Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

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Journal of Building Engineering

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A comprehensive study on Controlled Low Strength Material

Suraj Kumar Parhi, Saswat Dwibedy, Soumyaranjan Panda,
Saubhagya Kumar Panigrahi *
Department of Civil Engineering, VSSUT Burla, Sambalpur, Odisha, 768018, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM) is a unique and versatile material that has gained
CLSM significant attention in various engineering applications. This study presents a comprehensive
Waste-resources overview of CLSM, covering its evolution, properties, factors influencing its production and
Plastic and in-service properties properties, mix design approach, and its wide-ranging applications. CLSM has been popularized
Mix-proportioning due to its cost-effectiveness and superior performance comparison to conventional compacted
CLSM applications
fills. This study discusses the key characteristics of CLSM, including its plastic and in-service
properties. The influence of various constituents, such as cementitious materials, aggregates,
water, and additives, on the fresh and hardened properties of CLSM is thoroughly analyzed. The
influence of curing time and temperature on the strength development of CLSM is also high­
lighted. The low strength and greater flowability characteristics of CLSM create possibilities for
sustainable utilization of various waste resources which possess environmental issues due to their
exponential growth. An in-depth exploration of the mix design approach for CLSM is presented,
considering the desired engineering properties and specific requirements. This paper also delves
into the wide range of applications where CLSM has been successfully employed. Certain limi­
tations and future scopes of CLSM have been highlighted. In summary, this comprehensive review
provides a valuable resource for engineers, researchers, and practitioners seeking a thorough
understanding of Controlled Low Strength Material.

1. Introduction
The quality of a concrete mix depends largely upon the proper characterization of the material and properties such as workability,
strength, and durability [1–5]. Among all the characteristics strength is regarded as the most important criterion of a concrete mix
[6–8]. As per Indian standard, code IS 456:2000 [9] concrete has been grouped into different categories such as high strength, medium
strength, or standard and ordinary concrete according to the attainability of strength. Concrete having characteristic strength less or
equal to 20 MPa has been established as an ordinary type and can be classified as low-strength concrete [9]. There are various types of
low-strength concrete mix among them CLSM is a weak flowable binding mix adopted for different structural and non-structural
construction work [10]. As per ACI 229R [11], CLSM is specified as a self-consolidating and highly flowable binding material pri­
marily used as a backfill. Controlled density fill material, flowable mortar, flowable fill material, soil-cement slurry material, and
plastic soil-cement material are some of the nomenclature used to describe CLSM, and also commercial names like S-Crete, K-Crete,
and M-Crete are used for the description of CLSM [12]. The extensive application and inherent benefits of CLSM have acquired
increased recognition in infrastructural development. Chemical stability, re-excavatability, and sufficient flowability are some of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: skpanigrahi_ce@[Link] (S.K. Panigrahi).

[Link]
Received 26 April 2023; Received in revised form 4 June 2023; Accepted 12 June 2023
Available online 24 June 2023
2352-7102/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

commonly designed properties of CLSM [11]. A conventional CLSM consists of pozzolanic cementitious material, fine aggregate, and
water. Given sustainable development and the requirement of low strength and stiffness material for CLSMs; the use of low-cost,
energy-saving green materials which have bounty availability in the environment is encouraged as an alternative for industrialized
binders and non-renewable resources [13]. Geo-materials such as industrial by-products, waste resources, granular materials, high
plasticity, and low plasticity soil are incorporated for the production of CLSM. Fig. 1 represents different materials used for the
production of CLSM. Self-leveling phenomena and shorter time of construction provide several advantages including reduced labor
cost, ease of placement, and the need for reduced construction equipment [14]. It has to be ensured that produced CLSM must contain
certain specified flow properties and mechanical properties so that it can be used for a broad range of applications. An unconfined
mechanical strength range of less than 100 psi (0.7 MPa) to a maximum of 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) is appropriate for various purposes and a
flow of 200–300 mm should be appropriate for the backfilling purpose of CLSM [11].
Low strength characteristics and low-cost requirements for the production of CLSM have attracted a lot of researchers to manu­
facture environment-friendly CLSM. Utilization of a large variety of materials in CLSM affects the critical properties of CLSM and as
such no accepted design mix procedure is available for CLSM. The current manuscript presents an exhaustive review of CLSM in which
detailed documentation of various properties of CLSM, factors affecting production and properties of CLSM, approach towards mix
proportioning of CLSM, and its application has been tried to achieve.

Fig. 1. Materials used for CLSM production.

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1.1. Research significance and essence of manuscript

The requirement of low-quality ingredients for the creation of CLSM and its extensive implementation has generated curiosity
among researchers. Many researchers [15–22] have produced CLSM with waste resources and industrial by-products as a replacement
for cement and fine aggregates to support sustainability along with its versatile application. Although the research work on CLSM was
carried out in the last few decades, at present limited studies are available on the controlling factors for its production and charac­
teristics development. Many authors [23–25] have tried to review the properties and applications of CLSM through scanty research
findings. The currently available review studies [23–29] have done impeccable work on different aspects of CLSM such as its prop­
erties, application, and utilization of waste material. Most of the studies have focused on upcycling of waste resources through CLSM
production and some have given an overview of different properties and their influencing factor. Available studies lack systematic
discussion and the primary factors responsible for the CLSM property enrichment are not identified. The huge applications and various
important properties were not completely discussed. Although many studies on CLSM were carried out, no particular mix design was
proposed by the review works so far.
The essence of this manuscript lies in its thorough examination of various aspects related to CLSM. Firstly, the evolution of CLSM is
traced, highlighting its development from a mere alternative backfill material to a well-defined engineered fill material. Understanding
the historical progression of CLSM helps in recognizing the advancements made in its composition and performance, setting the stage
for its broader application. The manuscript also addresses the properties of CLSM, which are crucial for assessing its suitability and
performance in different applications. By discussing characteristics such as fresh and in-service properties, the research provides a
comprehensive overview of CLSM’s key properties. This understanding is fundamental to utilizing CLSM effectively and making
informed decisions in engineering projects. Furthermore, the research focuses on factors influencing the production and properties of
CLSM. By analyzing the impact of constituents such as cementitious materials, aggregates, water, and admixtures, the manuscript
sheds light on the variables that can be controlled to achieve desired CLSM characteristics. Factors like curing temperature and hu­
midity conditions, and their effects on CLSM production are explored, providing practical insights for optimizing its manufacturing
process. The manuscript also delves into the mix design approach for CLSM, which is critical for tailoring the material to specific
project requirements. By considering factors such as mix proportions, target compressive strength, and optimization techniques, the
research compares previous mix-proportioning approaches and offers a systematic methodology for designing CLSM mixes, ensuring
optimal performance in various applications. The manuscript explores the wide range of applications where CLSM has demonstrated
its efficacy. The discussion of environmental benefits associated with CLSM usage further emphasizes its sustainable qualities. This
manuscript also emphasizes the limitations and future scope of CLSM studies.

2. History and evolution of CLSM

Soil cement is generally used in slope protection, pipe bedding, and road construction for reinforcing the sub-base layer to protect

Fig. 2. Defining properties of CLSM.

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

the subgrade [20]. Compacted fill of cohesive soil is also utilized to raise the grade of the structure by applying it underneath the
foundation [30]. As compaction generally changes the physical property of soil so it enabled the compacted fill to be used in foun­
dations, embankments, and as backfill [31]. Both Soil cement and compacted fill need high ramming or compaction to achieve
appropriate strength properties but these materials show less success for various applications like pipe bedding where space is
confined, and achieving compaction in those places becomes tough. Some of these issues gave the emergence of CLSM. The preliminary
application of CLSM can be dated to 1964 in the project of the Canadian River Aqueduct. In the said project the 515 km pipeline
bedding work was made with CLSM [32]. In the late 1970s, Detroit Edison Company with Kuhlman Corporation utilized fly ash (FA)
and concrete batching technologies to prepare a substitute for compacted granular fill called flowable FA [33,34,34]. In 1974 K-Krete
Inc. organized and developed a typical K-Krete mixture consisting of cement, fly ash, filler material, and water [35]. The compressive
strength of the K-Krete mix ranged between 100 and 1600 psi (0.7 MPa–11 MPa) and that of permeability ranged between 0.001 and
0.00003 ft/min [36]. Finally, the patents of mix design, bedding of pipe, backfill technique, and construction of dike were ceded to the
National Ready Mix Concrete Association (NRMCA) [35,37]. Absence of an incorporated source and dispersing information created
hesitance in the engineering community about the utilization of these materials. In 1984 ACI Committee 229 was initiated as a
response to Brewer’s proposal entitled “Controlled Low-Strength Materials (CLSM)” and the report was made public in 1994 [11]. The
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in the year 1998 issued a book entitled “The Design and Application of Controlled
Low-Strength Materials (flowable fill)” containing CLSM production in the laboratory and the field [38].

3. Brief description of CLSM properties

CLSM having huge applications needs to fulfill essential characteristics in the fresh and hardened state. It can be affirmed that the
properties of CLSM are in a transborder state between the properties of soil and concrete. The plastic (fresh) and in-service (hardened)
characteristics are two primary classified CLSM properties. These detailed properties are explained (Fig. 2) in the following subsection.

3.1. Plastic properties

CLSM should possess satisfactory plastic characteristics i.e., it should possess high flowability, less bleeding, segregation, and
shorter stiffening/hardening time, etc. Due to some specific applications of the CLSM mix in its placing and transportation, a thorough
understanding of these properties is quite important. Common practice as that of concrete is adopted for testing the plastic properties
of CLSM as it is comparable with fresh concrete properties. Different plastic properties of CLSM are elaborated on in the following
section.

3.1.1. Flowability: A plastic characteristic

Flowability commonly known as the degree of being flowable is an important plastic characteristic of CLSM and this property
separates CLSM from other such materials. The primary requirement of CLSM is that it should flow with ease while placing without
segregation which enables CLSM to be self-consolidating and self-leveling. Expression of flowability generally varied from stiff to fluid
depending on the required application and it can be tested using an open-ended cylinder of size 75 × 100 mm as per ASTM D6103 [39],
using a slump cone as per ASTM C143/C143 M [40], and flow cone as per ASTM C939/C939 M [41]. According to ACI, guidelines [11]
ranges of flowability include low flowability (<150 mm), normal flowability (150–200 mm), and high flowability (200–300 mm). The
high flowable CLSM has got a maximum value of 300 mm and is particularized for high flowability as more flow than this will cause
segregation on placing. The CLSM mix water content holds a significant part regarding flowability.

3.1.2. Segregation and bleeding: A plastic characteristic

According to Roussel [42], cementitious materials are multiphasic materials with each component having a different density so
gravity acts differently on each component and makes disturbances to its homogeneity. Gravity-induced heterogeneity can be clas­
sified into segregation and bleeding in the cementitious material system. Segregation is generally induced by gravity in the state of rest
and by shear force during flow [43] and is commonly termed the separation of same-sized aggregate from cementitious material.
Bleeding is another form of segregation and it is defined as the migration of water to the surface while racking of particles at the
bottom. It is because the fresh mix is not able to hold the water during the hardening process [44]. Segregation in CLSM is measured by
bleeding or identified by stratification in the samples. CLSM with high consistency usually shows segregation. Segregation of CLSM
tested following ASTM C1610/C1610 M [45]. Segregation is less than 15% and bleeding less than 5% is preferred in CLSM. As per ACI
guidelines to achieve highly flowable CLSM without segregation adequate round shapes fines such as fly ash or slag are required to
impart stability and appropriate suspension of aggregate while the use of plastic fines should be avoided.

3.1.3. Subsidence: A plastic characteristic

Subsidence is defined as the volume reduction due to the own-weight or CLSM mix consolidation due to the contained water release
and entrapped air. Subsidence happens during the CLSM transportation and placement. The degree of subsidence depends on the
quantity of released water and the types of the aggregate present in the CLSM mix [11]. Subsidence of CLSM tested as per ASTM
D6024/D6024 M [46]. An indent diameter of less than 7.6 cm is preferred when the subsidence of CLSM is being tested. Lower water
content CLSM mix exhibits less subsidence. McLaren and Balsamo [47] reported subsidence of 1–2 mm per meter of depth, in high
water content CLSM mix.

3.1.4. Setting/hardening/stiffening time: A plastic characteristic

The hardening time of CLSM is defined as the tentative time required to achieve a hardened state with the necessary strength to

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manage at least the self-weight of a person from the initial fluid stage [11]. Important parameters such as type and quantity of binder,
the shape of aggregate, absorption, permeability, moisture content of CLSM, humidity, and depth of fill affect the hardening time of
CLSM. It is evaluated as per ASTM C403/C403 M [48] and it should be less than 12 h. Hardening time usually takes less than 5 h for low
flowability mix under normal conditions [49]. Hardening of CLSM also depends on the mix fineness and coarser grain size induces
rapid hardening.

3.1.5. Pumpability: A plastic characteristic

The pumpability of CLSM can be described in terms of the consistency and cohesiveness of the mix. CLSM is placed using con­
ventional concrete pumping equipment. Proportioning of CLSM mix, water/binder ratio, statical stability of mix, and settlement are
critical characteristics for pumpability. The flow of CLSM should be consistent as the interrupted flow can cause segregation, flow
restriction, and line blockage, ultimately affecting pumpability [11]. High-flowable mixes are easily pumpable while low-flowable
mixes require more pumping pressure. CLSM with high entrained air is required to be pumped with low pressure. Admixtures such
as fly ash can act as micro-aggregate in CLSM mix and fill the void providing more cohesiveness and improving pumpability [50].
CLSM with a slump as low as 50 mm can be pumped using conventional pumping equipment [51].

3.2. In-service properties

CLSM after hardening, when used for different applications, undergoes some behavioral changes which can be related to the in-
service characteristics of CLSM. The in-service or hardened properties of CLSM can be compared with that of soil and concrete.
Discrete in-service properties of CLSM have been described as carrying a complete understanding of the material.

3.2.1. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS): An in-service characteristic

The CLSM carrying capability is expressed in terms of its compressive strength. The compressive strength of CLSM depends on
factors like types and amount of binder, water-to-binder ratio, and aggregate stiffness [11]. UCS testing of CLSM is performed as per
ASTM C39/C39 M [52]. Both the short-term and long-term compressive strength in CLSM is attained through UCS testing at different
curing periods [53]. Low strength maintenance is the primary objective of CLSM used in the place requiring future excavation. The UCS
of CLSM should be in the range of 0.7 MPa–8.3 MPa.

3.2.2. Bulk unit weight (Density): An in-service characteristic

The bulk unit weight of the CLSM is decided by preparing a mix at a specified time and weighing it in a standard volume mold. It is
calculated as per ASTM D6023 [54] and for normal CLSM it ranges from 1840 to 2320 kg/m3. The CLSM dry density is less than its wet
density owing to the loss of water. Horiuchi et al. developed an empirical relationship between dry density and UCS at 28 days for fly
ash-based CLSM [55]. Low-density CLSM (LD-CLSM) can be achieved using high-entrained air, foaming agent, and lightweight
aggregate. Unit weight of CLSM mix containing only cement, fly ash, and water with no aggregate ranges between 1300 and 1800
kg/m3 [56]. CLSM containing industrial by-products such as ponded ash, basin ash, or bottom ash acquire a density of about
1360–2000 kg/m3 [57].

3.2.3. Permeability (hydraulic conductivity): An in-service characteristic

Permeability or hydraulic conductivity of CLSM can be defined as the ability of a material to permit liquid and gasses to pass
through it. Permeability of CLSM tested as per standard ASTM D5084 [58]. Permeability value for excavatable CLSM typically varied
between 10− 4 to 10− 5 cm/s and is similar to granular materials like silty clay [11]. Permeability increased with an increase in ag­
gregates and a reduction in cementitious material in CLSM [59]. High-strength CLSM or CLSM with highly finer particles possesses low
permeability.

3.2.4. Thermal conductivity and insulation: An in-service characteristic

Heat transfer through conduction can be quantified using a critical factor known as thermal conductivity (K). The thermal con­
ductivity of CLSM is affected by moisture content (MC), gradation characteristics, dry density (DD), mineral composition, particle
shape size, and specific gravity [60]. The MC and DD of CLSM are the critical parameters as an increase in these two parameters
increases thermal conductivity. High density and low porosity CLSM are preferred in places where high conductivity is required.
Conventional CLSM lacks preferred insulating characteristics but LD-CLSM shows better insulation. The use of lightweight aggregate,
foamed, or cellular agent makes the density of CLSM less thus increasing insulation [11].

