Group A

1. Dual nature of light and matter. Principle of complementarity.

WAVE – PARTICLE DUALITY – this is the concept that all matter and energy exhibits both: wave-like
and particle-like properties.
Current scientific theory holds that all particles have also wave nature (and vice versa). In fact, all
objects, even macroscopic, have dual nature, but we can’t detect their wave properties due to their
small wavelengths.
Light is at the same time a wave and a stream of particles, called photons.
The best known proof for dual nature of light is the Compton’s effect.

COMPLEMENTARITY PRINCIPLE - It states that sometimes object can have several contradictory
properties. Sometimes we can swith between the different views, but we can never see them both at
the same time. But, in reality, the figure exists as BOTH at the same time, but we can perceive or
view it one at a time, NEVER together.

2. Explain the phenomenon of light polarization. How can we obtain polarized light? Describe
linear, elliptical, and circular polarizations.

The polarization of light is described by specifying the direction of the wave's electric field. When
light travels in free space, in most cases it propagates as a transverse wave—the polarization is
perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. In this case, the electric field may be oriented in a
single direction (linear polarization), or it may rotate as the wave travels (circular or elliptical
polarization).
Linear polarization - the two perpendicular components are in phase. In this case the ratio of the
strengths of the two components is constant, so the direction of the electric is constant. Since the tip
of the vector traces out a single line in the plane, this special case is called linear polarization. The
direction of this line depends on the relative amplitudes of the two components.
Circular polarization - the two orthogonal components have exactly the same amplitude and are
exactly ninety degrees out of phase. In this case one component is zero when the other component is
at maximum or minimum amplitude. There are two possible phase relationships that satisfy this
requirement: the x component can be ninety degrees ahead of the y component or it can be ninety
degrees behind the y component. In this special case the electric vector traces out a circle in the
plane, so this special case is called circular polarization. The direction the field rotates in, depends on
which of the two phase relationships exists. These cases are called right-hand circular polarization
and left-hand circular polarization, depending on which way the electric vector rotates.
Elliptical polarization - in all other cases, where the two components are not in phase and either do
not have the same amplitude and/or are not ninety degrees out of phase, the polarization is called
elliptical polarization because the electric vector traces out an ellipse in the plane.

3. How were quarks discovered ? Describe their nature. What kind of interaction is
responsible for their behaviour ? Do you know more basic interactions ? In what a way do
those interactions work ? Do you know more elementary particles ?

a) Decays and reactions involving mesons and baryons are subject to conservation laws
involving 2 quantities:

Q - electric charge

S - strangeness; new quantum number

We can find only a restricted set of combinations of Q and S for current particle. That suggests that
the particles are built of more fundamental units with defined Q and S.
In 1964 it was realized independently that such regular patterns could be explained by assuming that
baryons and mesons are composed of three fundamental units-quarks.
Values for antiquarks have opposite signs.
Mesons are composed of a quark and antiquark, Baryons are composed of 3 quarks.
Quarks have unusual fractional charges. Scattering experiments that probe deep inside the nucleon
have revealed 3 pointlike objects that appear to have spin of 1/2 and charge of (2/3)e or (1/3)e.
In mesons quarks are hold together by force ( the strong force) brought about through the exchange
of particles called gluons.

b) Basic interactions:

Gravitational force - gravitational force between 2 protons = 10ିଷ଼ of the strong force between
them. The principle difference between gravitational force and others: gravity is cumulative and
infinite in range.

The weak force - does not play a major role in the binding of nuclei (between 2 protons= 10ି଻ of the
strong force.

The electromagnetic force (=10ିଶ of the strong force between 2 protons) - electromagnetic forces
are of infinite range, but shielding generally diminish their effect for ordinary objects. Within the
nucleus the electromagnetic forces can act cumulatively because there is no shielding.

The strong force - responsible for the binding of nuclei.

4. Three fundamental laws of geometrical optics. When are they becoming not valid?

Geometrical optics investigates properties of light without reference to its wave or physical nature.
The basis of geometrical optics is formed by three fundamental laws – the law of rectilinear
propagation, the law of reflection and the law of refraction. The law of rectilinear propagation states,
as the name implies, that in a homogeneous medium light travels along straight paths. Thus an
opaque object A placed between a point source of light S and a screen, will cast a shadow with
sharply defined boundaries. Analogously, with extended source, we obtain a shadow surrounded by
a half shadow. To formulate the laws of reflection and refraction, consider a ray of light directed to a
plane surface of separation ABCD between two transparent substances, 1 and 2. Let us assume that
both substances are homogeneous and isotropic (the latter means that their properties are not
dependent on direction). In general, we find the incident ray splits into two rays – a reflected and a
refracted ray. We also find that: 1) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the refracted ray lie in a
plane perpendicular to the boundary surface, called the plane of incidence. 2) the incident ray and
the reflected ray form equal angles with the normal to the boundary surface. 3) if alpha is the angle
between the incident ray and normal and beta is the angle between the refracted ray and normal,
the ratio sinalpha/sinbeta is indepentend of the angle of incidence alpha and is thus a constant
characteristic of the two media. Sinalpha/sinbeta = n21 where the constant n21 is called the relative
index of refraction (of the second medium relative to the first). From experiments we know that: n12
= 1/n21 which means that if light is passing in opposite direction it will follow the same path. This
property is called the reversibility of light rays. According to the above property of light, if a light ray
emerging from any system of refracting and reflecting media is on its last stage made to reflect back,
the ray will pass through the entire system in reverse direction following its previous path and reach
its primary source. If the first medium is a vacuum we will obtain the absolute index of refraction n2
of the second medium.

5. Explain the principle of an operation of lasers on the basis of the Einstein theory. Describe
properties of a laser beam and its possible applications. Describe the photonic theory of
light proposed by Albert Einstein.

In 1917 Einstein discussed the thermodynamic equilibrium between cavity radiation and the matter
in the walls of the cavity. He assumed that the atoms could occupy a discrete set of energy levels.
The only problem is to transform a system from an equilibrium to a non- equilibrium state. Finally
scientists developed lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. It was pointed out
that photons produced by this emission were coherent. Lasers is nearly monochromatic, the laser
beam is unidirectional, the laser beam intensity is high, laser is coherent (all photons are in phase).
Application: printers, cd’s, optical fiber communication.