrain have played a dominant role in
the development of society during both peace and war. Knowledge of terrain is extremely
important during all phases and levels of economic, environmental and military planning. The
concept of terrain is developed in response to the characteristics of terrain by an increasing
variety of disciplines concerned with its practical uses. The discipline are both basic science,
such as geology, hydrology, geography, botany, zoology, pedology and meteorology and applied
science, such agriculture, forestry, civil and military engineering, urban and rural landscape
design. The term terrain, long been familiar in military use, now has become popular with
geographers. The following statements describe what terrain is and how it can be identified.
The term terrain is originally considered to be derived from Latin word “terra” which means
piece of earth, ground or land. Similarly, in French, language terrain means piece of ground for
training horses. Based on this consideration, the following definitions are given to the concept.
Terrain is defined by Oxford English Dictionary as “A tract of land or country considered
with regard to its natural features, configuration, etc.
Webster dictionary defines it as “A tract or region of ground immediately under
observation; environment; milieu. In military use it is “An area or ground considered as
to its extent and topography in relation to its use for a specific purpose as for battle or
erection of fortification and as affecting its tactical advantages, fitness for maneuvering,
etc.”
It is also defined as a land area characterized with respect to one or more natural
(physical, biological) characteristics and/or cultural features. Thus, one can easily see that
the term terrain is confined with the surface configuration of the earth and their
corresponding socio-economic attributes.
Generally, the word "terrain" refers to the physical nature of the surface of the earth--namely the
soils, slopes, vegetation, and hydrologic features each of which are subject to the pervasive
influence of climate and weather. Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography,
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referring to the layout of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope and
orientation of terrain features. It affects surface water flow, vegetation growth, soil erosion rate,
soil permeability, and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns.
Most often, the term relief is used as identical to the terrain. However, they have their own
unique characteristics. i.e relief refers to the difference in elevation between two points.
Topography is also another term that is use for referring terrain. Still there is limitation, in
topography so as to identical express terrain. Topography refers to elevation (altitude), slope and
aspects, does not treat other aspects of terrain, as climate, soil, vegetation and so on, in detail.
Terrain analysis:
Analysis refers to separating or breaking up of any whole into its parts so as to find out their
nature, properties, relationship, etc. and is dissolving a resolution of a whole into parts. Or it is
the process of breaking a complex substance into smaller pieces in order to gain a better
understanding.
Hence, terrain analysis involves simplification of the complex phenomena which is the natural
geographic environment. Terrain analysis is the collection, coding, evaluation, and
interpretation of geographic information or the natural and manmade features of the terrain,
combined with other relevant factors, to predict the effect of the terrain on environment,
economic activities and military operations. It is the quantitative analysis of topographic surfaces
(Basso, 2005).
A terrain analysis is the process of analyzing a geographical area to determine the effect of the
natural (elevation, geological process, rivers, etc.) and man-made (urban, industrial, and other
cultural landscape) features on land operation. It includes the influence of climate on these
features. It is an art and science of interpreting the earth’s land forms and predicting their
physical, chemical, or biological characteristics and properties for specific purpose, project or
application. Some of the major elements of emphasis in terrain analysis are: landform, soil,
lithology, hydrology, natural hazards, bed rocks, macro and micro climates, drainage, vegetation,
land use, surface roughness, hydrogeology, erosion, land cover, human impacts, etc.
Terrain analysis is therefore, the process of understanding terrain in terms of attributes i.e
geology, soil, vegetation cover, drainage, slope etc. as a result it involves the process of
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interpreting natural and man-made features of geographic area to determine their effect on
human activities.
Terrain analysis system refers to any system by which information about the physical
environment is collected, analyzed, stored, retrieved, and further synthesized for variety of use
by human, for instance, military commanders in battle planning and subsequent decisions
regarding the conduct of the battles themselves, agricultural purpose, construction of roads and
building or industrial site and settlement. This terrain analysis process can often involves GIS,
remote sensing, computer analysis and visualization, field and aerial photo based techniques are
also used to identify surfecial materials and geomorphic processes with application for
transportation systems, habitant mapping, forestry, mining, etc.
Terrain evaluation:
Evaluation is the act or result expressing the numerical value of judging; concerning the worth
of an object. This term is more inclusive and thus preferable to such terms an analysis,
classification, quantification, assessment, or appraisal.