3.2.5. Settlement: An in-service characteristic

Settlement of fill material can be described as a thickness reduction due to its weight or applied external load. Settlement of fill
material is typically accomplished during the initial 2–4 h and hardens thereafter when the placement is done. Compacted granular fill
even after getting sufficient compaction can settle whereas CLSM shows almost no to negligible settlement. Flechsig [61] reported no
measurable settlement of a CLSM fill months after placement. The cohesiveness in CLSM increases with the fine content and strong
particle interaction, thus reducing its settlement. It has been noted that fly ash-based CLSM exhibits lower settlement characteristics in
comparison to other granular industrial by-products-based CLSM due to these reasons [11].

3.2.6. Shrinkage: An in-service characteristic

Shrinkage in CLSM can be defined as a decrease in the volume or length of material due to changes in moisture content or other
chemical changes. Shrinkage and shrinkage crack effect on CLSM is less as compared to conventional concrete because less quantity of
cementitious materials is used in CLSM. As per reports, the ultimate linear shrinkage of CLSM ranges between 0.02 and 0.05%

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indicating minimal shrinkage [47,62].

3.2.7. Chemical stability (corrosion): An in-service characteristic

Corrosion in CLSM can be termed as chemical, colloidal, or physicochemical deterioration and disintegration of the protective layer
of CLSM due to an attack of reactive liquids and gasses. The galvanic corrosion potential due to dissimilarities in the surrounding
environment is less in CLSM than in conventional granular fill as it has more uniformity [11]. Reduced permeability, diffusivity, and
high pH of the pore solution of CLSM impart better protection for embedded metallic materials from corrosion [63]. An electrical
resistivity test can be performed to know the corrosion potential of CLSM.

3.2.8. Excavatability: An in-service characteristic

Excavatability is a major property of CLSM. CLSM has got various applications like pipeline bedding layers that require future
excavation. The type and quantity of binder are important in the context of excavatability. CLSM with UCS within 0.7 MPa can be
manually excavated and excavation by mechanical equipment can be done for strength ranging from 0.7 to 2.1 MPa [11]. Fine sand,
air-entrained admixtures, and less quantity of cementitious material in CLSM are preferred over coarse aggregate-based CLSM for
excavatability purposes. As per ACI guidelines determination of excavatability can be expressed using Removability Modulus (RE).
• RE < 1.0 indicates CLSM is easily removable.
• RE > 1.0 indicates CLSM is not easily removable.

W1.5 × C0.5 × 0.619

RE = (1)
106

Where, W = Dry mass density (kg/m3), and C = 28-day UCS (kPa). CLSM having UCS up to 0.7 MPa which can be manually excavated
generally possesses RE less than 1 while CLSM having UCS more than 0.7 MPa indicates a RE value of more than 1.

3.2.9. California bearing ratio (CBR): An in-service characteristic

The CBR test is a penetration test used to assess the material strength of the subgrade, subbase, and base course. The CBR value of
CLSM used as pavement base helps in analysis and comparison with other base materials. CBR value of conventional CLSM mix after a
few days of placement compared with a poor subgrade layer used in pavement and that of cured at 45 days was comparable with
compacted aggregate base material [64]. ASTM D1883 code is applicable for the CBR test of CLSM.
The properties discussed include five plastic properties and nine in-service properties giving an idea about the CLSM, standards
adopted to evaluate these characteristics, acceptable ranges, and applicability of the properties in their uses.

4. Factors affecting the production and properties of CLSM

Conventional CLSM and low-density CLSM (LD-CLSM) are the two types of CLSM used so far. Conventional controlled low-strength
material (CLSM) traditionally consists of raw materials such as Portland cement, fine aggregates or coarse aggregates or both, and
water. FA and the likewise cementitious or pozzolanic material, Portland cement, and water only can also be used to form CLSM. The
LD-CLSM mix is generally prepared using the same materials that are used for the formation of CLSM and a foaming agent is used to
impart low density to the mix. As per ACI 229R specification [11] though material constituents selected for CLSM must be stan­
dardized; it is not always obligatory and should be centered on certain aspects which are the availability of material, cost of material
acquisition and manufacture, specific application, and, explicit CLSM characteristics. Thus, factors that influence CLSM formation
should be affecting its primary physical characteristics i.e., flowability, strength, excavatability, density, and other critical properties
discussed in the previous section. According to Glogowski and Kelly [65], there is a wide range of factors that can affect the CLSM
properties but in general mixture constituent and proportion of the ingredients in the mixture affects the CLSM characteristic. The
recognized factors that affect the production and properties of CLSM are binders, aggregates, water/binder ratio, additives, and curing
conditions. Various types of binders, aggregates, and additives that researchers have used globally and how they have influenced CLSM
development are discussed too.

4.1. Binders
The binder is regarded as the most important parameter in CLSM formation. It provides appropriate cohesion and strength to CLSM.
Contemplating the sustainability, required strength, and specified application, different types of binders from Portland cement to
industrial by-products and waste resources have been chosen by different researchers for the production of CLSM. A detailed discussion
about different binders used and their effect on the determination of critical properties of CLSM is discussed here.

4.1.1. Cement as CLSM binder

Fundamentally cement is the primary strength-imparting component in a concrete mix. In contrast to conventional concrete, the
quantity of cement used in CLSM is substantially lower. As per ASTM C150, the available Portland cement is of five types namely Type I
(ordinary), Type II (modified), Type III (high-early-strength), Type IV (low-heat), and Type V (Sulfate resistant). Generally, Type-I,
Type-II, or Type-V Portland cement is used in CLSM [66]. Blended hydraulic cement confirming to ASTM C595/C595 M [67] and
their performance confirming to ASTM C1157/C1157 M [68] are used in the preparation of CLSM only if prior testing indicates
satisfactory results. In CLSM the content of cement generally ranges between 30 and 120 kg/m3 [11]. The lower content of cement in
CLSM helps in the restriction of UCS and reduces the setting time [24].

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Cement provides cohesion to CLSM. The type, quality, and proportion of cement significantly impact the compressive strength of
CLSM. Different types of cement, such as Portland cement, blended cement, or specialty cement, possess varying strength develop­
ment. The low strength requirement of CLSM urges manufacturers to use a low quantity of cement. Mostly Type-I and Type-II cement is
utilized for the production of CLSM. The properties of cement, including particle size distribution and fineness, influence the work­
ability and flowability of CLSM. Finer cement particles typically improve the workability of the mixture, allowing for better flow and
compaction. However, excessive fineness can lead to increased water demand, affecting the overall performance of CLSM. The water
demand and flowability can be controlled by selecting cement with an appropriate particle size distribution and fineness. The setting
time of CLSM can be adjusted by selecting cement with suitable setting time characteristics. The durability of CLSM is influenced by the
cementitious matrix formed by cement. The chemical composition of cement and its reaction with water determines the resistance of
CLSM to environmental factors such as freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and abrasion. Proper cement selection, with consideration
for specific project conditions and requirements, is crucial for achieving the desired durability and long-term performance of CLSM.
Cement is a significant cost component in CLSM. The selection of cement type and proportion should be carefully evaluated to balance
cost considerations without compromising the desired properties and performance of CLSM. Optimal cement usage can contribute to
cost-effective CLSM mixtures while meeting project specifications.

4.1.2. Fly ash (FA) as CLSM binder

FA is an industrial waste product that is produced during coal oxidation for the production of energy. It has been recognized as an
environmental pollutant, thus for sustainability, many researchers have worked using FA as a manufacturing material, lightweight
aggregate, backfill in mines, various layers in road construction like sub-base and base, and the synthesis of zeolite [69]. Fly ash is
predominantly comprised of spherical-shaped fine powdery particles and is mostly amorphous [70]. The carbon-containing material in
the fly ash is of angular shape [71]. The FA and silt have similar particle size distributions (PSD) (<0.075 mm) [72]. The specific
gravity of fly ash ranges between 2.1 and 3.0 and the specific surface area generally ranges between 170 and 1000 m2/kg [73]. Many
investigations led to the abundant use of FA in the development of CLSM. The spherical shape, low specific gravity, and low pozzolanic
reactivity of FA are ideal for creating flowable CLSM for different practical applications [27]. The use of FA in CLSM decreases
bleeding, shrinkage, and permeability. As per ACI guidelines FA to be used in the CLSM mix does not need any specification whether
Class F or C type and FA containing higher carbon contents can also be used in CLSM [11].
Naik and Ramme [36] reported the use of high FA content in CLSM mix proportion and checked the appropriate flowability and
strength characteristics. The effect of permeability and strength characteristics of flowable slurry or CLSM containing fly ash as a
binder and foundry sand was studied by Naik and Singh [74] to determine the possibility of field application for CLSM. They used fly
ash as a secondary binder with cement as the primary cementitious material. Naik et al. [75] used coal fly ash with type 1 cement to
study low-strength, medium-strength, and high-strength CLSM. Takashi et al. [76] evaluated the use of off-specified FA in CLSM with
clinker ash in terms of economic and ecological points of view. They studied the effect of FA on short-term and long-term compressive
strength. Halmen and Shah [77] produced low-cost CLSM using only by-products and used fly ash as the primary binder. They found
fitting results for flowability, setting time, and strength. They reported 8% mass loss after 12 freezing and thawing cycles. Yang et al.
[78] examined FA-based CLSM and studied the effect of sand characteristics on fly ash content in CLSM. Raghavendra et al. [79]
investigated the following properties like spread flow, Marsh flow, UCS, settlement, and density of CLSM using FA as primary
pozzolanic material. Halmen et al. [80] prepared thirteen variable mix proportions containing FA as a binder and cement of much low
content to study the service life of corroding galvanized culverts. They found that galvanized culverts and ductile iron pipes exhibited
lower corrosion when embedded with CLSM as compared to sand. Alizadeh et al. [81] developed twelve CLSM mixes containing fly ash
as a binder quantity in the range of 20–576 kg/m3 and cement quantity in the range of 45–172 kg/m3. The appropriate flowability and
strength characteristics of CLSM for bridge abutments as structural fill were studied. They concluded that higher curing temperature
for fly ash-based CLSM increases early strength gain but lowers the gain of strength at later ages. It is too noticed that as CLSM has less

Fig. 3. Development of strength; a) HCFA, b) LCFA [24,85].

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strength so for internal stability in the CLSM bridge abutment design, the steel anchor bond strength becomes a sensitive issue. Ali­
zadeh [82] used class F FA and cement to prepare nineteen CLSM mixes to examine the feasibility of FA-based CLSM as backfill
material in bridge abutments. Naik et al. [83] produced conductive CLSM using high carbon FA (HCFA) and found the CLSM mix
containing the highest content of HCFA and without any aggregate showed the lowest electrical resistivity. Haidry and Chauragade
[84] used blended fly ash and onion peel ash (OPA) with OPC to develop CLSM. The OPA was added in 8%, 10%, and 20%. The
compressive strength was found to be reduced with an increase in OPA content. Lim et al. [85] performed an experimental work of
electrically conductive CLSM using both high-carbon FA (HCFA) and low-carbon FA (LCFA). They found that with an increase in HCFA
the strength decreases and the use of copper slag aggregate in both HCFA and LCFA-based CLSM increases the electrical conductivity.
Fig. 3 illustrated the strength development pattern for both types of CLSM.
Manh do et al. [86] produced a new cementless binder named Fa-RmLG which consists of FA, red mud (RM), lime, and gypsum for
the preparation of CLSM. They investigated the flow property, initial setting time, and strength properties of different mixes to choose a
stable mix. Mahamaya and Das [87] developed CLSM using FA, Portland cement, and ferrochrome slag as base binders and had a
detailed characterization study. Do et al. [88] looked into the possibility of FA-based CLSM with a cementless binder to use as thermal
grout in borehole heat exchangers. Chompoorat et al. [89] produced CLSM with high calcium FA and slag as source material which was
alkali activated by sodium hydroxide (NaOH). They investigated the flowability, setting time, strength property, and C–S–H phase of
CLSM so that it can be viable to use as a pavement material. Gabr and Bowders [90] developed a CLSM mix containing 87.5% of class F
fly ash, 10% of acid mine drainage (AMD) sludge, and 2.5% of cement. They investigated workability, the potential of re-excavability,
stability, and the hardening time of the mix. Ho et al. [91] developed and characterized CLSM with a ternary mix of Portland cement,
FA, and wastewater treatment sludge. They employed NaOH as a mixture accelerator and examined the fresh property, hardened
properties using the toxicity characteristic leaching procedures (TCLP). The change in minerals and microstructural level of the CLSM
samples was noticed. Bouzalakos et al. [92] used statistical tools to optimize the mix design of CLSM containing fly ash and mine
floatation tailing. Salini et al. [93] utilized fly ash as a binder along with low proportions of cement to develop CLSM. Hardened
samples were subjected to testing for unconfined compressive strength, water absorption, density, and were analyzed using SEM and
XRF techniques. The mixture’s corrosivity was determined to fall within acceptable limits, allowing its use as an excavatable material
in utility fills.
Two critical parameters of CLSM that need to be satisfied during its production are the requirement of low strength and high
flowability. FA has been extensively used as a both secondary and primary binder material in CLSM as it satisfies those criteria due to
its spherical shape, low specific gravity, low pozzolanic reactivity, and ability of lower rate of strength development at a later age. The
use of industrial by-products like FA facilitates sustainable development and has been utilized in blended binder systems with cement,
red mud, lime, gypsum, ferrochrome slag, wastewater treatment sludge, and mine-floatation tailing. The FA has provided adequate
CLSM characteristics when used in hydraulic systems as well as alkali-activated systems. Class C and class F FA along with Type-I
cement mostly exploited for the production of CLSM for various applications. CLSM with FA as the primary binder also provides
very high freeze-thaw resistance and also better corrosion resistance. However, the use of high carbon FA reduces the electrical re­
sistivity and also decreases the compressive strength as compared to low carbon FA. Fly ash can contribute to the reduction of pore size
and increased density of CLSM, resulting in improved resistance to penetration by water and harmful substances. The incorporation of
fly ash can decrease the porosity and permeability of CLSM, enhancing its resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and other
environmental factors. This can significantly contribute to the long-term durability and performance of CLSM. The utilization of fly ash
in CLSM reduces the need for traditional cementitious materials, thereby reducing the consumption of natural resources and energy-
intensive processes. Additionally, incorporating fly ash in CLSM can contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated
with cement production.

Fig. 4. Relation between Young’s modulus at 50% strength and UCS [89].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

