Planning Practice & Research, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp.

497516, August 2010

ARTICLE

The Spiral of Knowledge Development: Professional Knowledge Development in Planning

BRIDGET DURNING, JULIET CARPENTER, JOHN GLASSON & GEORGIA BUTINA WATSON

Abstract This paper explores knowledge development in professional planners in England, in both the public and private sectors. Through an exploration of how they engage and interact with a rapidly expanding knowledge base, the paper identifies how knowledge and expertise are developed that thereby inform their professional practice. It identifies the role, position in the career and level of expertise of the planner as influential to the drivers for knowledge development and the tools and techniques employed. It proposes that the level of expertise in professional planners should be seen as a spiral rather than a linear transition, and that the planning professional will move in and out of this spiral during their career in response to the changing demands of their professional practice. This paper adds to the body of academic work on the subject of practical knowledge development in planners, which is so far limited in the peer-reviewed literature.

Introduction This paper is set within the context of professionals working within a system that has been in a constant state of ux over the past 40 years. Dissatisfaction with planners and a planning system that was seen as having become too powerful in the 1960s and 1970s led to a rescripting of planning (Haughton et al., 2010). The 1980s and 1990s have been described as troubled times for planning (Durning & Glasson, 2004), with fundamental changes such as abolishment of a section of local government in England and the consequential disappearance of part of the planning system it was responsible for (Cullingworth & Nadin, 2006). During the period of the New Labour Government in the UK (1997 2010), further signicant changes were imposed on the planning system, including: devolution and decentralization; new acts in the devolved regions (in England, the Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act, 2004 and the Planning Act, 2008); new systems of working such as introduction of regional spatial strategies, local development frameworks, local action plans, Infrastructure Planning Commission; plans and initiativesfor example, the Sustainable Communities Plan (Ofce of the Deputy
Bridget Durning, School of the Built Environment, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK. Email: bdurning@brookes.ac.uk
ISSN 0269-7459 print/1360-0583 online/10/04049720 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/02697459.2010.511020

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Bridget Durning et al. Prime Minister [ODPM], 2003), which required interpretation as to what they meant and how they could be integrated into the new planning system; plus several reviews (for example, Barker, 2006; Killian Pretty Review, 2008), which considered why the new system was not working and provided recommendations for further changes. The prex zeigeist of planning in the UK (Allmendinger & Houghton, 2009a, p. 2544) is currently spatial planning, although the denition of this form of planning is contested and constantly changing (Haughton et al., 2010). There is no sign that there is any immediate period of stability on the horizon as the new (2010) UK Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition government has stated that it intends to continue with this pattern of changing the English planning system by rapidly abolishing regional plans and in the longer term . . . radically reforming the planning system (HM Government, 2010, p. 11). This constant ux and lack of clarity means that professional planners working in the English planning system are being constantly challenged as to what they know and how well they know how to deliver their professional practice. In this paper we explore how planners in both the public and private sectors develop knowledge and expertise, which thereby informs their professional practice. We do this by exploring how they engage and interact with a rapidly expanding knowledge base, what structures the choice of sources used, what tools and techniques they use and how their professionals skills are supported by knowledge development. The paper is based on research undertaken by the authors and funded by the Royal Town Planning Institute. In the following section of the paper we set the context by briey considering the arenas in which professional planners in England currently practice and then present the methodology for the research. We then explore the ndings from the research (including a review of literature on professional knowledge development and key ndings from the empirical research) and present our theory on the Spiral of Knowledge Development. Exploring Knowledge Development in Professional Planners in England Arenas of Practice The arenas for planning practice are dependent upon the system within which they operate. Traditionally, planners in England have worked mainly in the public sector (particularly local government, i.e. city, district, metropolitan or unitary boroughs, county councils) in roles that essentially involve regulating land use through plan-making, development control, public consultation and moderating adversarial processes (Kitchen, 2007; Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009b). With changes to the system these arenas have expanded and the public sector now includes organizations such as regional development agencies (although many of these may be abolished under the 2010 elected coalition government), National Park Authorities, which provide a planning function within the park boundaries, and regulators such as the Environment Agency (Royal Town Planning Institute, 2009). The rise of spatial planning and its promulgation that it will go beyond traditional land use planning to bring together and integrate policies for the