Terrain evaluation makes use of a wide range of geomorphological techniques and so no single
definitive meaning has been established. In its narrowest definition, terrain evaluation is regarded
as synonyms with mapping of land system, a procedure for classifying the landscape by dividing
it in to land form assemblages with similarities in terrain, soils, vegetation, and geology. Terrain
evaluation is an act of expressing the terrain, studying it and characterizing terrain in terms of
quantified values through a number of assessments. Terrain evaluation is, therefore, a process of
the value judgment or final decision making which involves:
Simplification: describing the complex components of land’s phenomenon which is the
terrain;
classification – the organization of data distinguishing one area from another and
characterizing each and
Appraisal the manipulation, interpretation and assessment of data practical ends.
1.2. Scope and Subject Matter of Terrain Analysis
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All pure sciences that deal with the surface of the earth and applied sciences concerned with
practical application to day-to-day human activities covers the realm of terrain analysis. In
addition, it involves social sciences that deal with human livelihood and activities. Hence, all
geospatial, biophysical and socio-cultural attributes make up the scope of terrain analysis and
land use planning. Terrain analysis and land use planning have relation with those physical and
social sciences that are related with the study of land and land attributes. Some of the related
fields of terrain analysis and LUP in physical science include geomorphology, climatology,
geology, hydrology, biology, geophysics, geochemistry, land trap architecture, ecology, etc.
those social sciences that provide important information for land use planning are economics,
management, sociology, social anthropology and political science. Thus the scope of terrain
analysis is very broad aspect depending on wide range of contents taken from both physical and
social sciences.
The subject matter of terrain analysis and land use planning is simply assessing the potential of
land and putting it for the optimum use based on data gathered on suitability of the land for
specific uses. Therefore, terrain analysis is interdisciplinary in nature which is included under the
topics of and encompasses the topics when it stands alone, the so many issues.
It involves the issue of soil fertility, soil manageability and vegetation or land cover with creates
strong linkage between agriculturalist and terrain analysis. It also integrated with civil and
construction engineering since it involves a number of terrain analysis such as slope soil nature
climate and etc., for the activities like excavation for building, roads, railways, dams, bridge and
canals. Military sciences as well, have strong relation with terrain analysis and evaluation since
suitability analysis for fortification, attacking and defending enemy is basic part of military
operation. Moreover, meteorology and climatology is important instrument for the terrain
analysis for they involve analysis of the effect of terrain on weather and climate. Similarly terrain
parameters are prone to modification because of climatic conditions. It is also important to
consider drainage pattern, drainage density, flow and nature and direction of rivers and stream,
frequency and order of stream and hence its forms strong bondage with hydrology.
Furthermore, terrain analysis cannot be done without mapping, describing and delineating
geographic features. Thus, cartography is instrumental so as conduct investigation of terrain
characteristics where map makers are required to have advanced skill in recognizing and
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interpreting terrain and natural slope processes from both GIS, remote sensed data and field
work.
1.2.1. Significance of Terrain Analysis
An understanding of terrain is helpful for various environmental, economic and military
activities such as:
The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter,
alluvial plains tend to have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.
In terms of environmental quality, agriculture and hydrology, understanding the terrain of
an area enables the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics,
water movement, and impacts on water quality. Complex arrays of relief data are used as
input parameters for hydrology transport models to allow prediction of river water
quality.
Understanding terrain also supports on soil conservation, especially in agriculture.
Contour plowing is an established practice enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping
land; it is the practice of plowing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a
slope.
Terrain is militarily critical because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and
hold areas, and move troops and material into and through areas. An understanding of
terrain is basic to both defensive and offensive strategy.
Terrain is important in determining weather patterns. Two areas geographically close to
each other may differ radically in precipitation levels or timing because of elevation
differences or a "rain shadow" effect.
Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in aviation, especially for low-flying routes and
maneuvers and airport altitudes.
Terrain will also affect range and performance of radars and terrestrial radio navigation
systems.
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Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous terrain may strongly impact the implementation of a new
aerodrome and the orientation of its runways.