4.1.3. Slag as CLSM binder

Slag has been used as a cementitious material as it exhibits good pozzolanic characteristics and often its activation is done by a
reactive agent. There are primarily two approaches adopted for the activation of slag; (a) activation through cement clinker and
gypsum and (b) activation by the group I metal alkalis [94]. Arivusudar and Suresh Babu [95] used slag and FA as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM) to reduce the usage of cement to a larger extent. Physical and chemical properties such as glazing ca­
pacity, chemical composition, mineral composition, and fineness influence the fluidizing effect of slag [96]. Activity index and specific
surface area are commonly used to characterize slag [97]. CaO, Al2O3, and MgO content in slag enhance its hydraulic activity, and SiO2
content is responsible for the reduction of the activity index. Slag usually has a high specific surface area, thus when it reacts with water
the larger contact area allows greater hydration reaction and results in the enhancement of compressive strength [98,99]. The
preparation of CLSM using slag has been investigated extensively. The flowability and UCS of CLSM vary directly and indirectly with
the slag content. The hydration performance of cement is higher than that of slags, thus the UCS in CLSM reduces if more slag is
replacing cement. In general, slags such as steel slag possess a slower reaction rate and longer setting time as the amount of C3S is low
and a lower hydration rate means a longer time is required to form Ca(OH)2 crystal [100].
Chompoorat et al. [89] investigated fresh and hardened properties of alkali-activated CLSM including Electric arc furnace slag
(EAFS), fly ash, and cement. The inclusion of EAFS resulted in higher slump flow, shorter setting time, decrease in bleeding, and
enhancement of the UCS and modulus of resilience of CLSM. Fig. 4 represents a relationship between secant Young’s modulus at 50%
strength vs. UCS and it was found that the ratio between the two was quite consistent for slag-based CLSM.
Sheen et al. [101] used ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) by partially replacing cement in the CLSM production. The
incorporation of GGBFS resulted in an increment in flowability and setting time but showed a noticeable reduction in the UCS and
moduli of subgrade reaction (K-modulus). As GGBFS has an inferior CaO/SiO2 ratio in comparison to cement hence a lower strength
development in the early days is justified. Raghavendra and Udayashankar [102] used GGBFS along with cement as cementing ma­
terials to produce CLSM. They had taken the ratio of GGBFS/Cement as 3.5, 2.8, 2.0, and 1.75. The long-term strength development
characteristic of GGBFS caused greater compressive strength in all mixes. Hence, they concluded that CLSM with such GGBFS/Cement
ratio was not suitable for applications requiring re-excavation but can be used for applications like structural backfill where chances of
re-excavation are low and strength requirement is more. Lachemi et al. [103] reported the production of CLSM by the complete
replacement of cement with GGBFS and cement kiln dust (CKD). They revealed that slag affected the UCS of CKD-based CLSM mixes
with a steady CKD dosage. Raghavendra et al. [104] accessed the performance of CLSM containing ternary binder blend system i.e.,
GGBFS, cement, and waste powdered gypsum drywall (PGP). The binders were used with varying GGBFS/cement and PGP/cement
ratios by weight. They revealed the inclusion of GGBFS gave Sulfate resistance to CLSM from the waste gypsum wallboard. Le and
Nguyen [105] made an assessment of eco-friendly CLSM containing stainless steel reducing slag (SSRS) and OPC type-1 cement as a
binder. They concluded that a mixture of up to 30% SSRS substitution of OPC is acceptable for excavatable CLSM. Sheen et al. [106]
investigated the effect of SSRS on UCS and the setting time of CLSM. They replaced cement with SSRS successively with 0%, 25%, and
50% by weight. They noticed, as the SSRS amount increased in the CLSM, the value of the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and UCS
decreased but the setting time increased significantly. Research findings of Taha et al. [107] and Lim et al. [85] suggest that it is hard to
produce CLSM utilizing untreated copper slag (CL) as the activity of CL is very low. Due to the weak gelation property, copper slag
didn’t make any significant contribution to strength development. Lan et al. [108] activated copper slag using soda stimulation and
mechanical activation which resulted in an increment of specific surface area, a decrease in particle size, and an induced crystal defect
that ultimately changed the physical and chemical properties of copper slag. Hence it can be used as a binder in the CLSM. GGBFS,
ferrochrome slag, and fly ash were activated in alkaline conditions to develop CLSM by Mahamaya et al. [109]. The prepared CLSM
found to be in the strength range of 1.72–10.44 MPa and with a CBR value of 328% making it feasible for pavement uses.
Larger specific surface area, and chemical, and mineral composition make slag a reactive pozzolana and allow for greater hydration
reaction which enhances its binding properties. The incorporation of slag in CLSM can influence its workability and flowability. Slag
particles are generally finer than cement particles, which can enhance the packing and lubrication of the mixture. This results in
improved workability and increased flowability, facilitating easier placement and compaction. However, it is crucial to consider the
proportion of slag to avoid excessive water demand, which may affect the workability and consistency of the mixture. Compared to
cement, slag has lower hydraulic performance which lowers the compressive strength when used in large quantities. Different slags
such as GGBFS, Electric arc furnace slag (EAFS), stainless steel reducing slag (SSRS), untreated copper slag (CL), and ferrochrome slag
have been utilized for CLSM production with blended systems with Portland cement, FA, cement kiln dust (CKD), and waste powdered
gypsum drywall (PGP). Use of GGBFS often develop higher strength than CLSM requirement and therefore suitable for application
where re-excavation chances are low. Slag like GGBFS possesses long-term strength development characteristics with a shorter setting
time while steel slag has a lower reaction rate and possesses a longer setting time. However, the incorporation of slag in CLSM generally
results in higher slump value, shorter setting time, and reduction in bleeding making it suitable for CLSM production.

4.1.4. Red mud (RM) and cement kiln dust (CKD) as CLSM binder
RM is the waste material produced during the commercial production of aluminum metal from bauxite ore following the Bayers
process [110]. The generation of red mud depends on the quality of the bauxite processed as generally the quantity of red mud
spawned varies from 55 to 65% of the processed bauxite [111]. Globally alumina industry produces 7000 tons per year of RM [112].
RM is difficult to utilize comprehensively as its alkalinity is high with a pH value ranging between 10 and 13.5 [113]. Singh et al. [114]
have worked on the possibility of red mud as a cementing material. Cement kiln dust (CKD) is a granular mix of clinker dust and ash,
partially calcined and unreacted raw feed, enriched with halides, alkali sulfates, and other volatiles formed during the production of
cement clinker [115]. Approximately 30 million tons/year of CKD are generated by the cement industries around the world [116,117].

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According to the raw materials used in the kiln, the composition of CKD varies. CKD possesses cementing properties but the higher
abundance of chloride content and potassium oxide limits its reinstitution as a source material for modern manufactured cement
[118]. Low strength requirements of CLSM use red mud and CKD as the binder in its production.
Manh do et al. [86] developed a cementless binder incorporating red mud (Rm), FA, lime (L), and gypsum (G) as a binder and
reported that ratios of G/Rm, Fa/RmG, and L/RmG were the important factors influencing fresh and hardened properties of CLSM.
Fig. 5 represents the compressive strength development of the CLSM mix concerning the ratio of Fa/RmG. The UCS increases with a rise
in Fa/RmG ratio.
Das et al. [119] produced CLSM by taking base material as RM and mineral admixtures like quarry dust, phosphogypsum, and FA.
They reported that the high alkalinity of RM when used with FA and quarry dust improved the CLSM flowability and also the per­
centage of bleeding was limited to less than 1%. Do and Kim [120] substituted red mud for Portland cement by 5–30% (weight) in the
preparation of CLSM. They performed the tests for bleeding, flowability, fresh density, and setting time for RM-based CLSM using
relevant ASTM standards and reported that all the general properties of CLSM incorporating RM satisfied ACI guidelines [11]. Jiang
et al. [121] developed alkali-activated CLSM containing red mud as a primary binder. The prepared CLSM was found to be effective for
applying as a base course of pavement. Pierce et al. [122] prepared CKD-based CLSM with partial replacement of Portland cement. It
was noticed that CKD-CLSM mixes showed high flowability along with rapid setting time and an increase in the amount of CKD in the
CLSM increased the UCS. Lachemi et al. [103] developed CKD-based CLSM where CKD was collected from four varying producers with
unlike chemical compositions. They reported that the CLSM water demand, setting time, and drying shrinkage increase with an in­
crease in CKD content. Bassani et al. [13] used CKD, ordinary Portland cement (OPC), sulpho-aluminate cement (SAC), and a com­
bination of Cement by-pass dust (CBPD) and incinerator bottom ash (IBA) as a binder in the CLSM formation. They validated the
Lachemi et al. [103] result with 200 kg/m3 content of CKD satisfying the CLSM prerequisites and ensuring future excavability.
Red mud and CKD have been used as the binder in CLSM which facilitates its sustainable utilization. These waste resources are
principally used as secondary or as ternary binders along with cement, fly ash, and slag in CLSM production. The incorporation of red
mud in CLSM can contribute to the additional cementitious compound formation and improve the strength characteristics. Similarly,
cement kiln dust, being a finely ground material, can also enhance strength by providing additional cementitious material. However,
the effects on strength development may vary depending on the specific composition and properties of red mud and cement kiln dust,
as well as their interaction with other components of CLSM. Red mud possesses high alkalinity so it becomes difficult to mobilize it as a
primary binder, and has been utilized in blended binder systems with FA, lime, quarry dust, phosphogypsum, and gypsum. High
alkaline red mud when added with fly ash and gypsum showed better flowability and strength development. CKD increases flowability
and lowers the CLSM setting time. An increased amount of CKD in CLSM leads to an increase in UCS, and to limit the CKD percentage it
has been used in combination with ordinary Portland cement (OPC), sulpho-aluminate cement (SAC), and a combination of Cement by-
pass dust (CBPD) and incinerator bottom ash (IBA).

4.1.5. Other waste resources and industrial by-products as CLSM binder

Bagasse ash (BA) which is a waste product of the sugarcane industry and is substantially used as fuel at the sugar mill contains some
pozzolanic behavior. Various researchers [123–127] have reported the use of BA as an SCM. Raghavendra et al. [79] used BA as a
secondary cementitious material in CLSM formation. They reported the BA-based CLSM showed less strength development and lower
surface fineness due to the low pozzolanic nature of BA. The use of wood ash in CLSM as a ternary binder with FA and OPC has been
tried. Wood ash possesses chemical components such as silica (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) which made it
credible to be used as a cementitious material [128]. Naik et al. [129] studied the properties of CLSM containing wood ash obtained
from different sources. They concluded that wood ash containing CLSM initially showed less strength but in the long term showed an
average increase of 150% in strength due to continuous pozzolanic reaction. FA produced from circulating fluidized bed combustion
(CFBC) boiler contains different chemical, mineralogical, and morphological, compositions, in comparison to coal ash-based FA due to
dissimilarity in the combustion process [130]. CFBC fly ash contains a large amount of anhydrite, a large specific surface area, and free
lime; thus, shows good pozzolanic activity [131–133]. Jang et al. [134] used CFBC FA as a binder and Na2CO3 as an activator in CLSM

Fig. 5. Effect of Fa/RmG on the CLSM strength development and initial setting time [86].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

production. The CFBC FA-based CLSM showed high settlement, flowability, and slow setting time. Park et al. [135] prepared CLSM by
alkali activation using NaOH taking CFBC fly ash as a binder. The CLSM showed generalized results for all the characteristic properties.
The XRD analysis showed that in the hardened state of CFBC fly ash-based CLSM, the anhydrite and lime content disappeared which
were present in the raw CFBC FA. Shon et al. [136] produced CLSM with stockpiled CFBC by replacing partially and completely FA.
Portlandite, gypsum, calcite, and ettringite are contained in stockpiled CFBC ash. Weathering process provides stability to stockpiled
CFBC ash. An increase in the stockpiled CFBC ash content, decreases the setting time, flowability, permeable voids, and bleeding of
CLSM but increases in strength, bulk density, and absorption. Liu et al. [137] provided the state-of-art utilization of waste incineration
ash, coal ash, and biomass incineration ash as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) for CLSM development. They also delve
into alkali-activated CLSM production in their study. They concluded that due to presence of high CaO content these incineration ash
able to possess both pozzolanic activity and self-gelling properties. Hence can be utilized as SCMs. Jian et al. [138] developed a
high-fluid backfill materials which is a type of highly flowable CLSM incorporating construction spoil (CS), phosphogypsum (PG), and
blast furnace slag (BFS). The HFBMs comprising 5% cement, 3% BFS, and 2% PG demonstrated the highest strength. The prepared
HFBM found to be negate the long-term shrinkage.
Bagasse ash, wood ash, and CFBC ash are other notable binders used for the production of CLSM. These are mostly used as sec­
ondary or ternary cementitious material. Bagasse ash possesses lower reactivity and shows less strength development. Due to
continuous pozzolanic reaction, the CLSM produced with wood ash shows long-term strength gain. CFBC ash can be used as a primary
binder for CLSM for non-excavable applications as it shows greater strength development. It is important to note that the effects of
different waste materials as binders in CLSM can vary depending on their specific characteristics, dosage, and interactions with other
components of the mixture. Proper testing, characterization, and mix design considerations are crucial to determine the optimal
utilization of waste materials as binders in CLSM.

4.1.6. Critical discussion on binders

Binders or binding agents hold other constituents/materials to form a cohesive mix by adhesion, cohesion, or through the chemical
or mechanical process providing structural stability. Binders are based on chemical resistances and field use can be categorized into
non-hydraulic, hydraulic, acid resistant, and autoclavable. Binders are responsible for creating stable skeletal configurations for any
cementitious material. Regarding CLSM, cement has been used as a binder to a great extent. Proper selection of cement type, pro­
portion, and quality is vital to achieving the desired properties and performance characteristics of CLSM. As the strength requirement is
much less so there is a limitation in the cement content to be used in the CLSM because the more the amount of cement content more
will be the strength. This leads to the abundant use of SCM like FA and slag as they restrict the cement content in CLSM and maintain
adequate CLSM characteristics. In CLSM, the selection of binding material should be cost-efficient, sustainable, intoxicating, and
perform efficiently. This facilitates the utilization of waste resources and industrial by-products which contains some pozzolanic
behavior as a primary or secondary binder in CLSM. FA has been extensively used as a binder in CLSM. It lowers the strength gain of
CLSM at later stages and can be incorporated along with various other binders. Class C and class F fly ash along with Type-I cement
mostly exploited for the production of CLSM for various applications. It is important to note that the effects of fly ash on CLSM can vary
depending on factors such as the quality of fly ash, its chemical composition, particle size distribution, and the specific mix proportions
used. Proper characterization and testing of fly ash are crucial to ensure its suitability and compatibility with CLSM mixtures.
Compared to cement, slag has lower hydraulic performance which lowers the compressive strength when used in large quantities.
Incorporation of slag in CLSM generally results in higher slump value, shorter setting time, and reduction in bleeding. Slag like GGBFS
possesses long-term strength development characteristics with a shorter setting time while steel slag has a lower reaction rate and
possesses a longer setting time. Red mud and CKD are generally used as secondary or ternary binders along with cement, fly ash, and
slag in CLSM production. Red mud possesses high alkalinity so it becomes difficult to mobilize it as a primary binder. High alkaline red
mud when added with fly ash and gypsum showed better flowability and strength development. CKD increases flowability and lowers
the setting time of CLSM. An increased amount of CKD in CLSM leads to an increase in UCS. Bagasse ash possesses lower reactivity and
shows less strength development. Due to continuous pozzolanic reaction, the CLSM produced with wood ash shows long-term strength
gain. CFBC ash can be used as a primary binder for CLSM for non-excavable applications as it shows greater strength development.

4.2. Aggregates
Aggregates typically occupy 60%–80% of the conventional concrete volume [139]. It affects the fresh and hardened properties of
concrete and also the long-term durability performance of the concrete structure. The physical characteristic of aggregates is an
important factor for mix proportioning and quality assurance [140]. Aggregates are considered a major CLSM constituent. Aggregates
satisfying the requirements of ASTM C33/C33 M [141] are considered for CLSM production. Due to the prerequisite of low strength in
CLSM, aggregates having low stiffness are generally preferred. As per ACI [11] guidelines, granular excavation materials having poor
quality properties are generally considered CLSM aggregates, whereas clay-type soil should not be considered as aggregate in CLSM.
Tansley and Bernard [62] listed different types of aggregates successfully incorporated in CLSM. It includes pea gravel with sand,
native sandy soil (more than 10% passing through 75 μm sieve), ASTM C33/C33 M specified aggregates, and quarry waste products.
ACI guidelines [11] for CLSM also states that non-standard materials such as industrial by-products and waste resources can be used as
aggregates in the CLSM mix as they have a huge availability on the earth due to a rapid growth in urbanization and industrialization
around the globe. Use of these materials as CLSM aggregates would save environment and mostly economical but they need to be tested
for their acceptability in CLSM.

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4.2.1. Natural aggregates as CLSM aggregate

Consumption of naturally fine and coarse aggregates is increasing with increased production and utilization of concrete [142]. As
per the European environment agency, 3 billion tons of aggregates are annually produced only in the European Union (EU) countries
[143]. Natural aggregates possess good stiffness hence they provide better fresh and hardened properties when incorporated into the
concrete mix [144]. Natural aggregates conforming to ASTM C33/C33 M guidelines are used in the CLSM. CLSM with natural ag­
gregates generally shows good durability. Naik and Ramme [36] produced CLSM using surface saturated dry (SSD) natural sand having
a fineness modulus of 2.79 meeting the ASTM C33 requirements and pea gravel as coarse aggregate. Class A concrete sand utilized by
Ayers et al. [145] in the CLSM preparation and the produced CLSM exhibited the desired unconfined compressive strength. Pierce et al.
[122] also used natural sand as a fine aggregate in the CLSM composition with CKD as the binder. Naik et al. [75] incorporated natural
sand as fine aggregate in the high-strength CLSM mix with cement and fly ash as the binder. Khezerloo et al. [146] included dune sand
in the CLSM for backfilling purposes.
Natural sand is mostly used as natural aggregate in CLSM. Natural aggregates, such as sand and gravel, can contribute to the
mechanical properties of CLSM. It enhances the overall strength and stability of the material, improving its load-bearing capacity and
resistance to deformation. The inclusion of natural aggregate can also enhance the material’s cohesion and shear strength, making it
more suitable for certain applications. Natural aggregate can aid in particle packing, improving the flowability and workability of
CLSM. The presence of aggregate particles helps to fill void spaces, increasing the density and reducing the likelihood of segregation.
This results in a more uniform mixture, facilitating the better flow and placement characteristics. Utilizing natural aggregate as a
constituent in CLSM can be cost-effective, particularly when local sources are readily available. It reduces the reliance on expensive or
specialized materials, making CLSM more economically viable for certain applications. Natural aggregates have more stiffness so they
impart more strength into CLSM. Due to this, the utilization of natural aggregate in CLSM is somewhat limited. There are some other
challenges to utilizing natural aggregates in CLSM. The reactivity and compatibility of natural aggregate with cementitious materials
in CLSM can impact the setting time, strength development, and durability of the material. Certain types of aggregate, such as reactive
or alkali-silica reactive aggregates, may cause deleterious chemical reactions, leading to reduced strength or potential for expansion
and cracking. Compatibility assessments should be conducted to mitigate these risks. The properties of natural aggregates, such as
strength, grading, and mineralogy, can vary depending on the source and location. This introduces a level of inconsistency in CLSM
mixtures, which can pose challenges in achieving desired performance and meeting specified requirements. Careful selection and
testing of natural aggregate sources are necessary to ensure consistent results. Natural aggregate can possess moisture-absorbing
properties, which can lead to changes in the water-to-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) and affect the overall consistency and
strength development of CLSM. Pre-wetting or controlling the moisture content of the aggregate before mixing is crucial to main­
taining consistency and achieving desired properties.