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning development and use of land with other policies and programmes which inuence the nature of places and how they can function (ODPM, 2005a, p. 12) extends the boundaries of practice in these arenas further to a need to work with other professionals and different types of organizations (Egan, 2004; Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009b). The private sector has also been an expanding and increasingly popular choice for planning professionals, not only in working with and for developers but increasingly in providing consultancy services to the public sector (Durning & Glasson, 2004; Audit Commission, 2006). This hybrid role is common in other countries (Askew & Hartogs, 2005; Nankervis, 2005; Steele 2009), although Steele asks whether these hybrid planners can avoid being caught between ideological silos and the subsequent challenge for professional autonomy. Research Methodology The research involved a number of stages. Two scoping focus groups were used to explore the validity of existing conceptual understanding held by the researchers on knowledge development and learning frameworks and to inform the theoretical framework being developed from existing literature. The scoping focus groups considered: denitions of knowledge; sources of knowledge; what effects choices of sources of knowledge; and using knowledge. Useful understanding on the importance of context and disciplinary variations were identied. Following the scoping focus groups, a review of relevant literature using criteria rened through the scoping focus groups was undertaken. These led to the development of a theoretical framework on knowledge development in planners that informed the questions to be asked during the empirical data collection in the second stage of the research. Qualitative data were collected using focus groups, face-to-face interviews and reective diaries. The ndings from the research were also presented and debated at a peer-review seminar attended by academics and practitioners (both private and public sectors). Existing Concepts and Understandings on Knowledge Development in Professionals In order to develop a theoretical framework for the research, a search of a number of electronic databases of published literature (both academic and grey literature) was undertaken. A wide range of search terms was used around knowledge and learning (e.g. knowledge development, social learning, learning from practice, etc.) to identify relevant works. The existing knowledge of the researchers and a project advisory group was also drawn upon. Despite this extensive search, very little published work specically relating to knowledge development in planners was identied. Where literature specically related to planning professionals was identied, there was often clear focus on either practice in the private sector or public sector. However, in developing the framework, a decision was made not to differentiate between the two wherever possible. Due to the lack of disciplinespecic literature, heavy reliance was made on generic literature and that derived from other disciplines. It should be noted that as the focus was on knowledge
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Bridget Durning et al. development processes, due to the relatively short timescale for the research (six months), published work relating to continued professional development was not considered. Based on the literature review, ve key aspects were identied as of relevance to the study and development of the theoretical framework: . . . . . Knowledge development and information acquisition in individuals. How knowledge and skills development are related. The inuence of other factors on knowledge development in individuals. Methods of promoting learning and knowledge development. Constraints/barriers to learning.

The literature in relation to each of these aspects is considered in the following sections. Knowledge Development and Information Acquisition in Individuals In developing the framework, the focus was primarily on professional practice rather than, for example, knowledge development during formal education. In relation to this, the work of Eraut (1994) was key. Eraut considered that three periods of professional practice could be identied: initial, middle and long term. The Initial Period extends from the time when the professional obtains their initial qualication to up to 3 years into their practice. Eraut refers to the practitioner during this period as a novice professional, and identies it as probably the most inuential in developing the particular personalized pattern of practice that every professional acquires (1994, p. 11). This is similar to observations made by Lave and Wenger (2002) in their discussion of learning within apprentices (which may be considered to be the newly qualied professional planners, who needs to develop further the skills learnt in the initial academic training) and understanding the role communities of (professional) practice can make in framing the learning environment. They argue that apprentices are peripheral participants to practice that is occurring around them (the community), and that the practice of the communities creates the potential curriculum . . . which may be learned by newcomers with legitimate peripheral access (Lave & Wenger, 2002, p. 112). This therefore allows participation in practice to be a way of learning as newcomers are both absorbing and being absorbed in the culture of practice (Lave & Wenger, 2002, p. 113). Erauts Middle Period is identied as a key time for undertaking a variety of projects that involve learning continually on the job, although he observes that the learning which occurs from each project may not contribute greatly to the professionals knowledge unless the project is different from that normally undertaken. Nor, he suggests, may it contribute to their understanding on the theory of their practice unless they reect on the activities and outcomes. He therefore proposes that during this period the knowledge base may be static or developing quite rapidly (Eraut, 1994, p. 10), depending on the nature of the individual (i.e. ability to reect on practice) and the work they are doing (routine or variable).