1.3. Terrain Data Types and Sources
There are varieties of sources for terrain data. These are:
Direct survey: surveying helps to determine acutely the terrestrial or three-dimensional position
of points and the distances and angels between the points using leveling instruments such as
theodolite and clinometers. Although remote sensing has greatly speeded up the process of
gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct
survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic works.
Maps: hard print maps can also be important source of terrain information. Topographic map
may provide detail composition and configuration of land forms which can be identified based
on the arrangement of contour lines.
Remote sensing: it is general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area.
Remote sensing data including those derived from aerial photographs are used for terrain
evaluation and landform studies. Remote sensing images are used for the study of fluvial land
forms, rock types, geological, status, land cover, steam order and network and soil erosion. In
addition to this photogrammetry, satellite image and radar are used as source of information for
terrain analysis.
1.4. Identification methods of terrain features
1.4.1. Satellite image
Satellite images are like maps: they are full of useful and interesting information, provided
people with more detain about earth’s surface. Satellite image is most important thing to identify
the places that are familiar to you: the home, school, or place of business; a favorite park or
tourist attraction; or a natural feature like a lake, river, or mountain ridge. Satellite systems that
return images from orbit are designed to produce many different kinds of Earth imagery. Some
of these differences are related to the type of orbit the satellite system is using while scanning the
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surface. There are two distinctively different types of orbits: the polar orbit and the
geostationary orbit (sometimes called a geosynchronous orbit), each with a different purpose.
Polar orbits circle Earth approximately from pole to pole and use the movement of Earth as it
turns on its axis to image small areas (perhaps 100 X 100 km) to gain good detail of the surface.
This orbital technique yields nearly full Earth coverage in a mosaic of images, and the satellite
travels over the same region every few days, always at the same local time.
Geostationary orbits are used with satellites orbiting above the equator at a speed that is
synchronized with Earth rotation so that the satellite can image the same location continuously.
Many weather satellites use this orbit at a height that will permit imaging an entire hemisphere
of Earth.
Types of Imagery
The type of image are; Radar, TIR, NIR and normal color photos. Common on satellites,
multispectral scanners produce digital images by sensing many kinds of energy simultaneously
that are relayed to receiving stations to be stored as separate image files. Although the colors are
visually important, the greatest benefit of digital multispectral imagery is that computers can be
used to identify, classify, and map these kinds of areas automatically, based on color and tone
differences.
Satellite Images: Most common method currently for identifying land features. Black &
white, infrared black & white, natural color, infrared color, and various combinations exist in
satellite imagery. Colors recorded by color infrared film are not true colors, but false colors. This
is because they cut out all or part of the visible spectrum. In false colors, green plants are red and
clear water is black.
Electronic scanning images: This method records selected parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. A common example is SLAR (side looking airborne radar), where a radar beam is sent
to the ground at a perpendicular angle, which then reflects off the surface, and is recorded by a
scanner on the aircraft.
Aerial Photograph images: are photographs were taken by a camera shooting straight down
(vertical photographs) from airplanes and because they have low distortion, they were useful for
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extracting data. Oblique aerial photos are good for illustrations, but are distorted. Typically, one
views a set of overlapping aerial photographs with a stereoscope to see it in 3- dimension.
Satellite RADAR mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation
Models. Similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine the
terrain of the ocean floor. These include Doppler radar, which can determine precipitation
patterns, direction of movement, and how fast a storm is approaching (much as police radar
measures vehicle speed).
In recent years, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), a remote sensing technique that uses a
laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as
charting canopies and monitoring glaciers.
1.4.2. Aerial Photographs
Aerial photographs have been used for many years as a source of preliminary terrain
information for planning purposes such as route location, site selection, forest inventory, and
soils mapping. Aerial photography, technique of photographing the Earth's surface or features of
its atmosphere or hydrosphere with cameras mounted on aircraft, rockets, or Earth-orbiting
satellites and other spacecraft. Aerial photography typically refers specifically to bird's-eye
view images that focus on landscapes and surface objects. Both air photos and digital images
may be oblique, taken at an angle other than perpendicular to Earth’s surface, or vertical.