4.2.2. Foundry sand as CLSM aggregate

Over-use of natural fine aggregate and gravel worldwide is a huge concern. The continual progress in infrastructure and industrial
development resulted in the excess use of natural fine aggregate. As the strength requirement is very low and flowability is an
important factor in CLSM so alternatives to river sand that can give good flow characteristics are being encouraged. Foundry sand has
been used as an aggregate in the CLSM yield and is a by-product of the metal casting industry. It has high silica content and is classified
into chemically bonded sand and clay-bonded (green) sand [147]. It possesses high thermal conductivity and is available in
sub-angular to angular shapes. Bhat and Lovell [148] reported that CLSM production became economical by using foundry sand as fine
aggregate. Naik and Singh [149] used foundry sand to investigate the physical property of excavatable CLSM having UCS in the range
of 0.4–0.69 MPa and compared it to the control CLSM without using foundry sand. They concluded that foundry sand-based CLSM
showed higher water absorption and void percentage in comparison to natural sand-based CLSM. Dingrando et al. [150] investigated
the CLSM mixes containing foundry sand and observed appropriate flow with strength characteristics. They concluded that the
bentonite content in the foundry sand is the key component as it assists in creating suitable mix composition. If the bentonite content
exceeds 6%, then other sources of fine can be eliminated as foundry sand gives lower long-term strength gain. Naik and Singh [74]
evaluated the effect of both foundry sand and fly ash on the permeability of CLSM. They observed minimum permeability of CLSM at
30% FA replacement with foundry sand. Tikalsky et al. [151] used spent foundry or casting sand in the CLSM production. They
collected spent casting sand from five varying sources and mixed thoroughly. The use of both spent clay-bonded and
chemically-bonded casting sands was validated in CLSM. They concluded that CLSM with spent chemically bonded casting sands
performed better and meticulous proportioning of spent clay-bonded casting sands can effectively prevent fluidity issues. Siddique and
Noumowe [152] used spent foundry sand for CLSM production. It was concluded that spent foundry sand can be treated as a
replacement for natural fine aggregate and FA. The coarser particle size of foundry sand is responsible for increased bleeding of CLSM.
Deng and Tikalsky [153] incorporated waste foundry sand (WFS) in the CLSM to study its geotechnical and leaching properties. The
research findings verified the physical, fresh, and hardened geotechnical properties of the CLSM with WFS. Material leaching in­
vestigations showed that the toxicity of WFS-based CLSM was beneath the regulated criteria.
Utilizing foundry sand in CLSM offers an opportunity for waste utilization and promotes sustainability. By diverting this byproduct
from landfill disposal, it contributes to reducing environmental impact and conserving natural resources. Foundry sands are rich in
silica content and used as a replacement for natural aggregate in CLSM. CLSM produced with foundry sand are economical, intox­
icating, and develop low strength. Foundry sand, with its fine particle size and angular shape, can enhance the flowability and
workability of CLSM. It improves particle packing and lubrication within the mixture, leading to improved flow characteristics and
ease of placement. CLSM with foundry sand shows an increase in bleeding as it has a coarser particle size. Bentonite content is the
critical parameter of foundry sand. Properly processed and selected foundry sand can contribute to the strength and durability of

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CLSM. It can enhance the bonding between particles and the cementitious matrix, resulting in improved compressive strength and
long-term performance. There are certain challenges present while incorporating foundry sand in CLSM. Foundry sand may contain
trace elements or heavy metals that could leach into the surrounding environment. Adequate precautions should be taken during the
handling, mixing, and disposal of CLSM-containing foundry sand to prevent any potential environmental impact. It is crucial to ensure
compliance with local regulations and guidelines when using foundry sand in CLSM. Specific requirements may exist regarding the
quality, treatment, and permissible limits for the use of foundry sand in construction materials. The use of foundry sand in CLSM should
be accompanied by thorough performance testing to evaluate its impact on key properties such as strength, flowability, and durability.
Testing should consider factors such as foundry sand content, gradation, and treatment methods to assess the suitability and per­
formance of CLSM in specific applications.

4.2.3. Recycled aggregates as CLSM aggregate

Modern development as well as severe ecological guidelines in developed and developing economies has prompted the worldwide
re-evaluation of the techniques utilized to recycle and reuse construction and demolition (C&D) waste as recycled aggregate for
construction and infrastructure advancement [154]. As per Rocha and Sattler [155] generation of C&D waste occurs in all three phases
of the building life cycle including construction, renovation, and demolition. The demolition phase has been identified as a key phase
as it produces a higher percentage of C&D waste. The diminished rigidity and firmness of both recycled fine along with coarse
aggregate make them eligible to be utilized as aggregates in CLSM production. As CLSM should possess re-excavability property, the
long-term strength gain should be as minimum as possible. Khatib [156] in his study of concrete incorporating recycled fine aggregate
found a systematic reduction in long-term strength gain. These properties of recycled aggregates justified their use in CLSM. Some
industrial by-products were also used as recycled aggregates in CLSM. Achtemichuk et al. [157] utilized both fine and coarse recycled
concrete aggregate to produce CLSM. They used slag and HCFA as the binder. The CLSM mix containing slag with recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) showed more strength in comparison to HCFA with RCA. The coarse RCA CLSM mix was found to be better suitable
for structural fill work as it gains more UCS and fine RCA CLSM is appropriate for the re-excavate application as its UCS gain is less. Lin
et al. [158] investigated CLSM properties incorporating recycled aggregate with water-quenched blast furnace slag as the primary
binder. They replaced natural aggregates with Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) hydrated ash as prime recycled aggre­
gate. Also the coal bottom ash along with CFB slag and desulfurized slag as recycled aggregates with water-quenched blast furnace slag
as a binder was incorporated into their mix. The investigation result showed an increase in the proportion of CFBC-hydrated ash led to
a decrease in compressive strength. Both blast furnace slag and CFBC ash induce volumetric swelling, thus the length of the CLSM
specimen got increased. Etxeberria et al. [159] replaced natural limestone sand with recycled C&D waste as fine aggregates in the
CLSM. They reported that the CLSM mix containing recycled fine aggregates having a high percentage of ceramics component showed
more UCS enhancement from 7 days to 28 days compared to controlled CLSM. The CLSM with recycled aggregate has reduced bleeding
tendency in comparision to that with natural aggregates as recycled aggregate-based CLSM has fast absorption capability (Fig. 6).
Zhang et al. [160] utilized recycled fine aggregate which primarily consists of red brick waste, mortar, and less quantity of wood,
rubber, and plastic in the preparation of rapid hardening CLSM with OPC as a binder. The produced rapid-hardening CLSM showed
good early strength in the presence of recycled fine aggregates. Gemperline et al. [161] used recycled aggregates in the CLSM with
scrap tire rubber and bottom ash. They replaced the natural aggregates with recycled aggregates at the 20–75% level and studied the
flow and strength properties. Bassani et al. [13] conducted an environmental assessment of CLSM prepared with alternative recycled
materials. They prepared the CLSM incorporating recycled CLSM sand, stone saw-mill dust, recycled demolition concrete sand (RC),
and sand from the squashing of incinerator bottom ash (IBA) as aggregate. It was observed that the recycled CLSM sand reduced the
setting time of CLSM, stone saw-mill dust-based sand showed magnificent flowing and strength properties, IBA-based sand imparted
swelling and cracks in the CLSM, and RC sand was effectively used in the CLSM mix. Fang et al. [162] used recycled fine aggregate with
waterworks sludge or Alum sludge and incinerated sewage sludge ash (ISSA) as filler in the production of CLSM. They suggested two
mixed proportions of CLSM containing alum sludge in which 10% and 30% sludge replacement as fine aggregate was considered
optimum. Ali et al. [163] used a mix of fine recycled aggregate (FRA) and fine incinerator bottom ash (FIBA) in the production of
CLSM. The stiffening of CLSM was shortened and strength increased with increasing FRA content.
The use of recycled aggregate in CLSM promotes sustainable construction practices by reducing the need for virgin materials and

Fig. 6. Bleeding of the five optimum CLSM mixtures [159].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

diverting construction waste from landfills. It contributes to resource conservation and minimizes the environmental impact associated
with quarrying natural aggregate. Incorporating recycled aggregate can reduce construction waste volumes and associated disposal
costs. Recycled aggregate is often available at a lower cost compared to natural aggregate, offering potential cost savings in CLSM
production. Properly processed and graded recycled aggregate can provide satisfactory mechanical properties in CLSM. It can
contribute to the strength and stability of the material, making it suitable for various non-structural applications where high strength is
not a primary requirement. The addition of recycled fine aggregate in CLSM shows a reduction in compressive strength. Recycled
aggregate with slag as a binder shows more strength in comparison to recycled aggregate with HCFA as a binder. An increase in CFBC
ash content as recycled aggregate results in a decrease in strength. Recycled aggregates containing ceramic components show more
strength. CLSM with recycled aggregate shows less bleeding in comparison to natural aggregates. Some consideration should be taken
while using recycled aggregate in CLSM. Recycled aggregate properties can vary significantly depending on the source, processing
methods, and contaminants present. Variations in particle size, shape, and surface texture can affect the performance and consistency
of CLSM. Thorough testing and quality control measures are necessary to ensure the suitability and performance of recycled aggregate
in CLSM. Recycled aggregate may contain contaminants such as residual cement paste, organic matter, or other materials from the
demolished concrete. These impurities can influence the setting time, strength development, and durability of CLSM. Adequate
processing and treatment methods are required to minimize the adverse effects of these contaminants. The long-term durability of
CLSM containing recycled aggregate may be a concern due to the potential presence of weak or porous particles. The higher porosity of
recycled aggregate can result in increased water absorption and reduced resistance to freeze-thaw cycles or chemical attacks. Proper
mix design and supplementary measures, such as incorporating pozzolanic materials or admixtures, may be necessary to enhance
durability.

4.2.4. Native along with excavated soils and high or low plasticity clay as CLSM aggregate
Controlled low-strength materials can be prepared using different types of soil and clays. Native soils and the reuse of excavated soil
as aggregate in the CLSM have been incorporated by different researchers. High-plastic clay and low-plastic clay were also used in the
CLSM. Finney et al. [164] used native soil as aggregate in CLSM. The soil used was mostly clayey, hence before CLSM batching, they
used a special screening bucket to process the soil. The average strength gain between CLSM samples from 7 to 28 days containing
native soil was 70% and approximately 90% of test results at 28 days were having strength above 50 psi. Chittoori et al. [165] studied
the durability aspect of native soil-based CLSM. They obtained native soils from two different locations and processed them for use as
aggregate. The two CLSM mixes were subjected to 14 cycles of wetting, leaching, and drying process. One CLSM mix resulted in 89% of
strength loss and another retained 51% strength. The second mix was chosen for the field application as it retained at least 50% of
initial strength after durability cycles. Puppala et al. [166] used both high-plasticity and low-plasticity clay as fine aggregates in the
CLSM. Type-A CLSM was having Soil-1 fine aggregate which fully consisted of high plasticity clay and Type-B CLSM contained soil-2
fine aggregate which had both high and low plasticity clay at a 1:1 ratio. The CLSM was prepared as per recommendation by Folliard
[56]. The CLSM mix design with adequate flowability and UCS can be performed through high-plasticity clay and a mix of high along
with low-plasticity clay. Chittoori et al. [167] studied the strength and stiffness characteristics of CLSM utilizing native high-plasticity

Fig. 7. CLSM stiffness variation with UCS a) Type-A soil, b) Type-B clay [167].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

clay as fine aggregate. They reported that a high amount of moisture content is required to achieve recommended flowability. Also the
stiffness and UCS characteristic of CLSM were studied by incorporating high plasticity (Type-A) and mixed plasticity (Type-B) clays.
Fig. 7 illustrates different successful mixes developing required characteristic. They concluded that high-plasticity clay needs higher
dosage of cement content while mixed plasticity clay needs to have both cement and lime additives to achieve targeted properties.
Sheen et al. [101] prepared fine aggregate by mixing residual soil with river sand for the CLSM mix and replaced partially OPC with
slag as a binder. They concluded that an increase in soil and slag content resulted in a reduced CLSM strength. Kim et al. [168] utilized
excavated soil (ES) with pond ash as fine aggregate in CLSM. It was observed that the CLSM flowability and bleeding are inversely
related to the ES content, thus improving the stability. Wu and Lee [50] worked on the possibility of reusing soft-excavated surplus clay
as aggregate in the soil-based CLSM which was used in the subgrade. The fresh and hardened properties were studied. Experimental
results indicated acceptable flowability, bleeding, and hardened state characteristics eligible to give stronger bearing capacity and
hence competent for structural application. Qian et al. [169] replaced the sand with excess excavated soil as fine aggregate for CLSM
design. ES with a liquid limit of 37.2% and a plastic index of 18.1%, also had 55.3% soil particles smaller than 0.075 mm used as fine
aggregate. The flowability was highly affected by the sand/soil ratio. Excess segregation was reported in the CLSM mix with a high
sand/soil ratio. Compressive strength met the re-excavation recommendation. CLSM with higher soil content was reported to have a
larger shrinkage strain. The CLSM samples containing only excavated soil as aggregate lost more than 50% of initial strength after 10
freezing and thawing cycles. Marine dredged soil (MDS) was used as filler with natural sand as fine aggregate by Do et al. [170] for the
preparation of CLSM. The CLSM was used as thermal grout in the geothermal system. The CLSM thus prepared satisfied all the criteria
recommended by the ACI committee. Excavated collapsible loess and sandy soil were used as fine aggregate with gravel soil as coarse
aggregate for CLSM production by Zhu et al. [171]. The result indicated that by reducing the collapsible loess content, the CLSM
flowability and strength improved. Wang et al. [172] utilized silty soil as an aggregate with red mud as a binder. The filler effect of both
red mud and silty soil increases the surface area and decreases the flowability of the CLSM.
Native soils and excavated soils are incorporated to produce CLSM and these shows low strength suitable for the different excavated
application. Higher soil content reduces flowability and larger shrinkage strain. Both high and low-plasticity clay can be used as an
aggregate. CLSM with both high and low plasticity clay shows acceptable flowability and strength. High-plasticity clay requires a
higher dosage of cement in comparison to low-plasticity clay. Native soil, excavated soil, and clay are often locally available and can be
obtained at a lower cost compared to other types of aggregate materials. Utilizing these materials as aggregates in CLSM can lead to
cost savings, especially when large quantities are required. The use of native or excavated soils as aggregates in CLSM can enhance the
compatibility with surrounding soils in geotechnical applications. It facilitates the transition between CLSM and the surrounding soil,
minimizing differential settlement and ensuring better integration within the existing ground. The reactivity and compatibility of
native and excavated soils, along with high or low-plasticity clay, with cementitious materials in CLSM should be considered. Some
soils or clays may contain reactive components that could negatively affect the setting time, strength development, and long-term
durability of CLSM. Compatibility assessments should be conducted to ensure the desired performance and mitigate potential is­
sues. Native and excavated soils, as well as high or low-plasticity clay, may undergo settlement and volume changes over time due to
moisture content variations, consolidation, or swelling behavior. These characteristics can affect the long-term performance of CLSM,
especially in applications where stability and dimensional stability are crucial. Adequate compaction, moisture control, and appro­
priate admixtures may be required to mitigate settlement and volume change issues.