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning Eraut associates the Late Period with a time when the professional may not be expanding their expertise or knowledge, and even proposes that this is a period when knowledge can decay. During this period he suggests that the professional needs to undertake regular reection, self-evaluation and [have a] disposition to learn from colleagues (1994, p. 155) through, for example, consulting with colleagues on outcome of routine activities. Tremlett and Parik (1995) echo this and observe that most individuals have a generally passive attitude to learning and only consider undertaking further learning when approached or encouraged by their employers. The need for reective practice, particularly in relation to planners, is also echoed by Schon (1983) and Kitchen (2007). Engaging in professional practice also results in different types of knowledge. Eraut identies two types of knowledge held by most people: propositional knowledge, which enables practice (e.g. a manual on how to drive a car); and practical know-how, which underpins practice and cannot be separated from it (e.g. the ability to drive a car). This also relates to the notion of tacit knowledge (Polyani, 1967). Eraut also proposed a third type of knowledge particularly related to professionals, which he termed process knowledge; that is, knowing how to conduct the various processes that contribute to professional action (1994, p. 107). Eraut further considered the factors on which learning in professional practice relies and again identied three as key: publications, people (such as work colleagues), and practical experience. He particularly highlights the signicance of personal contacts that, he proposes, those in practice will rely on more than training courses or publications for knowledge. Others, such as Percy-Smith et al. (2002), also identify the reliance on factors close to the individual for professional learning (in this case, reliance on close sources of information such as in-house research). Another factor of relevance here is how professionals acquire and deal with information. Erauts work is based on observations of professional practice such as medicine and teaching, although he also draws slightly on observations of engineers and architects. Based on these observations he suggests that many professionals are not thoroughly trained in methods of inquiry. He proposes that in order for professionals to be able to acquire information in an efcient and effective manner, they need to have: an existing knowledge base in the area concerned; some kind of conceptual framework to guide their inquiry; skills in collecting information; and skills in interpreting information. Durning and Ferguson (2009) also identify the limited consideration given in the literature to the explicit need for professional planners to be able to process and synthesize information. This is also noted by others such as Krizek et al. (2009) and Percy-Smith et al. (2002), who observed that professional planners often do not have the skills to be able to effectively interpret and use information such as the ndings from primary research. Eraut (2004) proposes that there are (again) three modes that professionals adopt to interpret information: instant; rapid and deliberative. The latterwhich he proposes includes planning, problem-solving, analysing, evaluating and decision-makinglie at the heart of professional work (Eraut, 1994, p. 112). According to Eraut, the ability to acquire and evaluate information is probably more important than the retention in memory of an increasingly obsolescent block of propositional knowledge (1994, p. 113). Kitchen also makes a similar suggestion when he proposes that the most
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Bridget Durning et al. successful planners are those that are strong in having a sense of purpose when approaching a planning task and understanding and making sense out of a range of perspectives (2007, p. 193). Developing Skills from Knowledge There is much debate on what can be dened as a skill, which is learnt through knowledge development and practice, and what is not a skill but a personal attribute or characteristic, which can be enhanced through practice (for summary of this contested debate, see Durning & Glasson, 2007). The latter denition particularly relates to the type of skills known as generic skills, which are often dened in terms of motivation, judgement, leadership and initiative. Some can be taught or learned (e.g. leadership) while others are more immutable (DfES, 2000). The Leitch Review of Skills (2006) also introduced a further distinction of what can be considered a skill by equating skills with qualication levels. Competence is also used and can give rise to assessment of different levels of competence within individual skills (see Higgins et al., 2007). In relation to skills, particularly in professional planners, Durning and Glasson (2007) identied two types of skill: planning/discipline skills, which are very much part of the practice of being an urban planner; and generic/professional skills, such as communication, report-writing, working in the community, and so forth although they also dene many individual skills within those two broad headings, derived from a review of a wide variety of literature. Alexander (2005) refers to general appreciative knowledge and more specic professional expertise in relation to planners, which may be similar to the generic/professional and discipline/planning skill distinction of Durning and Glasson. Higgins et al. (2007) do not provide any broad classication but again identify a large number of skills in planning practice. Kitchen (2007), however, identies seven broad clusters of skills as key for professional practice. It is apparent that there is no one way to clearly dene a skill or skill set either generic or professional. In addition to the contested denition of what is a skill, the way in which skills are developed is also open to debate. Eraut (1994) proposes that skills are developed through practice with feedback (e.g. from clients or colleagues). This allows the practical action or application of knowledge to become rened and therefore tacit and routine; that is, something which is not easily explained to others or even to oneself (Eraut, 1994, p. 111). An alternative theory, proposed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986), is that skills are developed through perception and decision-making; that is, through learning from experience rather than just routine as proposed by Eraut. Others (for example, Alexander, 2005) have suggested that the role, discipline, type of practice or conditions in which the professional is practicing can be inuential on the skill and level of expertise or competence in that skill which is developed. Alexanders argument, which drew particularly on urban planning practice, is that the higher a form of practice is (in relation to governance level and specialization), the more its practitioners will need to be highly skilled or have expertise. It is interesting to note that Eraut, in suggesting that routine is necessary to develop skills, notes that routine behaviour can ultimately lead to entranced
