GROUP 1

Cell cycle - is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides.

The cell cycle was discovered by Prevost and Dumas (1824) while studying the cleavage of zygote of
Frog. It is a series of stages a cell passes through, to divide and produce new cells.

M or Mitosis phase - the stage of the cell cycle when a cell divides to create two new cells.

Interphase - also known as the resting phase of the cell cycle; interphase is the time during which the
cell prepares for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication. It occupies around 95%
time of the overall cycle.

Three phases of interphase:

 G1 phase (Gap 1) - This is the "decision-making step" when the cell decides if it will start the cell
cycle, rest, or permanently exit the cell cycle to become a differentiated cell (G0 phase).During
this phase, the cell is metabolically active and continues to grow without replicating its DNA.
 S phase (Synthesis) - DNA replication takes place during this phase. If the initial quantity of DNA
in the cell is denoted as 2N, then after replication it becomes 4N. However the number of
chromosomes does not vary, viz., if the number of chromosomes during G1 phase was 2n, it will
remain 2n at the end of S phase.
 G2 phase (Gap 2) - During this phase, the RNA, proteins, other macromolecules required for
multiplication of cell organelles, spindle formation, and cell growth are produced as
the cell prepares to go into the mitotic phase.

Four stages of mitosis phase:

 Prophase - is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic
material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
 Metaphase - During metaphase, the nucleus dissolves and the cell's chromosomes condense
and move together, aligning in the center of the dividing cell.
 Anaphase - the shortest stage of mitosis, the sister chromatids break apart, and the
chromosomes begin moving to opposite ends of the cell. the sister chromatids break apart, and
the chromosomes begin moving to opposite ends of the cell.
  Telophase - is the fifth and final phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated
genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.

Cytokinesis - is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into
two daughter cells.

Cell Cycle: The life cycle of a cell, including growth, DNA replication, and division.

Cell Division: The Foundation of Life the process by which a single cell divides into two or more daughter
cells.

•Mitosis (M phase): The process of cell division that creates two identical daughter cells.essential for
growth, repair, and development in all eukaryotic organisms.

•Diploid: Cells with two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent).

Chromosomes: Condensed structures of DNA that carry genetic information.

Sister Chromatids: Identical copies of a chromosome, joined at the centromere.

Centromere: The region where sister chromatids are attached.

Telomere: Protective caps at the ends of chromosomes.

Chromatin: The loose, uncondensed form of DNA found in the nucleus.

DNA Compaction: The process of tightly packing DNA into chromosomes.

Nucleosome: The basic unit of DNA packaging, like “beads on a string.”

Mitosis in Action:

•Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle forms.

•Prometaphase: Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores (on centromeres).

•Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the center, spindle fibers fully attached.

•Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate, pulled to opposite poles.

•Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes decondense, cytoplasm divides.

Supporting Structures:

•Mitotic Spindle: Microtubule structure that pulls chromosomes apart.

•Centrosome: Organelle that organizes the spindle fibers.

•Nuclear Envelope: Membrane surrounding the nucleus. :is essential for growth, repair, and
development in all eukaryotic organisms.

•Spindle Fibers: Microtubules that attach to chromosomes and pull them apart.

•Kinetochores: Structures on chromosomes where spindle fibers attach.

•Nucleosomes: The basic unit of DNA packaging, often described as “beads on a string

NUCLEUS -is a vital organelle found in plant cells, serving as the cell's control center and housing its
genetic material.

Structure of the Plant Cell Nucleus

The plant cell nucleus is enclosed by a double-layered membrane called the nuclear envelope.

This envelope is perforated by nuclear pores.

NUCLEUR PORES - are small channel in the nuclear envelope, allowing the molecules to move between
the nucleus and cytoplasm.

NEW CELL PLATE - A new cell plate is a structure that forms during cytokinesis, the final stage of cell
division in plant cells.

CYTOKINESIS - is the final stage of cell division, where the cytoplasm divides and the cell splits into two
daughters cells.