4.2.5. Other waste resources and industrial by-products as CLSM aggregate

Material accessibility and cost play a prime role in the selection of CLSM raw ingredients. Various waste resources and industrial by-
products are used as aggregates or fillers corresponding to their size. The slow cooling process and almost few binding properties of Air-

Fig. 8. Effect of rubber content on the development of strength [177].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

cooled blast-furnace slag (ACBFS) make it appropriate to be used as aggregate in CLSM. Lin et al. [158] used ACBFS as aggregate for the
preparation of CLSM having water-quenched blast furnace slag (WQBFS) as a binder as WQBFS presents more reactivity. Jarosite
residue (JR) is a waste precipitate generated in the zinc extraction process which is less toxic than zinc. Bouzalakos et al. [173] and
Chan et al. [174] investigated CLSM using JR as a binder but due to low pozzolanic behavior and leaching of lead along with zinc
content it was unsuitable to be used as a binder. It can be used in less quantity as secondary aggregates in CLSM. Ferrochrome slag as
aggregate was used in CLSM by Mahamaya and Das [87]. They found that the 7 and 56 days cured UCS varies between 0.67 and 7.53
N/mm2 and 3.79 N/mm2 to 18.32 N/mm2 respectively and thus can have both structural and non-excavation applications. After 56
days, performing the CBR test values obtained in the range of 57.8–184.3% hence is justified to be used for the pavement subbase and
base course. Generally, air-cooled ferrochrome slag is larger in particle size than water-quenched ferrochrome slag. So, it is suitably
used in CLSM. The sustainability of coal mine overburden (OB) shale is a major issue. The OB shale is comprised of flaky and plate-like
particles and has quartz, calcite, and kaolinite as major minerals. Das et al. [175] included OB shale as aggregate in CLSM. The OB shale
was crushed and different aggregate tests were carried out. The pH of OB shale was found to be 3.56 indicating its acidic nature. The
CLSM with OB shale was noticed to be not suitable for road and pavement application as the test results from the water absorption,
abrasion, crushing, impact, and OB shell angularity number tests yielded unfavorable results. However, they reported CLSM with OB
shale is suitable in several non-structural applications.
The disposal of scrap tires is a global major environmental concern. Many efforts have been made for the effective use of scrap tire
rubbers in the concrete mix. Wu and Tsai [176] used crumb rubber as a fine aggregate in CLSM. The rubber fines were prepared using
mechanical shredding of waste tires and were sieved to particle sizes within 0.9–4.76 mm. The research outcome suggested that
rubberized CLSM is not flowable but using 40% sand in rubberized CLSM imparts flowability and strength development appropriate for
bridge approach backfill. Cheung et al. [177] utilized scrap tire buffing having a specific gravity of 1.16 with sand as aggregate for the
preparation of CLSM. A reduction in long-term unconfined strength with workability and increased bleeding was noticed. Fig. 8 in­
dicates an increase in rubber content retards the setting of CLSM and reduction of long-term UCS.
Wu and Tsai [178] in another experimental investigation studied the possibility of soil-based rubberized CLSM. A less flowable
rubberized CLSM was noticed. Again stated that the CLSM strength attainment is proportional to cement-to-water (C/W),
water-to-solid (W/S) ratios, and curing time.
Ahadzadeh Ghanad and Soliman [179] used agro-waste with natural river sand as filler and produced a bio-based alkali-activated
CLSM. The fly ash and slag were used as a binder which was activated by Sodium hydroxide (NaOH). They concluded that adding a
high volume of agro-waste (more than 10%) leads to the production of low-density CLSM (LD-CLSM) having a density of about 1600
kg/m3. Agro-waste containing CLSM had higher porosity due to its porous microstructure leading to a larger water absorption rate.
Horiguchi et al. [180] investigated the applicability of incinerated Sewage Sludge Ash and Crushed-Stone Powder as CLSM aggregate
and noticed that the incinerated Sewage Sludge ash had a reverse impact on flowability and strength properties i.e., decreased
flowability along with strength and increased bleeding of CLSM, but the use of crushed-stone powder decreased the bleeding. Fauzi
et al. [181] estimated the cost and CO2 emission of CLSM containing wastepaper sludge ash (WSA) with recycled fine aggregate (RFA).
The WSA content was found to significantly affect the strength of CLSM and also affects the CO2 emission along with the cost.
Naganathan et al. [182] in the mix proportion of CLSM used bottom ash and quarry dust as fine aggregate or filler material. The bottom
ash with an uncompacted bulk density of 478 kg/m3, a specific gravity of 1.83, and a particle size of less than 10 mm was used in the
investigation. Quarry dust with a specific gravity of 2.59 and uncompacted bulk density of 1440 kg/m3 was used too. The prepared
CLSM was studied for corrosive and leaching behavior. The CLSM mixture showed no corrosive character justified through the pH and
TCLP tests. Razak et al. [15] used waste incinerated bottom ash (BA) in the CLSM. The bottom ash was oven dried at 105 ◦ C and sieved
through a 10 mm sieve. The result indicated that the density of CLSM can be linearly related to the cement/bottom ash (C/BA) ratio
and the UCS was in the excavatable range. The setting time was influenced by bleeding, C/BA, and water-to-cement ratio. Sivakumar
et al. [183] examined the results of quarry dust on the realization of industrial waste incineration bottom ash-based CLSM. The bottom
ash and quarry dust had a compacted bulk density of 535 kg/m3, 1666 kg/m3, a specific gravity of 1.1, 2.89, and water absorption of
63%, and 0.9% respectively. The addition of quarry dust to bottom ash-based CLSM increased its fresh density and strength. Katz and
Kovler [184] used bottom ash and quarry waste for the production of CLSM. It was noticed that with the increase of fine waste, the
water demand increased for maintaining a constant flow and the addition of quarry waste increased the water demand but decreased
the bleeding. Quarry waste was used as fine aggregate with fly ash and cement as a binder by Salini et al. [93] for CLSM production. Do
et al. [88] evaluated CLSM as thermal grout. They prepared CLSM using ponded ash as fine aggregate. The PSD was performed with
dried ponded ash by sieving through a 9.52 mm sieve. Lini Dev and Robinson [64] designed pond ash-based CLSM for structural fill.
The result showed the property of pond ash-based CLSM range in the recommendation zone of ACI guidelines. Do et al. [17] inves­
tigated the thermal conductivity of CLSM with pond ash as a fine aggregate. The pond ash was used as a full replacement for natural
sand. The findings suggested that CLSM showed a conductivity range the same as that of conventional bentonite-based thermal grout.
Kim et al. [185] investigated the engineering properties and leaching behavior of arsenic-rich mine tailings in the CLSM. They
concluded that CLSM with tailings showed flowability exceeding ACI guidelines and strength characteristics also satisfied. The ab­
solute value of leaching remained less than 2% indicating no significant influence. Kim et al. [186] in another study utilized arsenic
(As) rich mine tailings and pond ash in CLSM. Using the backscattered electron method [187] it was found that As in tailings existed in
the form of arsenopyrite (FeAsS). The research findings pointed out that CLSM with mine tailings and pond ash showed high work­
ability but less strength. The CLSM containing only tailings met the standard TCLP test result guidelines while CLSM containing both
mine tailings and pond ash failed to meet the guidelines. Iron tailing sand with red mud slag to sand ratio of 0.797 was found to be
effective and optimal by Jiang et al. [121].
Agarwal and Castillo [188] designed CLSM with glass waste and river sand as aggregate. River sand was rounded in shape while

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

glass waste was more angular shaped. The CLSM containing 80% fly ash with glass sand showed better flowability than the CLSM mix
containing 75% glass sand. Due to the angular shape of glass sand, the flowability decreased. Xiao et al. [189] produced CLSM with
waste glass powder (GP) and hydrated lime (CH). They reported that the workability was influenced by the GP/CH ratio and water
quantity. The bleeding was reported to be inversely related to GP/CH ratio, and a high amount of CH can facilitate the dissolution of GP
and fasten the early strength development. Her-Yung [190] studied the engineering properties of CLSM with waste liquid crystal
display (LCD) glass sand. He reported that with an increase in LCD glass and the amount of sand; the setting time and ultrasonic pulse
velocity increased but the UCS decreased. Wang et al. [191] used alum sludge as a replacement for recycled aggregate at the level of
10–40% for the preparation of CLSM. Alum sludge consisted of silt and clay with particle sizes less than 0.05 mm. Alum sludge was
subjected to a loss in the ignition (LOI) test as per ASTM D7348 [192] and showed that dried alum sludge contained about 21.6%
organic matter. The alum sludge increased the CLSM water content and resulted in a long setting time along with reduced compressive
strength. Artificial interior stone (AIS) sludge was used as fine aggregate in the preparation of CLSM by Shin et al. [193]. The phys­
iochemical property i.e., total concentration/leaching of heavy metals and material properties of CLSM investigated to evaluate the
feasibility of AIS sludge as fine aggregate. They also implemented genetic algorithm-optimized machine learning algorithms to predict
the compressive strength with suitable equations.
Mneina et al. [194] incorporated treated oil sand waste (TOSW) in the CLSM. They prepared three groups of CLSM mix. The first
group consisted of conventional CLSM regarded as a control mix. In the second group, TOSW was added as a partial replacement of
sand by volume at the rates of 5–15%, and in the third group, TOSW replaced fly ash completely. TOSW increased the CLSM flowability
and reduced water demand and bleeding. TOSW was suitable for LD-CLSM as it gives lower dry density. In another investigation,
Mneina et al. [195] studied the dynamic properties of CLSM with TOSW as a partial replacement for sand. They reported that TOSW
had an insignificant effect on low-strain shear modulus however increase in TOSW content increased the CLSM stiffness. Due to the fine
particle size of TOSW, the shear wave velocity was reduced by 32–34% when TOSW replaced fly ash. Wu et al. [196] utilized bottom
ash and waste paper sludge as aggregates/fillers in the CLSM. They reported that the high-water absorption characteristic of paper
sludge reduced the flowability and CLSM strength but a low content (less than 10%) of paper sludge can be used in the CLSM. Park and
Hong [197] investigated the strength characteristic of CLSM with waste paper sludge ash (WPSA) for the prevention of sewage pipe
damage. WPSA having a specific gravity of 2.5 was used at the level of 0–60%. They reported that it is feasible to use WPSA in CLSM for
sewage backfill as it exhibited good unconfined compressive strength. Kuo et al. [198] produced sand from waste oyster shells (WOS)
and incorporated it in CLSM. They concluded that 5% WOS replacement gave an excellent pore-filling ability but as the percentage of
WOS increased in the CLSM, the compressive strength decreased. Electric Arc Furnace Dust (EAFD) is a by-product formed during steel
making process in an electric arc furnace. Mirdamadi et al. [199] used waste EAFD as a fine aggregate in the CLSM. They concluded
that EAFD-based CLSM can be used for applications such as backfill, pavement base, and sub-base. Cheng et al. [200] proposed the
sustainable use of biochar (pulverized charcoal) as partial sand replacement in CLSM. The use of biochar can produce maximum
environmental benefit and the use of natural fine aggregate can be reduced. They also reported that with increased content of biochar
the UCS and split-tensile strength of CLSM decreases. Crushed waste thermoset glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) utilized as fine
aggregate by Li t al [201]. for CLSM production. Increase in proportion of GFRP in CLSM resulted in a decrease in strength and
workability. Lightweight CLSM containing construction waste and expanded polystyrene (EPS) as fine aggregate developed by Liu
et al. [202]. The surface of EPS was modified by using ethylene vinyl acetate-resin (EVA). The utilization of EPS resulted in the
reduction of CLSM density.
Several waste resources and industrial by-products have been utilized as aggregate in the production of CLSM. Utilizing waste
resources and industrial by-products as CLSM aggregates promotes sustainable construction practices by reducing the need for virgin
materials and diverting waste from landfills. It contributes to resource conservation, waste management, and the reduction of envi­
ronmental impact. Ferrochrome slag was found to be suitable for both structural and non-structural excavation work. OB shale-based
CLSM was found to be only suitable for non-structural applications. scrap tire incorporated CLSM shows higher bleeding and reduction
in long-term strength gain. Quarry dust and bottom ash-based CLSM shows an increase in fresh density and strength. TOSW when used
as aggregate in CLSM, increased its flowability, and a reduction in water demand and bleeding was found. Agro-wastes have been
employed as aggregate for LD-CLSM. By incorporating waste resources and industrial by-products in CLSM, valuable resources are
being reused and given a new life. It promotes the concept of a circular economy by reducing waste generation and maximizing
resource utilization. It is crucial to ensure compliance with local regulations and guidelines when using waste resources and industrial
by-products in CLSM. Specific requirements may exist regarding the quality, treatment, and permissible limits for the use of these
materials in construction applications. Rigorous performance testing is essential to evaluate the suitability and performance of CLSM
containing waste resources and industrial by-products. Testing should consider factors such as material content, processing methods,
mix design adjustments, and long-term durability to assess their impact on key properties such as strength, workability, and stability.

4.2.6. Critical discussion on aggregates

Generally, it is known that aggregates are used as inert fillers to make concrete mixes more compact by filling the voids and giving
more packing. They also help in decreasing the cement and water content of the mix and ultimately provide strength, dimensional
stability, volume stability, thermal stability, and elasticity to concrete. As the requirement of strength is very less in the case of CLSM so
the role of aggregate somewhat gets minimized in comparison to the concrete mix. The use of coarse aggregate in CLSM is limited as
coarse aggregates have more stiffness and provide more packing density which results in higher strength. Fine aggregates are
extensively used in the production of CLSM which provide better flowability along with uniformity and reduce segregation along with
shrinkage too. While natural aggregate can contribute to the mechanical properties, particle packing, and cost-effectiveness of CLSM,
challenges related to particle size distribution, shape, moisture absorption, variation in properties, and compatibility with

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cementitious materials need to be addressed to ensure a successful application. Though the use of natural aggregates in CLSM enhances
its performance but given sustainability and cost-effectiveness, various waste resources and industrial by-products are encouraged to
be used as aggregates. Foundry sands are rich in silica content and used as a replacement for natural aggregate in CLSM. CLSM
produced with foundry sand are economical, intoxicating, and develop low strength. CLSM with foundry sand shows an increase in
bleeding as it has a coarser particle size. The addition of recycled fine aggregate in CLSM shows a reduction in compressive strength.
Recycled aggregate with slag as a binder shows more strength in comparison to recycled aggregate with HCFA as a binder. An increase
in CFBC ash content as recycled aggregate results in a decrease in strength. Recycled aggregates containing ceramic components show
more strength. CLSM with recycled aggregate shows less bleeding in comparison to natural aggregates. Higher soil content reduces
flowability and larger shrinkage strain. Both high and low-plasticity clay can be used as an aggregate. CLSM with both high and low
plasticity clay shows acceptable flowability and strength. High-plasticity clay requires a higher dosage of cement in comparison to low-
plasticity clay. Ferrochrome slag was found to be suitable for both structural and non-structural excavation work. OB shale-based
CLSM was found to be only suitable for non-structural applications. scrap tire incorporated CLSM shows higher bleeding and
reduction in long-term strength gain. Quarry dust and bottom ash-based CLSM shows an increase in fresh density and strength. TOSW
when used as aggregate in CLSM increased its flowability, and reduces the water demand along with bleeding. Agro-wastes have been
employed as aggregate for LD-CLSM.

4.3. Water-to-binder ratio (W/B)

The continual research in structural concrete established the fundamental assumption that the strength of concrete or any
cementitious material increases with the rise in the strength of its hardened cement paste [203]. The strength of a hardened cement
paste is controlled by the ratio of the water quantity to the cement/any binder quantity [204]. Thus, a relationship is established
between the strength characteristic and the water/binder ratio of cementitious material. As per reports [205,206], Zielinszki inves­
tigated the effect of the water/cement ratio on strength characteristics but Abram’s strength formula (1918) is more rational in the
sense that an empirical relationship is established between compressive strength and water/cement ratio. Abram’s strength formula is
given by
K1
f= W (2)
K2 C

Where, f = strength of the cementitious material, K1 and K2 = empirical parameters obtained by curve fitting to experimental data,
depending on the type of materials and type of strength, w/c = water-cement ratio. The W/C ratio also affects the total porosity in a
cementitious paste which ultimately affects the strength. Popovics [207] gave a relationship between the total porosity and cemen­
titious paste composition which can be presented as
w/
Pt = 0.01a + c (3)
w/c + 1/G

Where, Pt = total porosity in the fresh cement paste; a = air content; w/c = water-cement ratio; and G = cement Specific gravity.
These research findings gave rise to the fundamental inversely proportional relationship between the w/c ratio and strength i.e., a
higher w/c ratio implies lower strength and vice versa. In the context of CLSM, the requirement of strength is less so generally high w/c
ratio is preferred.