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning behaviour that can be difcult to change. To change or reconstruct routine behaviour involves a great deal of unlearning, which he observes can lead the individual to experience . . . disorientation and alienation . . . and unless . . . given considerable psychological and practical support over a long period, they will revert to their old familiar practice (Eraut, 1992, cited in Eraut, 1994, p. 112). Rydin (2007) also notes the negative impact of routinized behaviour on planners ability to develop knowledge. The Influence of Other Factors on Knowledge Development in Individuals One factor that may be inuential in knowledge development is the personal characteristics of the individuals themselves (Tremlett & Parik, 1995; Watson, 2002; Boisot & MacMillan, 2004). Watson (2002) suggests that, due to the inuence of the interpretative predilections and normative values of the individual, all technical knowledge contains some bias. As referred to previously, the conditions of the working environment (for example, Morton & Lacey, 2006) and the nature of the work undertaken can also be inuential on knowledge development. In the public sector, the focus of planning practice is, for example, on policy development, implementation and service improvements; whilst in the private sector (e.g. planning consultancy), the focus can include factors such client need and commercial viability of their organization. These differing environments can provide differing challenges to knowledge development. The bureaucratic characteristics and strong departmental culture of local government can be restrictive to changes in practice, focusing on how the same things can be done better rather than differently (Common, 2004). Allmendinger (2009), however, suggests that it is the professional status of the planner and the relationship with their employer (the state) that limits the extent to which they can reect and change their practice. Morton and Lacey (2006), in a study on knowledge management in local government, identied a number of inuential factors on whether an organization seeks to manage and learn from knowledge generated within it. They conclude that a corporate approach is required to ensure that there is an open culture and willingness to learn from previous experience, rather than a closed culture that is reluctant to share information and learn from successes or mistakes. This also reects the previous conclusions of authors such as Eraut (1994) and Tremlett and Parik (1995). As highlighted previously, planning professionals in both the public and private sectors often have to work with or engage with many other professional groups (Egan, 2004; Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009b). However, Temple (2004) identied a number of challenges to working inter-professionally, including professional territoriality; organizational structures; stereotypical views of other professions; issues associated with power and control; legislative frameworks; lack of resources; and lack of communication. Becher and Trowler (2001), in exploring professional knowledge development in academic staff, identify three factors as relevant when considering the characterization of practice in disciplines in relation to knowledge development: organization (e.g. in what ways are individuals and departments working lives organized?), cognitive (what are the epistemological features of the area of work?), and social (what are the features of the community
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Bridget Durning et al. of practice?). Emphasizing the importance of the cognitive aspects, a study into research and its relationship with knowledge creation in built environment disciplines (Durning & Temple, 2004) also highlighted the differences that can occur between the other built environment disciplines in terms of the contrasting modes of knowledge creation through application of research: planning essentially a social science with knowledge created through the application of conceptual research; architecture and urban designdesign subjects with knowledge developed through the application of abstract inquiry; and technical subjectssuch as construction and real-estate management with knowledge development through research undertaken as problem-solving inquiry. Methods for Promoting Learning and Knowledge Development Due to a number of constraints on the research (including timescale and funders requirements), a review of generic literature on continued professional development, life-long learning and the tools and techniques used to promote learning and development in the workplace was not undertaken. However, a number of studies were identied through the targeted literature search that had researched or evaluated methods for promoting learning and knowledge development in areas applicable to planning professionals. These studies, which were often evaluations of initiatives aimed at improving practice in local government, found that a number of methods were successful in promoting knowledge development. Singh et al. (2002), in a survey of UK local government, and Rashman et al. (2006), in an evaluation of a government scheme to improve local government practice, both identify the benets of informal and peer-to-peer mentoring. Two other studies (ODPM, 2005b; Turner et al., 2006) draw out the benets of networks, which echoes the conclusions of Eraut (1994) and Lave and Wenger (1991) on the reliance placed on others for knowledge development. Turner et al. (2006) also identify the benet of mentoring and support from peers as key benets of networks. Rashman et al. (2006) and ODPM (2005b) also considered the value of formal learning activities on knowledge development in local government. The investigations explored what participants expected to learn from attending events associated with these initiatives and also what they anticipated they would learn (i.e. their aspiration of what, in addition to the explicit learning outcomes, they would gain from attending events). The studies report that the expected learning was generally successfully achieved but that the anticipated learning generally did not occur, and therefore the formal learning activity could be seen as providing no added value. However, the evaluations noted that attending these events was seen as valuable for other reasons and again the value of networking with peers was key. In terms of sources of learning that could be used to support any actions following on from the formal events, respondents replied that sources internal to their own organization would be used more than external sources echoing a point made by others, including Eraut (1994) and Percy-Smith et al. (2002) on reliance by the individual of close sources for knowledge development. However, the studies also reported this appeared to vary with roles, with those with more operational roles more likely to turn to external resources than those