Formation of a New Cell Plate

The formation of a new cell plate is a complex process that involves several steps:

 VESICLE DELIVERY : These vesicles contain the necessary components for building a new cell
wall, including phospholipids for the new cell membrane and sugars for the cell wall itself.
 PHRAGMOPLAST FORMATION : As the vesicles gather in the center, they form a structure called
the phragmoplast.
 CELL PLATE ASSEMBLY : The vesicles fuse together along the phragmoplast, releasing their
contents to form the cell plate.
 CELL PLATE EXPANSION : As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate grows until it reaches the existing
cell walls of the parent cell.
 CELL WALL FORMATION : Once the cell plate is fully formed, it becomes the new cell wall that
separates the two daughter cells.

MATURING CELL PLATE -The maturing cell plate is a dynamic structure that undergoes a series of
transformations as it transitions from a nascent membrane network to a robust new cell wall
Stages of Cell Plate Maturation

The maturation of the cell plate can be divided into several distinct stages,

 TUBULU-VESICULAR NETWORK (TVN): This initial stage involves the fusion of Golgi-derived
vesicles at the cell plate assembly matrix.
 TUBULAR NETWORK (TN): As the cell plate expands, the TVN transitions into a more organized
TN.
 FENESTRATED SHEET (PFS): The TN further expands and flattens, forming a fenestrated sheet.
 MATURE CELL WALL: The final stage of cell plate maturation involves the closure of the gaps in
the PFS, leading to the formation of a continuous, robust cell wall.

PHRAGMOPLAST MICROTUBULES - The phragmoplast is a unique structure found in dividing plant cells
that plays a crucial role in cytokinesis, the process of dividing the cytoplasm and forming a new cell wall
between two daughter cells.

Phragmoplast Microtubule Organization and Dynamics

Phragmoplast microtubules are organized into two sets of anti-parallel microtubules that extend from
the daughter nuclei towards the center of the cell, where they overlap and interdigitate.

The phragmoplast microtubules exhibit dynamic instability, meaning they undergo cycles of
polymerization and depolymerization.

Zones of Phragmoplast Microtubule Dynamics

The phragmoplast can be divided into distinct zones based on the microtubule dynamics occurring
within each zone:

 LEADING ZONES : This is the outermost region of the phragmoplast, where microtubule
polymerization is most active.
 TRANSITION ZONE :This zone is located between the leading and lagging zones.
 LAGGING ZONES : This is the innermost region of the phragmoplast, where microtubule
depolymerization is most active.
 MIDZONE : This is the central region of the phragmoplast, where the two sets of anti-parallel
microtubules overlap.

Functions of Phragmoplast Microtubules

The phragmoplast microtubules play several essential roles in cytokinesis:

 SCAFFOLDING OF CELL PLATE ASSEMBLY: The microtubule array provides a framework for the
delivery and fusion of vesicles carrying cell wall materials.
  TRANSPORT OF VESICLE: Microtubules act as tracks for motor proteins that transport vesicles
containing cell wall materials from the Golgi apparatus to the cell plate.
 EXPANSION OF THE CELL PLATE: The dynamic instability of microtubules allows the
phragmoplast to expand outwards, ensuring that the cell plate reaches the parental cell wall.
 POSITIONING OF THE CELL PLATE: The phragmoplast microtubules are guided by the
preprophase band, a structure that forms in the previous cell cycle and marks the future site of
cell division.

"THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CELL CYCLE IN THE GROWTH, SUSTAINABILITY, AND REPRODUCTION OF
ORGANISMS."

*GROWTH AND SUSTAINABILITY

*REPAIR

*REPRODUCTION

*PLANT REGENERATION

TWO MAIN PHASES OF CELL CYCLE:

1.) INTERPHASE

2.)MITOSIS

Meiosis:

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four
haploid cells from a single diploid cell. It's crucial for sexual reproduction. This process is divided into
two main phases: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

I. Meiosis I (Reductional Division): This phase reduces the chromosome number from diploid (2n) to
haploid (n).

Table. Phase Events

Prophase I — Chromosomes condense; homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) forming tetrads;

crossing over occurs.