Fig. 9. Effect of SSRS on CLSM at different w/b ratios [25,208].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Ayers et al. [145] investigated 84 CLSM mix to find an optimized mix proportion. They gradually increased the water/binder ratio
from 0.6 to 1.0 and observed a decrease in compressive strength with an increase in the water/binder ratio. They did not observe
segregation but noticed bleeding in the mixes at a water/binder ratio exceeding 0.8. Sheen et al. [208] in the soil-based CLSM replaced
stainless steel reducing slag (SSRS) at different percentages and studied strength development at 28 and 56 days with w/b ratios of 3.4,
3.6, and 3.8. As shown in Fig. 9, a strength reduction was noticed with increasing SSRS content regardless of the w/b ratio.
Serpell et al. [209] proposed a relative mix proportioning method for CLSM. They used various water/binder ratios like 0.51, 0.65,
0.85, 1.05, and 1.19 and concluded that water/binder alone is a good predictor of CLSM strength. The flowability in the CLSM mix is
primarily controlled by volumetric paste percent (VPP) and the water/binder ratio plays a limited role in it. Subsidence generally
occurs in the high flowable mix, so it can be regulated by controlling parameters such as water/binder ratio and VPP. Halmen and Shah
[77] prepared CLSM using binders like fly ash and water/binder ratios of 0.61, 0.8, and 1.0. A direct relationship between flowability,
setting time, and strength characteristics were observed with the water/binder ratio. Nantung and Scholer [210] investigated early
setting, and strength characteristics along with freezing and thawing of CLSM with a water/binder ratio of 1.29. A high percentage of
permeable voids was noticed in CLSM affecting the freezing and thawing durability test and concluded the water/binder ratio or
primarily the binder content as a major parameter regarding early strength gain of CLSM. Horiguchi et al. [76] had taken various
water/binder ratios in their optimization study of CLSM mix proportion with combined clinker ash and FA. In the mix design with class
1 fly ash, they had taken the water/binder ratio in the range of 0.33–0.52 while in another mix proportion, the water/binder ratio was
at a slightly higher range of 0.52–0.74. The findings suggested that the addition of clinker ash with a high water/binder ratio decreased
the bleeding of the CLSM mixes. Raghavendra et al. [79] had taken different binder-to-water ratios in their investigation using bagasse
ash and fly ash. They increased the water content from 35% to 50% and reported an increase in water demand when bagasse ash was
added as a supplementary cementitious material. Various authors [211–214] conveyed the importance of water in the cementitious
mix that helps in getting a mobilized mix in a fresh state. Fig. 10 describes how water facilitates absorption, wetting of the surface, and
providing mobilization by dislocating the solid grains. Pujadas et al. [215] in their mix proportion approach used varying water-solid
ratios to maximize the solid particle packing density, ensured the flowability, and adjusted the cement amount to achieve the ideal
compressive strength. Other key findings are described in Table 1.
From the table, it can be observed that for the production of CLSM, there is no specified range of water/binder ratio. Utilization of
different waste resources and industrial by-products possesses different water demands. For general binders like cement, fly ash, and
slag with an increase in w/b ratio the bleeding, segregation, and setting time increase. Other waste resources are generally found to
have high water demand, thus w/b ratio needs to accomplish general CLSM characteristics.

4.3.1. Critical discussion on water/binder ratio

The water-to-binder ratio is a crucial parameter that significantly affects the properties and performance of Controlled Low
Strength Material (CLSM). Understanding the importance of different water/binder ratios in CLSM is essential for achieving desired
results in terms of workability, strength, durability, and overall quality. The water-to-binder ratio directly influences the workability of
CLSM. It determines the fluidity and ease of placing and compacting the mixture. A higher water/binder ratio typically results in a
more flowable mixture, facilitating easier placement, and improving workability. Conversely, a lower water-to-binder ratio may lead
to a stiffer mixture, making it more challenging to work with. By adjusting the water-to-binder ratio, CLSM can be tailored to meet the
specific requirements of the project and ensure proper flow and compaction. The water-to-binder ratio affects the durability of CLSM,
especially in terms of resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and long-term stability. Excess water in the mixture can
increase porosity, reducing the resistance to freeze-thaw damage and increasing the permeability to aggressive substances. By opti­
mizing the water-to-binder ratio, the porosity, and permeability can be controlled, enhancing the durability and longevity of CLSM.
Flowability and UCS are the primary plastic and hardened characteristics respectively for CLSM. Most of the research studies suggested
that as the strength requirement is very less and good flowability is an important factor in CLSM, so larger water/binder ratio is
preferred. The addition of some waste resources in CLSM increases the water demand and decreases workability. While taking a high
water/binder ratio, the designer should be concerned about segregation, bleeding, and subsidence. A high water/binder ratio imparts a
negative influence on the setting time of CLSM as mostly it results in an increment of setting time that causes a restriction in quick
placing. So, these possibilities should be briefly considered while taking certain water/binder ratios. The water/binder ratio has a
direct impact on shrinkage and settlement behavior in CLSM. Excessive water can contribute to greater shrinkage and settlement,
leading to potential cracking and uneven settlement. By adjusting the water-to-binder ratio within an appropriate range, the shrinkage
and settlement can be minimized, ensuring the stability and integrity of the CLSM. It also affects the cost and economics of CLSM. A

Fig. 10. Role of water in a fresh state of cementitious material [215].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Table 1
Research findings on the effect of w/b ratio on CLSM.

Authors Water/Binder Ratio Effects

(w/b)

Razak et al. [15] 5.1–26.5 Both the bleeding and setting time are proportional to the w/b ratio.
Do et al. [17] 1.37 The degree of saturation changes directly with thermal conductivity and at a constant w/b ratio, the addition of
pond ash enhanced the degree of saturation while the addition of excavated soil reduced the same.
Le and Nguyen 2.8-4.8 A w/b ratio of 3.4 with 30% SSRS replacement gave better flowability than other mix proportions.
[105]
Wang et al. [172] 0.46 A water-to-solid ratio of 0.46 shows better flowability and demand of the initial setting time of red mud-based
CLSM.
Naganathan et al. 0.68-25.5 Cement is the only binder added with Bottom ash and quarry dust. The pH and corrosivity are inversely
[182] proportional to the w/b ratio.
Wang et al. [191] 0.79-2.60 The water demand is raised due to the addition of alum sludge so at a higher w/b ratio the flowability was
maintained.
Qian et al. [216] 0.26-0.58 The fine content increased water demand and a higher w/b ratio resulted in better flowability and less early
strength gain.
Do et al. [217] 1.1–1.2 CLSM showed acceptable workability but was found to have a higher heat exchange rate.
Chompoorat et al. 0.44, 0.55, and 0.80 The value of CBR is inversely related to the w/b ratio. A w/b ratio of 0.44 with high fly ash content showed
[218] maximum flowability.
Fauzi et al. [219] 2.43, 2.53, 2.63, 2.73, Waste paper sludge ash (WSA) efficiency was raised with an increase in the w/b ratio. A w/b ratio of 2.73 gave
and 2.83 high flowability and demanded high WSA doses. The rise in the w/b ratio decreased segregation. w/b ratio of
2.53 produced better UCS.
Uchibagle and Lal 0.55 CLSM was developed using pond ash, GGBFS, cement, and water. The CLSM became flowable with a w/b ratio
[220] of 0.55.

higher water-to-binder ratio may increase the amount of binder required to maintain the desired strength, resulting in higher material
costs. Moreover, excessive water content can prolong the curing time, impacting project timelines and increasing labor costs.
Therefore, optimizing the water-to-binder ratio can help achieve a balance between performance requirements and cost-effectiveness.

4.4. Additives
As a fundamental and essential part of any cementitious material, various additives are utilized for exhibiting improved properties.
Additives such as natural/organic admixture, mineral admixture, chemical admixture, superplasticizer, accelerators/retarding agents,
waterproof additives, air-entraining agents, shrinkage-reducing admixture, foaming agents, and others are frequently used for
different purposes depending on their properties [221]. Like in concrete, additives also play major roles in CLSM, affecting properties
such as strength attainment, flow behavior, setting characteristics, pumpability, heat resistance, and in density reduction. Various
natural/organic admixtures like water hyacinth extracts, starch extracts, plant extracts, and different mineral admixtures are used to
improve the quality of cementitious material along with reducing the cement quantity in the mix [222–225]. Superplasticizers and
water-reducing admixtures reduce the water requirement without affecting workability and maintaining certain strength [226]. The
air-entraining admixture improves workability and is effective in freeze-thaw cycles [227]. Accelerators and retarders reduce the
setting times in cementitious material such as rapid setting CLSM by reducing cement hydration. Foaming agents are used for the
preparation of LD-CLSM.
Du et al. [228] investigated the effects of additives on the properties of rapid-setting CLSM (RS-CLSM). They used different types of
fly ash, gypsum, hemihydrate, type 1 Portland cement, and aluminum as additives. It was noticed that the most effective additive was
aluminum as it retarded the setting time of CLSM more significantly than others while the use of type 1 OPC with gypsum was found to
be effective in retarding the hydration of C2 and C3 FA. Zhang et al. [160] used accelerators to produce rapid-hardening CLSM. Fig. 11

Fig. 11. Influence of A/B ratio on the UCS development in CLSM [160].

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illustrates the role of the accelerator-to-binder ratio (A/B) on strength development. The use of accelerators promotes initial strength
development but reduces later strength development.
Claisse et al. [118] produced CLSM with basic oxygen slag (BOS) as base material with mineral admixtures such as red gypsum
along with CKD and observed the CLSM mix shows excellent properties for placing. Wang et al. [191] used accelerating additives like
5% NaOH, 5% CaCl2, 5% triethanolamine (TEA), and a mix of CaCl2 along with TEA to study their effect on early strength, setting time,
and other CLSM performance enhancements characteristics. They concluded that CaCl2 shortened the stiffening time while organic
TEA was found most effective as it lowered the stiffening time both initial and final by 82% and 75%, respectively. Foaming agents
were used to prepare LD-CLSM having a density ranging from 320 to 1920 kg/m3. Adding a high amount of mineral admixture such as
FA and decreasing cement content results in reduced long-term strength development which helps in future excavation. It can be
observed in Fig. 12 that increasing the superplasticizer and accelerator content resulted in a decrease in UCS.
As per ACI guidelines [11] foam having a density of around 40–65 kg/m3 along with supplementary cementitious material like FA,
silica fume, metakaolin, and slag can be used for the production of CLSM. Other notable research findings on additives are described in
Table 2.
As various CLSM applications need to fulfill their different characteristics, thus a wide range of additives has been utilized. Natural
admixture, mineral admixture, chemical admixture, superplasticizer, accelerators, retarding agents, waterproof additives, and air-
entraining agents are used as per required applications.

4.4.1. Critical discussion on additives

Additives play a significant role in enhancing the properties and performance of Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM). These
additives are incorporated into the mixture to achieve specific objectives, such as improving workability, strength development,
durability, and other desired characteristics. Understanding the importance of different additives in CLSM is essential for optimizing its
performance. Additives such as plasticizers, superplasticizers, and viscosity modifiers are commonly used to improve the workability
of CLSM. These additives reduce the water demand, increase the flowability, and enhance the ease of placement and compaction. By
improving workability, additives enable better filling of intricate spaces, improve self-leveling properties, and ensure uniform dis­
tribution within the formwork. Various additives can enhance the strength development of CLSM. For instance, accelerators, such as
calcium chloride or other alkaline compounds, can expedite the cement hydration process and increase early strength gain. On the
other hand, retarders can be employed to delay the setting time, allowing for longer workability and improved strength development
over time. By carefully selecting and incorporating the appropriate additives, the strength characteristics of CLSM can be tailored to
meet project requirements. Additives are often used to improve the durability of CLSM, making it resistant to adverse conditions and
environmental factors. For example, incorporating admixtures like air-entraining agents can enhance the resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles and reduce the potential for damage due to water penetration and ice formation. Additionally, corrosion inhibitors can be
added to protect embedded steel reinforcement from corrosion, enhancing the long-term durability of CLSM. Additives can be utilized
to control the flow behavior and stability of CLSM. Thickeners and stabilizers are commonly employed to prevent the segregation and
settling of solid particles within the mixture. These additives improve cohesion, prevent bleeding, and maintain uniform distribution of
components during placement and curing. Mineral admixtures are extensively used in CLSM in reducing the cement content, hence
helping in the control of ultimate strength development, shrinkage reduction, and providing better flowability. Fly ash and slag were
mostly utilized as mineral admixtures. Several chemical admixtures are used for reducing the setting time as rapid construction is being
prioritized. In CLSM high w/b ratio is used and sometimes it causes segregation and bleeding. Thus, various water-reducing additives
are also used to reduce segregation along with bleeding and these help in maintaining adequate CLSM strength. Foaming agents are
used as additives for the preparation of LD-CLSM by lowering the unit weight. Certain additives can be employed to impart specialized
characteristics to CLSM based on specific project requirements. For instance, fibers can be added to enhance the tensile and flexural

Fig. 12. Effect of additives on compressive strength [25,229].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Table 2
Research findings on the effect of additives on CLSM.

Authors Additives used Effects

Mahamaya et al. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) The use of KOH for alkali activation of binders accelerates the process of activation and
[109] at a high molar ratio produces alkaline aluminum/calcium silicate hydrates for binding
purposes.
Jang et al. [134] Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) Na2CO3 was used as an activator and at an amount of 5%, the setting time was reduced
and strength improved. The further increase led to a reduction in properties.
Park et al. [135] Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) NaOH was used for alkali activation and the NaOH content varies inversely with the
initial setting time.
Ghanad and Fly ash and Slag The addition of high FA content increases the flowability.
Soliman [179]
Zhu et al. [171] Fly ash The increase in fly ash content increased the long-term strength of CLSM.
Kim et al. [230] Steelmaking Slag and fly ash The steel-making slag content is inversely related to flowability and bleeding. In
comparison to raw steel-making slag, ground steel-making slag enhanced thermal
conductivity and reduced permeability.
Weng et al. [231] Co-fired fly ash and combined bottom ash The addition of co-fired FA reduces flowability, accelerates setting time, and increases
strength. Incorporation of combined bottom ash increases strength and causes
expansion of CLSM.
Okuyucu et al. Class C fly ash A variant of CLSM i.e., self-consolidating base material (SCBM) prepared to incorporate
[232] steel fibers as reinforcement for the pavement base layer. The addition of FA lowered
the bleeding, shrinkage, and permeability.
Crouch et al. [233] MBT and WRG The stable air bubbles entrainment in CLSM enhanced the workability, reduced the
bleeding, and limited the strength.
Hepworth et al. Anti-washout admixture (AWA) and High range Admixtures were used to extend the use of CLSM in underwater placement.
[234] water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) Incorporation of these resulted in the minimization of washout contamination and
cross contamination of CLSM and also modified the flow consistency of CLSM.
Chen et al. [235] Polycarboxylate water-reducing agent Bleeding of bottom ash-based CLSM reduced at a high w/b ratio.
Jian et al. [236] Sulfonated acetone formaldehyde (SAF) High-fluid backfill materials (HFBMs) a high-flowable version of CLSM mixed with SAF
to overcome problems of polycarboxylate superplasticizers. Increasing the SAF content
resulted in improved working performance, mechanical properties, and pH of the
leaching solution, and the reduction in mixing water was successfully implemented.

properties of CLSM, improving its resistance to cracking and enhancing overall toughness. Additionally, specialized additives can be
used to achieve properties like rapid setting or self-healing capabilities, depending on the unique project needs.

4.5. Curing condition

Curing can be defined as the process adopted for promoting hydration of the cementitious material and includes temperature
control and moisture movement from and into it. Curing permits persistent cement hydration and consequently plays a primary role in
strength attainment and material durability [237]. The hydration of the cement depends on proper moisture conditions in the
cementitious material otherwise the hydration ceases due to relative humidity if the rate and extent of moisture loss are not controlled
[238]. Early drying due to evaporation creates plastic shrinkage and produces micro-cracks hence curing becomes of primary
importance [239]. Different types of curing can be applied to a cementitious material such as the sprinkling of water, ponding method,
membrane curing, immersion curing, steam curing, and ambient curing. The effect of curing conditions on CLSM is broadly discussed
in this section.
Folliard et al. [240] studied the curing conditions’ effect on the CLSM strength attainment. They cured CLSM at 10 ◦ C, 21 ◦ C, and

Fig. 13. Curing temperature effect on compressive strength [81].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

38 ◦ C temperatures in dry and wet conditions for 7, 28, and 91 days. It was reported that drying at an early age (7 days) increased the
UCS but at 91 days strength was found to be decreased significantly. CLSM exposed to drying conditions at 10 ◦ C and 21 ◦ C showed
more reduction in compressive strength between 28 and 91 days in comparison to CLSM mix exposed to 38 ◦ C due to the development
of larger microcracks. Okuyucu et al. [241] studied the relationship between mechanical properties and two different curing regimes.
They applied continuous curing to CLSM at 21 ◦ C temperature with 50% relative humidity (RH) and 100% RH. The UCS and tensile
strength increased for CLSM at 100% RH condition in comparison to curing at 50% RH. They also reported that the CLSM setting time
decreased when the curing temperature raised from 50◦ F to 90◦ F. Alizadeh [81] studied curing of fly ash based CLSM with 2% cement
content at different temperatures. From Fig. 13 it can be observed that long-term strength development at room temperature is less
than 25%.
Alizadeh [82] in another experiment investigated the temperature effect on the strength of the CLSM mix. He produced three
batches of CLSM and cured it for 90 days at 4.44 ◦ C, 22.78 ◦ C, and 37.8 ◦ C. It can be noticed that (Fig. 14) the early-age strength
attainment is accomplished at a higher curing temperature but reduces the rate of strength gain in the later period. CLSM cured at a
cold temperature (4.44 ◦ C) was found to have 60% less strength than curing at room temperature (22.78 ◦ C). Other significant findings
are given in Table 3.
The table above provides information regarding different curing conditions adopted by various researchers. It can be concluded
that most of the work applied ambient curing and humidity chamber curing procedure. The low strength requirement of CLSM leads to
less use of water curing.