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning with strategic rolesthis time echoing the point made by Alexander (2005) and Becher and Trowler (2001) on the importance to knowledge development of the role undertaken. Constraints/Barriers to Learning Although for many the benets for undertaking learning are perceived to be job satisfaction, a pay rise, promotion or a new job, most individuals have a generally passive attitude to learning and only consider undertaking further learning when approached or encouraged by their employers (Tremlett & Parik, 1995). Factors such as cost, provision of childcare facilities and obtaining time off work are perceived as barriers (ODPM, 2005b; Rashman et al., 2006). The ODPM study also draws out the importance of an organization not just being supportive of knowledge development and learning of individuals, but of ensuring that learning requirements ow from organizational priorities. Time is considered by many authors as a signicant inhibiting factor: not just whether training is undertaken, but also on practice (Eraut, 1994; Rydin, 2007). Likewise the opportunity to deliberate and reect on the appropriateness of a particular action may also be a casualty, with waiting clients, loaded in-trays and calls for efciency gains, plans get cobbled together in a hurry, decisions are made on the hoof (Eraut, 1994, p. 149). Theoretical Framework on Professional Knowledge Development Based on ndings from the literature review and the scoping focus groups, it was clearly apparent that the role of the individual is important in how knowledge is developed and in shaping the drivers for knowledge development. This role may be framed by the discipline, the organization, or the level of experience of the individual. A theoretical framework was therefore derived focusing on the different aspects of the role. This framework is presented in Figure 1 and described in the following section. The framework takes as its starting point the move from completing initial training and the receipt of academic qualications (Formal Qualications/Initial Training) to integration into practice (Professional Practice), although for some the initial training may be part-time and therefore there may not be a distinct move: training and practice may be concurrent. Once in Professional Practice, the professionals establish their expertise and skills in the rst few years through knowledge development activities, supported by their peers and peripheral learning through apprenticeship. They may receive support through formal networks and through mentoring. The drivers for the knowledge they need to gain will be inuenced by the roles they undertake, the organizations they work in and any external driving forces (Drivers for Knowledge Development). Subsequently, assuming they are provided with the appropriate environment and opportunities for knowledge development (Opportunities for Knowledge Development) coupled with the skills and personal attributes to access knowledge, reect and deliberate, their knowledge will develop and their expertise,
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Bridget Durning et al.

FIGURE 1. Theoretical framework. Source: Authors own data.

competence and skills level rise (Increase In Expertise and Skills). If, however, they are faced with barriers (Barriers to Knowledge Development), then further knowledge development is curtailed; and unless encouraged to reect on their continuing practice, it may begin to stagnate and not develop further. In addition, should they be faced with a rapidly changing environment, such as the imposition by external drivers of changes to the profession, they may simply fail to adapt and continue in their old practice (Limitations on Development of Expertise and Skills). Empirical Data Collection Due to the constraints of time and resources, we were limited in the number of research subjects that could be investigated. For the focus groups, we selected a total of four organizations: two commercial practices offering urban spatial planning consultancy services to developers and two local government departments responsible for urban/spatial planning policy within their districts; all were located in the South-East of England. The two consultancies were deliberately different in terms of size, whilst the two local government departments were chosen as contrasting rural and urban authorities. Focus groups were set up to include professionals with a range of different experiences and the
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning follow up in-depth interviews were carried out with two practitioners in each case, both experienced and inexperienced. In addition, as these four detailed case studies could only provide snap-shots of potential wider issues, we also enlisted 10 volunteers to complete reective diaries over a 1-month period. The aim of the diaries was to access detailed records of the information sources that planning professionals use on a day-to-day basis, as well as their reections on how they harness these resources in their work. The volunteers were based throughout the UK, recruited through an article in Planning magazine. Responses to the article were reviewed by two researchers, and volunteers were selected to be invited to take part, based on aiming to have an even representation of geographical, experiential, and role factors as possible. In addition to limitations on the number of research subjects that could be included in the research, there were also limitations with the methodology, particularly through asking research subjects to reect on their own behaviour and practice, which potentially could introduce bias into the results. Nevertheless, through careful questioning in the focus groups and interviews, this bias was minimized. In addition, the variety that the four focus groups, eight in-depth interviews and 10 diaries provided, with a mix of public, private and voluntary sector organizations, and participants different levels of professional experience, offered a rich source of information with which to test the theoretical framework. The questions we sought to explore with the research subjects were as follows: . What sources of information are used in daily practice and how are they accessed? . What informs the choice of source and method of access? . To what extent is primary date accessed and how useful is it? . What are the most effective ways of developing overall knowledge base and expertise? . How does knowledge gained inform practice? . To what extent does information obtained and knowledge developed draw on and input into non planning practice? . What are the barriers/constraints faced to developing professional knowledge? These were supplemented by further questions relating to the following: . What roles are undertaken on a daily basis? . How do individuals frame problems and then access, evaluate and use information and apply knowledge gained to inform practice? . How have these factors changed over time at different stages in their career? . Which of the sources of knowledge (printed and web-based) and knowledge development activities/processes are important/used most frequently? For the reective diaries a pro-forma was provided with a series of questions. These asked the diary-keeper to reect each day on occasions during the day: when they had been uncertain on how to proceed over a planning issue; when they had been very successful in a particular situation; when they had been unsuccessful. A series of sub-questions were provided to guide them in reecting