Metaphase I — Tetrads line up along the metaphase plate; independent assortment takes place.

Anaphase I — Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase I — An equal number of chromosomes are in each of the two daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis I— The cell membrane divides, resulting in two daughter cells, each with half the original
number of chromosomes (haploid).

II. Meiosis II (Equational Division): This phase is similar to mitosis, separating sister chromatids.

Table. Phase Events

Prophase II. — Each of the two cells contains chromosomes made up of sister chromatids.

Metaphase II. — Chromosomes align along the middle of each cell.

Anaphase II — Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase II — At this stage, you should have four nuclei, each with two single chromatids.

Cytokinesis II — Cell membranes divide, resulting in four daughter cells.

The Importance of Meiosis: Why is meiosis important to a sexually reproducing organism?

Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction because it reduces the number of chromosomes from two
sets to one set. This is essential as it regulates the chromosome number (e.g., n=23 for humans) when
each parent contributes half the genes needed to produce a new individual. This reduction in
chromosome number is crucial because it ensures that the offspring receives the correct number of
chromosomes. If the chromosome number wasn't halved, then the offspring would have double the
number of chromosomes, leading to genetic abnormalities.

MEIOSIS

- 8 stages in total ( plus interphase)

-Occurs in germ cells (sex cells)

- purpose is reproduction of sex cell

- produces 4 haploids daughter cell

- Genetic variation

DNA Synthesis - process of creating DNA. Occurs on both mitosis and meiosis.

Synapsis of homologous chromosomes ‐ is the process where, during the pachytene phase of prophase I
in meiosis I, two homologous chromosomes come together and align themselves lengthwise. Occurs
only in meiosis.

Cross over - an exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Occurs only on
meiosis
Homologous chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate - In metaphase I, these pair line up at the
midway point between the two poles of the cell to form the metaphase plate. Occurs only in meiosis.

Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate - Occurs on both meiosis (during metaphase ll) and
mitosis (during methaphase).

Number and genetic composition of daughter cells - Two diploid cells at the end of mitosis and four
haploid at the end of meiosis ll

CELL CYCLE

A cell perform its function 24/7, almost all types continue the process of cell division until the organism
dies. However, a cell can also make errors during its division.

CELL DEATH

What happens when a damaged cell cannot repair itself? A cell has the ability to control its own death.
Apoptosis or programmed cell death can occur to avoid severe problems or threats to the cell or the
organism in general.

CELL DISEASE

However, some mutant cell can undergo uncontrolled proliferation and form cancer cells. Cancer cell
are transformed cell that result from an uncontrolled cell division by overriding the checkpoints during
cell division.

Cancer is one the most common disease worldwide. It has different names depending on the
tissue organ that it affect.

One cited reason for this occurrence is damage in the DNA, also called DNA MUTATION. Almost half of
the know human cancer cells are caused by the mutation of the p53 gene (figure 2.8). the important
gene normally control growth. But if it is damaged and the cell does not arrest nor underwent repair,
mutant or transformed cell will proliferate, which can lead to additional mutation and malignant tumors.

What happen the cell organelles if the cell cycle fails to work properly? in cancer cell, where the
checkpoints overridden, the organelles becomes unregulated. Organelles can repait itself if the damage
occurs during cell division. However, when cell division does not stop, there is no opportunity for
organelles to recover.

Chromosome abnormalities refer to changes in the number or structure of chromosomes, which can
lead to genetic disorders. These abnormalities can occur during cell division when chromosomes do not
separate properly, resulting in cells with too many or too few chromosomes.
Their are (7)Common types of chromosome abnormalities

 Polyploidy: This involves having more than two complete sets of chromosomes.
 Translocations: These occur when parts of one chromosome break off and attach to another
chromosome
 Deletions: These involve the loss of a portion of a chromosome.
 Duplications: These involve the duplication of a portion of a chromosome.
 Inversions: These occur when a segment of a chromosome breaks off, flips around, and
reattaches in the reverse orientation.
 Ring Chromosomes: These form when a chromosome breaks at both ends and the broken parts
join together to form a ring.