4.5.1. Critical discussion on curing condition

In any cementitious material, curing is a process of maintaining adequate temperature and moisture conditions (for a specified time
duration) for satisfactory hydration to enrich its properties. Curing conditions significantly impact the strength development of CLSM.
Adequate moisture and favorable temperature conditions promote proper hydration of cementitious materials within the mix, leading
to the formation of durable bonds and increased compressive strength. Improper curing can result in reduced strength and compro­
mised structural integrity. Proper curing conditions help maintain the desired workability and flowability of CLSM during its place­
ment and early stages of setting. Controlling the curing environment ensures that the material retains its fluid properties long enough
for it to flow and fill voids without excessive shrinkage or premature stiffening. Curing conditions directly affect the shrinkage
behavior of CLSM. By maintaining sufficient moisture content, especially during the initial curing period, the risk of shrinkage and
subsequent cracking can be minimized. This is particularly crucial in applications where CLSM is used to backfill utility trenches or fill
voids, as cracking can compromise structural stability and long-term performance. Appropriate curing conditions contribute to the
long-term durability and performance of CLSM. Adequate hydration of cementitious materials improves the resistance to chemical
attacks, freeze-thaw cycles, and other environmental factors. Proper curing also helps in reducing the potential for early-age damage
and ensuring the long-term stability of the material. Consistency in curing conditions across different CLSM placements ensures
uniformity in strength and performance. Adhering to specified curing protocols facilitates quality control and allows for reliable
comparisons between different mixes and projects. It helps in assessing the effectiveness of mix designs and optimizing the use of CLSM
in various applications. CLSM is mostly used as a filling and bedding material along with the possibility of future excavation cannot be
ruled out. Such applications of CLSM lowers the demand for strength attainment. Thus, the impact of the curing condition can be
considered critical because the curing condition should not elevate the strength properties. Most research works suggest that ambient
and humidity-controlled temperature curing are the most appropriate curing condition for CLSM. Very less research is based on the
water curing of CLSM as most of its applications do not require any water curing. Optimal curing conditions can help accelerate the
early strength gain of CLSM, allowing for faster project completion and reduced construction timelines. By carefully controlling curing
temperature and duration, it is possible to expedite the development of sufficient strength for subsequent construction activities,
leading to improved project efficiency.

Fig. 14. Temperature effect on the strength development [82].

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Table 3
Research findings on the CLSM curing conditions consequences.

Authors Curing Condition Effects

Yuan et al. [10] Humidity chamber with relative humidity ≥99% at Increase in curing time from 7 to 28 days, the unconfined strength increased
20 ± 2 ◦ C and it showed the highest 28 days UCS with 60% red mud content.
Chompoorat et al. [89] Unsoaked and dry at controlled Temperature and Electric arc furnace steel slag-based CLSM achieved enhanced modulus of
humid condition resilience and desired strength property.
Raghavendra and Humidity chamber An increase in curing time increased the strength property. High strength
Udayashankar [102] developed at a longer duration.
Lachemi et al. [103] Ambient curing at 23 ◦ C with 100% relative Slag-based CLSM showed a gain of strength of about 227–781% from 7 days to
humidity 28 days and further gained with an increase in curing time.
Kuo et al. [198] Air curing The compressive strength of CLSM-containing waste oyster shell (WOS) was
measured for 1, 7, 28, 56, and 91 days. The rate of increase in both compressive
strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was higher from 1 to 28 days in
comparison to 28–91 days.
Raghavendra et al. [242] Ambient curing at standard room temperature of Increased curing time to 56 days showed better strength for all the mixes
24 ◦ C barring the mixes with high dosages of Class F FA with low water contents
which showed larger strength gain at an early age.
Alizadeh [243] Climate-controlled room at 23 ◦ C and relative An optimized cementing paste volume of 40% showed relatively higher
humidity of 50% strength when curing time increased.
Pierce et al. [244] Cured continuously in a tap water bath for 28, 90, An increase in strength was observed for CLSM till 90 days in water bath curing
and 600+ days but long-term water immersion curing resulted in strength loss and softening.
Do et al. [245] Wet chamber curing with a relative humidity of The compressive strength of CLSM under wet chamber curing was remarkably
50% and 100% and in Saturated curing condition. more than the CLSM cured in saturated curing conditions.
Han et al. [246] Humidity chamber With the increase in curing time, the resonant frequency increased and after
the initial curing of 10 h the amplitude of the shear wave increased at a higher
rate but after 28 days, the amplitude decreases or increases irregularly.
Han et al. [247] Humidity chamber Both compressive strength and compressional wave velocity increased with an
increase in curing time but the rate of increment reduces after a certain time so
the co-relation between these two is preferred at early curing time.
Han et al. [248] Sensing mold by incorporating a TDR (Time The unconfined compressive strength, compressional-wave velocity, and
Domain Reflectometry) probe relative permittivity of CLSMs were compared at the curing stage. Presence of
moisture content led to higher relative permittivity.

5. Mix design approach for CLSM

Designing CLSM aims to bring desirable properties according to the application requirements, unlike structural concrete where the
primary objective is strength development. A wide variety of CLSM applications bring different case-sensitive challenges to be satisfied
through proper mix designing. Another major objective of the CLSM mix design is to produce it with minimal cost by utilizing locally
available materials [11]. These varieties of application requirements and various possible sources of the material make the CLSM mix
design diversified. Despite the diverse nature of the mix-design procedure, ACI recommends three basic methodologies for CLSM mix
design. The first method uses a combination of cementitious material, fine aggregate, and water with little or no admixture for CLSM
production, whereas the second method additionally utilizes air-entraining admixtures to bring 20–30% air content into the mix. The
third method is the production of LD-CLSM, which combines cementitious material, water, and foaming agents to produce a mix with
50–80% air content.
Local ready-mix concrete producers are generally having their pretested mix to satisfy local project requirements. But in case of the
unavailability of a pretested mix, an initial mix is prepared as per the ACI guidelines, which specify the range of content for each
constituent material in the CLSM mix. A proper mix for any particular project is accomplished through a series of trial mixes. This
methodology is commonly adopted in the construction sector [145,249,250]. Table 4 specifies the typical ranges of different con­
stituents as per ACI guidelines [11].
A similar trial and error method can be seen followed to produce cement-FA-based CLSM using superplasticizers and an accelerator
to reduce the setting time of CLSM [229]. Although conventional concrete mix design principles are not suitable for CLSM production,
an instance of successful production CLSM following guidelines of concrete mix design IS 10262: 2009 can be noted [251]. Adjustment
of CLSM compositions for desired properties is a complex procedure as constituents of the mix are not independent variables, so cannot
be adjusted without affecting mixture proportions. Although this method gives satisfactory results for a particular project, cannot be
inter-related with other mixes designed for different projects [209]. To nullify this liability, several studies [209,252] developed a new
approach by taking a set of independent parameters. These independent variables are paste volume ratio (PVR) or volumetric paste

Table 4
Ranges of different materials for initial mix production.

Material Range in lb/yd3 Range in kg/m3

Fine aggregate 2500–3500 1483–2076

Water 400–500 237–297
Portland cement 25–200 15–119
Fly ash 0–700 0–415

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

percentage (VPP), water-to-cementitious material ratio (w/cm), and OPC to supplementary cementitious material ratio (pm/cm). The
independence of these parameters is shown in Fig. 15. The effect of these parameters on CLSM properties has been studied and
proposed some graphical along with mathematical relationships between these independent parameters.
This approach gave a definite value of these parameters which can be selected as per targeted values of CLSM properties and the
final mix can be produced through the least number of trial mixes. One of the major drawbacks of this procedure is it considers only
four constituent materials i.e., fine aggregate, Portland cement, supplementary material, and water. A performance-based procedure
for designing of CLSM mix was proposed by Pujadas et al. [215], which considers different project field requirements to optimize the
CLSM mix. This defined trial procedure proceeds through three phases: (I) Packing optimization, (II) Flowability optimization, and (III)
Strength optimization. Three distinct parameters i.e., aggregates content (A), binder content (B), and water-to-solid ratio (W/S) are
optimized to get an optimized CLSM mix. The flowchart of this procedure is depicted in Fig. 16.
The first phase optimizes the solid system comprising binder and aggregate with the highest packing density and the second phase
gives an optimized W/S ratio for the desired workability. Determination of the water/solid ratio in the second step provides freedom of
adjusting binder content for achieving targeted compressive strength (third step) without hampering the workability of the mix.

5.1. Authors’ perspective on CLSM mix-proportioning

A discussion on the available mix design procedure in this section concludes that each one is more or less a trial-and-error
methodology. A comparative classification of different mix proportioning methods is provided in Fig. 17. Each method has its ad­
vantages and limitations. To have an optimized procedure for CLSM mix proportioning, authors suggest that, first, one initial mix
needed to be prepared to satisfy the ACI recommended ranges or previously reported results with the same materials, and then mix
design be performed either through an independent parameter method or performance-based method concerning advantage-
disadvantage consideration. This approach can reduce the number of trial mixes required for CLSM mix proportioning.

6. Applications of CLSM
The extensive applicability of any material motivates researchers to study the behavior and properties of the material to bring every
possible effectiveness in its use. CLSM, which has its primary application as backfill or structural fill material, as an alternative to
compacted soil later finds its application in other specific fields such as pavement bases, conduit beds, void filling, erosion control, etc.
The current section of this manuscript describes all possible applications of CLSM to create an overall idea about its importance from an
engineering point of view.

6.1. Backfills
Backfills are required for filling any cavity, trench, or hole. The use of CLSM as backfilling material has two major benefits over
traditional granular compacted soil, one being the self-compacting nature of CLSM, which provides better consolidation without any
use of compaction equipment. As reported by Sullivan [253], even if the granular excavated backfill is consolidated through required

Fig. 15. Independent parameters for CLSM mix design [252].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Fig. 16. CLSM mixture proportioning flow chart [215].

layers, the thickness cannot achieve the required level of uniformity and density, as provided by CLSM. This property eliminates the
requirement of unnecessary widening of trenches to accommodate compaction equipment. Another benefit of CLSM is that it has very
less setting time as reported by some researchers [59,254]. Smith [59] in 1991, reported that CLSM can take the weight of a person
within 2–3 h of placement even though it was in fluid form. Going one step forward in the same investigation, a pavement patch was
correctly placed on a sewer trench after the backfilling using CLSM. With this development, CLSM was successfully used for backfilling
street openings. Pons et al. [254] successfully implemented CLSM in road repair works and reported that after 1 h of backfilling,
asphalt or rapid-setting concrete can be used as a wearing surface which gains normal traffic-bearing capacity in approximately 4 h.
Brinkley and Mueller [255] studied several aspects of CLSM over ten years. They reported that CLSM, a non-shrink slurry is a fast and
effective way to be used as a backfill in underground utilities. They also reported that the roadway can be opened after 7 h of
backfilling, which will save time. Re-excavation was successfully carried out using standard equipment like a backhoe and other hand
tools. These advantages of CLSM as discussed above make it a suitable material for backfilling. Wu and Lin [256,257] successfully
produced CLSM using reservoir sediments and siltation and used it for backfilling purposes. When CLSM is used as a backfill against
retaining walls or bridge abutments it exerts pressure on the wall due to its self-weight. To reduce this pressure LD-CLSM is preferred to
be used in such situations as backfilling material [11]. Considering the popularity and effectiveness of CLSM as a backfill for narrow
trenches Blanco et al. [258] proposed a design methodology for CLSM using both numerical simulations and experimental procedures.

6.2. Structural fills

CLSM as structural fill refers to CLSM which is used beneath the foundation of any structure. Depending on the requirements it can
perform two distinct functions. First, to support the load coming from the foundation. This function of CLSM is desirable where the soil
has low bearing capacity. Depending on the required load-bearing capacity, the strength of CLSM can be adjusted between 0.7 and 8.3
MPa [11]. Second, CLSM as a structural fill can be used to provide a leveled uniform surface to support footings or slabs. The use of
CLSM as a structural fill, reduces the required slab thickness of the foundation base, as CLSM has significant strength to participate in
load-bearing action [11]. Alizadeh et al. [259] reported the successful implementation of CLSM as structural fill beneath a bridge
abutment. Fig. 18 represents the arrangement for the calculation of the bridge abutment.
It was also reported that CLSM produced using fly ash and acid mine drainage, can be used as structural fill, satisfying setting time
requirements, excavatability, and walkability [90]. Many other [260–262] structural filling works also used CLSM. CLSM is also

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Fig. 17. A comparison between different mix design procedures for CLSM.

proven to be a feasible structural fill material to be used in bridge abutments [263,264]. The credentials of CLSM to be used as a
structural fill is well established through the above discussion.

6.3. Insulating and isolation fill

LD-CLSM is often used as an insulation and isolation filling material in walls and roofs. LD-CLSM poses voids filled with air in its
matrix, which acts as a thermal insulating layer and a physical-shock mitigation layer [11]. Giannakou and Jones [265] produced
high-foamed concrete satisfying the requirements of CLSM and used it as a thermally insulated foundation or ground slab. This type of
special CLSM is also used to provide insulation to chilled water pipes and to isolate steam mains present near the power supply cables
[11].

6.4. Thermal-insulation-conductivity fills

Over the years CLSM has become a popular material to be used for backfilling trenches made to lay gas pipes, water mains, sewer
lines, electrical conduits, and cables [11]. Superior engineering properties, easy installation, and liberty to be designed as per re­
quirements are some of the advantages offered by CLSM [266–268]. Some reported [266,267] CLSM can be modified to have desired
thermal insulation properties besides mechanical properties. High-voltage transmission line projects in North America have preferred
to use CLSM for backfilling trenches over granular backfills [11]. A detailed study of thermal fills, thermal backfill materials, and
thermal stability measurements has been published to facilitate the use of underground cable thermal backfill [60].

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

Fig. 18. Configuration for evaluating bridge abutment utilizing CLSM [259].

6.5. Pavement bases

One of the widely used applications of CLSM is as pavement bases, road bases, sub-bases, and sub-grades. CLSM provides the
advantage to be placed directly onto sub-grades between existing curbs. ACI [11] has mentioned some major aspects that need to be
taken care of for the efficient use of CLSM as pavement bases. It was recommended to follow AASHTO guidelines [269] to establish a
range of coefficients needed for construction. Based on several data collected, structural coefficients can be between 0.16 and 0.28 for
compressive strength of 2.8–8.3 MPa. Good drainage gutters and storm sewers are of primary importance to use CLSM as pavement
base because saturated water in CLSM can result in poor durability due to freeze-thaw action [11]. The use of a wearing surface over
CLSM is recommended, as normally used CLSM provides poor wear resistance [11]. For widening or raising existing roadways over the
soil with poor bearing capacity, LD-CLSM is popularly used as added weight and settlement due to mechanical vibrations are major
concerns [11]. It is often impossible to provide adequate compaction to pavement bases near manholes or other such areas. Lin et al.
[270] successfully implemented CLSM as a pavement base with rut-resistant stone matrix asphalt as a wearing surface. They reported
sufficient strength gain after one day to bear normal traffic volume. Maximum 5 mm rutting was observed after 18 months which is
well below the failure value i.e., 12.5 mm. They also recommended the use of CLSM as pavement bases in such problematic areas from
both cost and performance points of view. An experimental and practical investigation by Riviera et al. [271] showed that
cement-based CLSM is a feasible option to be used as a pavement base in road tunnels to provide adequate short and long-term
properties.