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Bridget Durning et al. on, for example, the actions taken, knowledge drawn on, sources of information used, and so on. Transcripts of the focus groups and the completed diaries were subjected to content analysis in order to identify concordant and discordant responses, to assess the signicance of the responses and to draw out key ndings. Findings from Empirical Data on Professional Knowledge Development in Planners The empirical data were considered in relation to each of the research questions. Overall, two key issues were considered to come to the fore: how planners sourced information to aid knowledge development, and how that knowledge development subsequently occurred. These are discussed in detail in the next two sections, followed by an overall discussion of the ndings. Sourcing Information The focus groups and interviews all suggested that the selection of information for knowledge development is generally based around what can be easily accessed. In local planning authorities, this is linked to the requirements of tight government issued delivery agendas, whilst in the private sector the motivation is likely to be the pressure for high turnaround of projects. Work colleagues are commonly used as a rst port of call to identify sources of relevant information, or to identify those with existing knowledge or relevant experience who could provide relevant information. Networks of contacts are heavily relied upon to access knowledge, both within their organizations and outside; for example, in other neighbouring local authorities or through their professional body continuing professional development (CPD) events. These networks of contacts are built up over time and may be within their discipline, outside their discipline, or specialists or other contacts that form part of the community of practice within which they operate. Novice professionals or those tasked with undertaking activities that were novel to them, rely more on colleagues and formal networks, as these provide opportunities for advancing their knowledge and developing skills. More experienced professionals use informal networks of contacts, as their need is more for instant just-in-time knowledge. Alternatively they have established, or routine, sources of information to which they refer. As one local authority respondent commented: In the town planning policy world, the changes in the legislation have been so signicant that we actually need to have regular discussions with colleagues . . . by colleagues I mean opposite numbers in other local authorities, and in associations of planners, and with government ofce and the GLA [Greater London Authority] in order to establish a consensus about what the implications are of different aspects of this legislation and how that pertains to particular policy areas like the development of housing, or the development of some other aspect of the environment, because everybodys learning at the same time and its
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning actually as I say creating a consensus about what the best solutions are as we go along. And Im sure that will be an intuitive process over time. (Interview LPA2.001) The Internet now forms one of the major sources of information used by planners. However, although it has made information searching quicker, the Internet has made sense-making practices harder, due to the overload of information obtained, the poor navigability of many websites and the lack of quality assurance in terms of the information provided. The overload of information in terms of advice, best practice and guidance was seen as a limitation to practice. Individuals tended to make their own assessment of the reliability of information obtained, although this varied with experience, with novice professionals relying on colleagues to aid with interpretation and assessment of information. As one respondent commented: over recent years that mental map [of key information] has become so confused . . . you do rely on osmosis and colleagues and picking the phone up to somebody . . . it used to be youd know exactly where to look, there you go, theres the answer but now there are so many different sorts of information and research and guidance. (Interview PP2.001) Developing Knowledge The research participants generally considered that initial formal education does not provide the practical experience necessary to move straight into practice. The novice professional has to rely on colleagues and mentors both within their organization and in (initially) formal networks of contacts in the wider community of practice to assist them in their practice. The extent to which this need for mentoring, support and other skill development was recognized by organizations varies, some being more pro-active than others. The extent to which formal learning (e.g. conferences, seminars) contributes to practice through knowledge development was also considered variable. Events considered to be most useful were those with a highly practical base that could immediately inform practice. Inhouse seminars or focused information and knowledge-sharing events were considered useful, but commitment from the individual and the organization was needed to get over the barrier of lack of time for training. Personal motivation was highlighted as an important driver in knowledge development: I would say the most useful knowledge and practice Ive gained is what Ive learnt in my personal time, rather than in work time. (Interview LPA2.002) Several research participants who held more senior roles highlighted the importance of having generic skills, such as brokering, communication, diplomacy, negotiation and team leadership. The knowledge and expertise in these skills were acquired on the job, by learning from past mistakes, but post-initial training was also useful in some cases.