Aerial photographs have been of distinct value in acquiring terrain information in restricted or
difficult to get to areas, such as found in the arctic or in heavily forested mountain areas. Then
too, the military needs terrain information for field operations and is heavily reliant on remote
sensor imagery as a source for this information. The first step in producing a topographic map is
acquiring aerial photographs of the area being mapped. An airplane with specialized built up
camera collects information about the surface of the earth. A pair of aerial photographs--each
showing the same ground area taken from a different position along the flight line--is viewed
through an instrument called a stereoscope, producing a three-dimensional view of the terrain
from which a cartographer can draw a topographic map.
Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co-ordinates of the points in 3D of
an object are determined by the measurements made in two photographic images (or more) taken
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starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight.
Digital cameras or image scanners produce a digital image—an image that is converted into
numerical data. Most images returned from space are digital, because digital data can be easily
broadcast back to Earth. Digital imagery also offers the advantage of computer-assisted data
processing, image enhancement, interpretation, and image sharing, and can provide a landscape
image as a thematic layer in a GIS. Every aspect of the aerial photography process requires
precision and meticulous planning.
Specialized cameras are used to meet the exacting geometry needed to faithfully reproduce the
stereoscopic model. Such a camera can cost more than $250,000.
To ensure that all NAPP (National Aerial Photography Program) photographs are at a scale of
1:40,000, NAPP flights are flown at a consistent altitude above the terrain.
Photographs must be taken when the sky is clear and with the Sun at the proper angle for the
type of ground being photographed.
Even seasonal factors must be considered. In an area of hardwood forest, for
example, it is usually best to take the photographs when leaves are off the trees so that terrain
features are more clearly visible.
Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial & satellite imagery can be used to identify and
delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly, they have become
more and more a part of geovisualization, whether maps or GIS systems. False-color and non-
visible spectra imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and
other land-use information more clearly.
1.4.3. Topographic maps
Topographic map is a detailed and accurate illustration of natural and man-made features on the
ground. It depict one or more natural and cultural features of an area such as water bodies, rivers,
lakes, forest areas, urban and settlement areas, roads, railways, power transmission lines,
contours, elevations etc. It is a two-dimensional representation of the earth’s three-dimensional
landscapes. Colors, classes of features, lines, symbols, letters, numbers, and map scale are major
elements of topographic map construction. This topographical maps show elevation of earth’s
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surface by means of contour lines. Contents of topographical maps depend on purpose of a map,
scale of a map, date of compilation, and nature of the land represented.
The wide range of information provided by topographic maps make them extremely useful to
professional and recreational map users alike. Topographic maps are used for engineering,
energy exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental management, public works
design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor activities like hiking, camping, and
fishing. A vast storehouse of information about the relief and the terrain can be interpreted from
these maps by understanding the spacing and configuration of contours. Contour lines are the
greatest distinguishing feature of a topographic map. Contour lines are lines drawn on a map
connecting places having equal elevation on the ground surface above a datum or mean seas
level, meaning if you physically followed a contour line, the elevation would remain constant.
For example, elevations of mountains and valleys, steepness of slopes, and the direction of
stream flow can be determined by studying a topographic map. In addition to contour lines,
many standard symbols are used on topographic maps to represent mapped features, data, and
information. Contour lines show elevation and the shape of the terrain. They’re useful because
they illustrate the shape of the land surface (topography) on the map. Contour lines are an
excellent means for showing the elevation changes and the form of the land surface on a map.
The arrangement, spacing, and shapes of the contours give a map reader a mental image of what
the topography (the “lay of the land”) is like. The elevation difference represented by adjacent
contour lines depends on the map scale and the relief in the mapped area, and is called the
contour interval. An index contour line has the elevation written on it and is usually darker than
all other contour lines.
It is good practice to note both the map scale and the contour interval when first examining a
topographic map. Keep in mind several important rules when interpreting contours: Closely
spaced contours indicate a steep slope, and widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope.
Evenly spaced contours indicate a uniform slope. Closed contour lines represent a hill or a
depression. Contour lines never cross but may converge along a vertical cliff, waterfalls, and
hanging cliffs. Contour line numbered in the direction towards which altitude increases. A
contour line will bend upstream when it crosses a valley.
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1.4.4. Ground Survey
Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points
and the distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites,
dumpy levels and clinometers.
Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has
allowed greater accuracy control over long distances, the direct survey still provides the basic
control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS-based
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