6.6. Conduit bedding

The flowability of CLSM makes it an excellent choice as a bedding material as it flows and occupies the voids present beneath
conduits, which provide a uniform bedding surface. It is used as conduit bedding for pipe, electrical, and telephone conduits [11]. The
first reported use of CLSM as conduit bedding was by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in 1964. It was noticed that the use of soil-cement
slurry for bedding reduced the cost by 40% and increased the efficiency of laying pipes per shift [272]. Another advantage of CLSM as
conduit bedding is that it provides erosion resistance by preventing the accumulation of water between the conduit and bedding [273].
The entire conduit is often covered using CLSM for protection purposes. In future excavation, the presence of CLSM indicates the
presence of conduit which alarms the excavating crew and protect the conduit from physical damage. Sometimes coloring agents are
also used in CLSM for better identification of CLSM [11]. Other research and recommendations [274,275] for the use of CLSM as

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

conduit bedding signify its effectiveness as a bedding material. Liu et al. [276] performed numerical simulation on buried pipe
backfilling considering three conditions i.e., loose backfill around the pipe, dense backfill, and CLSM backfill. The findings indicated a
significant reduction in pressure on both the top and side of buried pipes when CLSM was utilized for backfilling purposes.

6.7. Erosion control

A distinctive property of CLSM is its resistance to erosion caused by water. A study by Krell [34] in 1989 reported superior erosion
resistance of CLSM than sand and other backfill materials when exposed to water with a velocity of 0.52 m/s. The use of CLSM as
erosion control material in the embankment, in spilling basins below dam spillways, under culverts, and in sidewalks was reported
previously [11]. The flowability nature of CLSM enables it to fill the voids of embankments which leads to better strength and weight,
thereby increasing erosion resistance [11]. The utilization of the erosion resistance property of CLSM in wastewater treatment plants
was reported by Khanbilvardi and Afshari-Tork [277].

6.8. Corrosion control

Corrosion of metal pipes laid underground often gets corroded due to exposure to severe environmental conditions and the high
conductivity nature of soil backfill surrounding it [278]. Low acceptance of CLSM as a backfill of pipelines is a lack of long-term studies
on the corrosiveness of CLSM [279]. Samadi and Herbert [278] compared the corrosiveness of CLSM and encasement sand and re­
ported that CLSM is less corrosive than encasement sand. Lesser corrosion of different metal pipes was reported when embedded in
CLSM than in conventional backfill material [63,279]. Corrosion study of iron pipes and galvanized pipes embedded in a combination
of sand and CLSM shows more corrosion than exposed to only sand, as the use of two separate materials acts as two electrodes and
accelerates corrosion [280]. Halmen et al. [80] concluded that the use of class C FA, bottom ash, binders, and concrete sand (regular
silica sand used for concrete production) as fine aggregate can decrease the corrosiveness of CLSM further.

6.9. Void filling

CLSM is favorably used as a void-filling material for tunnel shafts, sewers, basements, underground structures, mines, and sinkholes
[11]. For the filling of abandoned tunnel shafts and sewers, it is desirable to use a highly flowable material. A continuous supply of
CLSM can achieve this required characteristic. Under the Menomonee River, an abandoned tunnel was filled with CLSM [11]. Flechsig
[61] reported the implementation of CLSM to fill a tunnel of 3.7 m in diameter and 9.1 m long within 4 h. Naik and Kolbeck [281]
reported the use of CLSM to fill an abandoned sewer. The filling of abandoned basements or underground structures is often
accomplished by pumping CLSM through window or door openings [11]. For an industrial renovation project, 300 m3 CLSM was
pumped into the basement in 1 day for complete filling, and then an 8-inch concrete floor was placed over it directly [11]. Applications
of CLSM for filling abandoned storage tanks were also reported [11]. As safety measures, abandoned mines have to be filled. Recla­
mation of 250,000 mines was done by using CLSM [282]. Other such coal mine filling works using CLSM, produced from coal com­
bustion products can also be observed [283,284]. On the west coast of Florida, the use of CLSM for the filling of sinkholes has been
reported [11].

6.10. Nuclear facilities

Conventionally, backfilling at nuclear facility sites was done by CLSM to reduce radiation exposure to human beings. Later many
researchers [285–287] reported special CLSM characteristics to be used as a chemical and radio-nuclide stabilizer. Now, CLSM also
serves as a waste stabilizer, encapsulating cover to decommissioned pipelines and tanks, and also encapsulates nuclear waste disposal
sites.

6.11. Other applications

The use of CLSM for different other applications such as bridge reclamation, thermal grouting, culvert fills, and tank fills has also
been reported. The procedure of bridge reclamation using CLSM is described in Report on controlled low-strength material by ACI
Committee 229 [11]. Many researchers [288–290] have concluded that the cost of four reclamation projects is equivalent to one
reconstruction project when technology involving CLSM is used. Thermal grouting is a system used as a heat transfer medium between
the heat exchanger used for residential cooling and surrounding soil or rock. CLSM was reported to have superior thermal conductivity
to other cement grouts and can be effective as thermal grout in geothermal systems [291]. Using CLSM as culvert fills serves many
advantages including support from below, erosion control, and lateral support. Using LD-CLSM for this purpose reduces the dead load
on the culvert and the presence of LD-CLSM on both side culvert nullifies eccentric loading on the culvert [11]. LD-CLSM is also used to
fill underground abandoned fuel or gas tanks, as LD-CLSM is an inert substance [11].

7. Limitations of CLSM
Controlled low-strength material has several benefits which enhance its utilization in different fields but there are certain limi­
tations of it. The major limitations of CLSM include.
• Unlike traditional concrete, CLSM does not have standardized mix design methods or specifications. This lack of standardization
can make it challenging to compare results and achieve consistent performance across different projects. Each application may
require specific mix designs and testing protocols, necessitating a more individualized approach.

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

• The presence of a large proportion of water content in CLSM gives higher flowability, so it needs proper confinement around the
area of the CLSM application.
• CLSM properties can vary depending on factors such as mix design, constituent materials, and curing conditions. This variability
can pose challenges in achieving consistent and predictable performance, making it essential to carefully control the production
process and conduct quality control measures.
• Though CLSM is easy to place, takes two to 4 h to set initially hence applying a filling material layer over CLSM can’t be completed
readily.
• CLSM in fluid form exerts high lateral pressure at the time of placing, so CLSM should be placed in lifts of suitable thickness and
adequate time should be given for stiffening of each lift before the next layer is placed.
• Special action should be considered to limit the long-term strength gain of CLSM utilized in the places where re-excavation is
required otherwise it will be difficult to excavate and heavy equipment will be needed which will affect the cost of the project. In
the case of permanent structural fill, no attention is required for the same, and higher-strength grade cement can be used.
• CLSM can be sensitive to extreme temperature and moisture conditions during placement and curing. In cold weather, it may
experience delayed strength development, while excessive heat can accelerate setting and may require additional measures to
control hydration and prevent premature stiffening. The setting time of CLSM may be prolonged in cold and wet weather.
• CLSM is a quasi-brittle material and it can experience settlement and shrinkage over time, especially in applications where it is used
for backfilling voids or trenches. The potential for settlement and shrinkage should be considered during mix design and proper
curing to minimize these effects and maintain long-term stability. If the CLSM mix is wet, it can show some settlement in the plastic
state.
• A special protective layer/cover is required for utility lines such as gas, water, power, and telephone before CLSM is poured into
them.
• In the deeper applications, the filling by CLSM should be done considering the type of formwork and exertion of lateral pressure and
there is a longer time required between the consecutive phases of placement.
• CLSM is not a waterproof material and in most applications, it wicks water hence it is not used to seal leaking joints.
• CLSM can be more expensive compared to other backfill materials due to the use of cementitious materials and specialized ad­
mixtures. The higher cost may impact project budgets and decision-making, particularly in cases where less expensive alternatives
can adequately fulfill the requirements. In comparison to conventional granular fills, the CLSM is more costly.

8. Summary of the review

Controlled low-strength material which was first introduced in 1964 is an easy-mixing and easy-placing self-leveling cementitious
mix. The essential requirements of CLSM are low strength attainment and high flowability. The plastic and in-service properties of
CLSM elevate its serviceability in a variety of applications. Due to low strength demand, various waste resources and industrial by-
products can be incorporated into CLSM. The inclusion of wastes in CLSM provides numerous ecological and economic benefits.
The different factors that control the progress and characteristics of CLSM along with different approaches for mixed design and its
applications are presented in this review. The current review can be summarized as follows.
• The evolution of CLSM from the primary stage to the certified stage has been discussed. CLSM originated as a solution for back­
filling and void-filling applications, offering a convenient alternative to conventional compacted fill materials. Its flowable nature
and self-leveling properties provided advantages in terms of ease of placement and reduced labor requirements. CLSM has
expanded its range of applications beyond backfilling and void-filling. It is now widely used in areas such as trench reinstatement,
pipeline bedding, underground utility construction, and structural applications. The versatility and adaptability of CLSM make it a
valuable solution in various construction scenarios.
• Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM) exhibits several key properties that make it a versatile and advantageous construction
material. Five plastic properties and nine in-service properties of CLSM have been discussed along with adopted standard and
acceptable ranges. Its low strength, high flowability, self-leveling nature, and excellent pumpability allow for efficient and cost-
effective placement. The cohesion, stability, self-healing, and low shrinkage properties ensure long-term performance and dura­
bility. Moreover, CLSM offers thermal insulation, fire resistance, and environmental benefits, aligning with sustainable con­
struction practices. Understanding and harnessing the properties of CLSM can lead to improved construction processes, enhanced
performance, and reduced environmental impact.
• Critical findings suggest that water content in mix and shape, particle size, specific gravity, water absorption, and reactive
properties of used materials exert a significant influence on plastic properties. Binder content and aggregate type affect the
hardened properties of CLSM.
• Binder, aggregates, water/binder ratio, additives, and curing condition are the factors identified to be affecting the production and
properties of CLSM. A comprehensive understanding and critical evaluation of these factors are crucial for producing high-quality
CLSM with the desired strength, workability, durability, and sustainability. By considering and optimizing these factors, engineers
and practitioners can achieve the desired performance and tailor CLSM to specific applications in construction projects.
• The choice of binders plays a crucial role in the performance of Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM). The selection of binders
for CLSM should be cost-efficient and sustainable. The usage of cement as a binder in CLSM is limited as the strength requirement is
less. Fly ash and slag are the most used industrial by-products used as CLSM binders. Both provide adequate flow properties due to
their morphology but fly ash reduces later-stage strength development compared to slag. Red mud, CKD, Bagasse ash, and wood ash

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S.K. Parhi et al. Journal of Building Engineering 76 (2023) 107086

are some of the other waste materials used as a secondary or ternary binder along with OPC, fly ash, or slag as a primary binder. It is
crucial to consider the specific characteristics and proportions of binders to achieve the desired performance of CLSM. Proper mix
design, testing, and optimization are necessary to ensure compatibility, workability, and long-term durability. The dosage and
interaction of binders with other components, such as aggregates and additives, should be carefully evaluated to avoid any adverse
effects on the overall properties of CLSM.
• The careful selection and evaluation of aggregates are crucial to ensure the desired strength, workability, durability, and sus­
tainability of CLSM mixtures. Low stiffness aggregates are significantly used in CLSM production due to which the use of natural
aggregate has been minimized. Foundry sand and recycled aggregates are frequently used in the production of CLSM. Incorporation
of these two results in low-strength CLSM however foundry sand increases the bleeding but recycled aggregates lower bleeding.
Recycled aggregate containing ceramic components shows higher strength. Higher Soil content in CLSM reduces flowability and
clay as aggregate in CLSM reduces strength but provides good flow properties. Various other waste resources have been used as
aggregate in CLSM and these generally increase the water demand of CLSM and result in reduced flowability.
• A high w/b ratio is used to produce high flowability and low-strength characteristic CLSM. The use of different waste resources
generally increases the water demand of CLSM. Maintaining an appropriate water/binder ratio is essential for achieving the desired
flowability and workability of CLSM during placement and compaction. An optimal water/binder ratio ensures the proper hy­
dration of cementitious materials, leading to adequate cement paste formation and subsequent strength development in CLSM. It is
crucial to strike a balance between the water content and the amount of cementitious materials to achieve the desired strength
while maintaining workability and durability. It is important to note that the optimal water/binder ratio may vary depending on
factors such as ambient conditions, desired strength requirements, and specific project constraints. Proper testing, characterization,
and mix design considerations are crucial in determining the suitable water/binder ratio for each CLSM application.
• Natural admixtures, superplasticizers, accelerators, water-reducing additives, and foaming agents are utilized to enhance the CLSM
performance in various applications. The use of additives in CLSM offers valuable advantages in terms of enhancing workability,
strength, durability, and sustainability. By carefully selecting and incorporating appropriate additives, engineers and practitioners
can design and produce CLSM mixtures that meet the desired performance criteria while improving constructability, reducing
environmental impact, and promoting sustainable construction practices.
• The importance of curing conditions can be considered critical. Ambient and humidity control curing are effectively used in various
research works. As the requirement of strength is less water curing is mostly avoided. Curing methods such as moist curing, sealed
curing, or the use of curing compounds help maintain a favorable environment for hydration, preventing moisture loss and pro­
moting complete cement hydration. Proper curing ensures optimal strength gain and helps minimize shrinkage and cracking in the
hardened CLSM.
• A comparative assessment of ACI guidelines and other research approaches for mixed proportioning of CLSM is elicited. To
establish an optimized procedure for CLSM mix proportioning, the authors propose a two-step approach. Firstly, an initial mix
should be prepared to meet the ACI recommended ranges or align with previously reported results using similar materials. Sub­
sequently, the mix design can be carried out using either an independent parameter method or a performance-based method, taking
into account the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. This methodology offers the advantage of reducing the number of
trial mixes necessary for CLSM mix proportioning.
• The progression of various applications of CLSM has been delineated.

9. Future research scope of CLSM

CLSM has been used for decades mostly as a filling material and for other purposes but still, it has a lot of potential to be used in
various other applications. New initiatives and researches are essential to enhance its properties and also to make it more eco-friendly,
sustainable, and cost-effective. Following research work is required to further amplify its applicability.

• The future scope lies in developing sustainable mix designs for CLSM by reducing the environmental impact associated with the
high cement content. Exploration of alternative binders, supplementary cementitious materials, and innovative admixtures can
contribute to more eco-friendly CLSM formulations without compromising their performance.
• Though there are certain approaches and specifications are available for the mix-proportion of CLSM but it still lacks the full
conviction to be globally accepted because of the utilization of various waste resources and in most fieldwork, hit and trial methods
are applied for the mix-proportion of CLSM. Hence establishing standardized mix design methods, testing protocols, and guidelines
for CLSM can ensure consistency and facilitate wider adoption. The development of industry standards and specifications specific to
CLSM will streamline its implementation in various construction projects and promote confidence among practitioners.
• The ACI and ASTM stipulated certain codes for testing plastic and in-service properties of CLSM but there are various methodol­
ogies found in literature employed by different researchers. Many countries lack proper testing codes for CLSM so they use concrete
testing procedures. So, a standardized test method should be proposed.
• Further research can focus on advanced characterization techniques to better understand the behavior and properties of CLSM.
Utilizing techniques such as rheology, microscopy, and non-destructive testing can provide valuable insights into the flow, settling,
and long-term performance of CLSM, enabling more precise mix designs and quality control.
• More research is required for the utilization of cementless binders in the CLSM which will support sustainability. Production of
CLSM through geo-polymerisation and alkali-activation of various waste resources/industrial by-products needed to be studied
along with cost analysis

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• More studies are needed for the development of high-fluid CLSM-like high-fluid backfill materials incorporating industrial wastes.
• While CLSM has found widespread use in utility trench backfilling, there is a potential for its application in other areas. Research
can explore its suitability for additional applications, such as mine void filling, soil stabilization, tunnel grouting, and pavement
subbase construction. Identifying and evaluating these potential areas can broaden the scope of CLSM usage.
• The effect of the reinforcement addition and fibers in CLSM should be investigated which will assist in the implementation of CLSM
such as pavement base layer and other broad applications.
• Further research is required for the reduction of setting time and contamination of CLSM which are used in underwater placement.
• A new approach should be taken towards making CLSM a better water-proof material by reducing water permeability.
• More studies are required to enhance the thermal applicability of CLSM so that it can be used as thermal grouts instead of con­
ventional materials.
• Future studies can investigate strategies to improve the durability of CLSM, making it more resistant to chemical attacks, freeze-
thaw cycles, and other environmental factors. Incorporating supplementary materials, such as fibers or pozzolanic additives, may
enhance its resistance to cracking, shrinkage, and long-term deterioration.
• Future developments can focus on enhancing quality control measures for CLSM during production and placement. This includes
the development of real-time monitoring techniques and automated systems to ensure consistent mix proportions, proper curing,
and uniform strength development, leading to improved reliability and performance.
• Conducting life cycle assessments (LCAs) for CLSM can provide a comprehensive evaluation of its environmental impact, including
the extraction of raw materials, production, use, and end-of-life considerations. Understanding the overall sustainability and
carbon footprint of CLSM can drive the development of more environmentally friendly practices and further enhance its
acceptance.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

All the authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis carried out by all
author. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to the researchers who could provide their investigation contributions in the field of controlled low-
strength materials.

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