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Bridget Durning et al. While the research to some extent conrmed a split into novice and expert in relation to knowledge development, analysis of the reective diaries suggested that this division could be complex. There were a number of examples from the diaries of experts needing to learn new skills and, in a fast-moving policy environment, development knowledge and expertise in new areas of practice. Rather than seeing knowledge development as a continuum, from initial training to retirement, it was apparent that practitioners are required to retrain and re-skill as their careers evolve and as new areas of practice emerge. One diary provided a particularly good example of a reective practitioner, who reviewed activities regularly and the skills needed to deliver them, and sought to enhance skills through appropriate measures (short courses, conferences, etc.). The specialist, working in a multi-task environment, undertook training and attended CPD events to maintain up-to-date knowledge. Use was made of a wide range of sources for information, with particular importance given to websites and discussions with colleagues. The role involved bidding for work and undertaking both short-term and long-term projects, often requiring learning on the job and possibly the development of new skills. Discussion of Findings in Relation to Theoretical Network The ndings from the empirical data collection conrmed many of the aspects of the theoretical framework. The framework suggested that the move from initial education into practice was a distinct step and that the rst few years of professional practice were signicant in terms of knowledge development (Eraut, 1994; Lave & Wenger, 2002). This is conrmed by the empirical data: in both local government and private practice, the move into practice requires a signicant increase in knowledge development on the part of the individual. Novice practitioners spend time looking for information and nd sense-making more time consuming. They rely on experienced colleagues for assistance through mentoring and learning on the periphery of the practice of others. This contrasts with the more experienced practitioner who relies on a network of contacts, both internal to their organization and external, for support in knowledge development. The theoretical framework suggested that knowledge development is dependent upon a range of projects being undertaken, and this is also borne out in the empirical data. The ndings also conrm the importance of Alexanders (2005) contingent concept, with variations in approach to knowledge/understanding being contingent on who is learning and what role they occupy. Some roles provide more opportunity for skills development (e.g. policy development in local government) compared with others that are seen as more procedurally bound (e.g. development control). The importance of learning through experience also comes out strongly in the early and mid stages of career development. The theoretical framework also conrmed that planning professionals adhere to Erauts conclusions that professionals rely on people, publications and practice for knowledge development. The type of publication has changed in recent times with the Internet and web-based publications becoming more signicant over the past decade at all stages of career. The choice of sources of information is inuenced by a number of factors, including the level of experience of the
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning individual, the role they undertake, the community of practice in which they reside, as well as organizational and individually imposed barriers. The sources chosen are those most relevant to the issue at hand (e.g. asking a colleague or contact who has dealt with a similar matter, looking on a website to nd an answer to a problem, or referring to standard and routine texts). Later stages of practice are suggested by the literature review and theoretical framework to require the need for reection; otherwise, practice stagnates. The ndings from the empirical data were inconclusive regarding this issue, with some more senior respondents less likely to consider the importance of reection, although there were cases from the reective diaries of the experienced reective practitioner who considered that training and CPD were important for career development, even at later stages. This would concur with the contested ability of planners, particularly those in the public sector, to be able to reect (Common, 2004; Allmendinger, 2009). The most useful knowledge development events for these experienced planners were those with a highly practical base that could immediately inform practice. In-house seminars or focused information and knowledge-sharing events were considered useful, but commitment from the individual and the organization was needed to get over the barrier of lack of time for trainingagain conrming the conclusions of Eraut (1994) and Tremlett and Parik (1995). At all career stages, the research showed that the use of formal learning practices is not very high, essentially due to time restrictions. Skill development is considered to occur essentially through practice. The support of the organizational context, both in terms of resources and attitudes to development, is very important. There is evidence that some organizations are proactive in identifying and supporting skill development (e.g. mentoring and inhouse seminars) whereas others leave it up to the individual. The empirical data also conrm the importance of personal motivation in the choice of sources of information. The data showed that individuals have a baseload of knowledge that, depending on practice and role undertaken, needs to be supported with peaks of just in time knowledge. When constrained by time, the choice of sources of knowledge will be those that can provide the just in time knowledge. This again conrms a conclusion from Eraut (1994) that busy people rely on personal contacts for information and, as Eraut (1994) and Percy-Smith et al. (2002) note, the importance of the ability to identify and interpret research and the preference for close-at-hand sources of information. The links between knowledge development and sectoral integration within the built environment, and possibly other professions, was shown to be dependent on the practice undertaken. There does not seem to be a general or inherent culture of cross-disciplinary learning and exchange, but rather it is based around specic projects or issues that force professionals from different backgrounds and disciplines to come together and exchange ideas. Indeed, most research participants felt that a lack of understanding of the vocabulary of other disciplines was a hindrance to practice. One organization that took part in the research was particularly pro-active in engaging with other disciplines, but these tended to be other built environment organizations that were progressive and willing to engage with other disciplines. A culture shift was considered to be needed in all disciplines to escape the silo mentality.
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Bridget Durning et al. There are therefore strong parallels between the theoretical framework developed from the literature (Figure 1) and the ndings from the empirical data. The research has highlighted the links between knowledge development and experience. It has also shown the importance of the role and tasks undertaken. Therefore, the development of expertise should not be seen as a linear route, but rather as a spiral (with novice at the centre, spiralling out as experience develops) that a professional will move in and out of at various points in the career. The empirical research conrmed that whilst the role and stage of career inuences the processes used for knowledge development, there may be times when new skills and knowledge are needed, even by those in the middle and later stages of their career. The expert may then become a novice in a particular context and hence the practitioner may move into and out of the spiral a number of times during their career. The research has also shown how different methods of knowledge development to inform practice are appropriate at different levels of experience. These, we propose can be mapped onto the spiral (see Figure 2).

FIGURE 2. Spiral of knowledge development. Source: Authors own data.

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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning This model, which we have termed the spiral of knowledge development, aims to show what knowledge development processes or interventions are appropriate at various times and at different stages of professional development. We propose that a professional planners experience can be considered to increase from novice to expert with intervening stages of expert novice and novice expert. Within this progression, the spiral shows how situated and peripheral learning is important in the early stages of career development, whilst the use of networks is more signicant at later stages. Experiential learning is important at all stages. Two examples of how the spiral could be interpreted are provided by the example given in Box 1.
Box 1 (source: Authors own data) The Experienced Transport Planner This person may be classed as an Expert as, in their day-to-day activities, he/she relies on tacit knowledge supplemented by discussions with colleagues in informal networks and knowledge gained through working on different tasks to complete projects successfully. He/she would map onto the diagram at the outer point of the spiral. Formal learning opportunities, such as conferences and formal networks would not be taken up by this individual. He/she may use the Internet for information, but would mainly rely on his/her own established sources. However, in the drive to deliver (e.g. the Sustainable Communities Plan), he/she may be faced with a requirement to deliver a community that aims to be vibrant, harmonious and inclusive. Personal knowledge on what constitutes such a community and how transport planning can be influential in its delivery may be limited and there would be a need to develop new knowledge in order to inform personal practice. He/she would not have any tacit knowledge or a network of relevant contacts that could help. In this situation, the individual would be classed as a novice and would map onto the diagram at the Novice point on the spiral. The knowledge development processes used at this stage would involve learning through experience (undertaking the role) or from working with experts in this field where he/she can act as an apprentice or benefit from formal mentoring. There would be reliance on explicit knowledge (i.e. information that gives clear instruction) and the individual would probably immediately use the Internet to seek information, but would also benefit from formal learning (seminars and conferences). As their knowledge develops, he/she moves along the spiral, progressing up through being an expert novice, where the individual is developing know-how. He/ she is less reliant on information that gives clear instruction and is increasingly able make his/her own interpretations. Formal learning environments are becoming less important, as is the need for mentoring or acting as an apprentice. If the individual continues to work in this role, their knowledge will increase and he/she will move into being a novice expert with more reliance on informal networks of contacts for information and tacit knowledge to undertake work. He/she could mentor more novice colleagues. However, if the role changes and the individual is required to undertake new tasks, he/she may move back down the spiral 513

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and again rely on formal networks and formal learning opportunities to develop knowledge. The Urban Designer Expert Urban Designers, who would map onto the outer point of the spiral of knowledge development, will rely on their tacit knowledge, discussions and team working with other built environment professionals (informal networks and experiential learning) when delivering their practice. They will have informal networks that they will use (e.g. local communities and other key stakeholders) when designing and providing solutions for creative and innovative place- making. When working on projects that involve creating (for example) an inclusive and sustainable community, urban designers coming from the planning background would be generally knowledgeable about what constitutes such a community, and so may still plot onto the spiral at Expert, and use the same knowledge development processes. However, urban designers with slightly different backgrounds (e.g. with an architectural or other design-based professional background) may be less experienced and knowledgeable about the community issues depending on the roles they had previously undertaken. They would therefore map onto the spiral further down possibly as novice or expert novice. In order to gain the relevant knowledge to inform their practice of creating an inclusive and sustainable community, they would use internal and external mentoring and team working. They would also rely on specific formal learning opportunities such as seminars and workshops organized by (for example) Urban Design Group and the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). As their knowledge develops they move up the spiral towards becoming an expert, with a corresponding change in the knowledge development processes they would subsequently engage with.

Conclusion Those working as planning professionals in England have been working in a system under constant ux for the past 40 years and there is no sign of any stability in the system for a signicant period of time still to come. This lack of stability means that professional planners are being constantly challenged as to what they know and how well they know how to deliver their professional practice. In this paper we have explored how planners in both the public and private sectors develop knowledge and expertise that thereby informs their professional practice. Through an exploration of how they engage and interact with a rapidly expanding knowledge base, what structures the choice of sources used, what tools and techniques they use and how their professional skills are supported by knowledge development, we have shown that a number of knowledge development processes are used to inform practice. Which process is used is dependent on the level of expertise of the individual and the role of professional practice they in which they are acting. As roles change, the level of expertise can change; and even those in the late stage of a career can spiral back to a more novice level and consequently change the knowledge development
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Professional Knowledge Development in Planning processes they use. As knowledge relating to their practice increases, they will spiral up again. A professional planner may move in and out of the Spiral of Knowledge Development at many times in their career. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Professor Paul Blackmore, Director of Kings Learning Institute, Kings College London, for his advice and input to the original research. They acknowledge the permission of the Royal Town Planning Institute to use material from an unpublished report written by the authors as the basis for the paper. References
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