CELL CYCLE

Two important characteristics of all living forms:

(1) Growth - It is continuous process that occurs in the lifetime of a living organism and it is
carried out by an increase in cell size and cell number.
(2) Reproduction - It is a biological process by which new offsprings or individuals are
produced from their parents
Cell Cycle
Phases in the cell cycle:
(a)Non - Dividing Phase -Interphase (Approximately 10-20 hrs)
(b)Dividing Phase - Process of Mitosis or Meiosis(Approximately 1hr)
•It is a sequence/cycle of growth and division in the life of a cell.
•The result is that a copy(daughter cell)of the pre-existing cell is produced and both the cells now
are capable of undergoing the same cycle.
History

SCIENTIST NAME DETAILS

Howard and Pele Described the cell cycle first in 1953

Flemming Coined the term Mitosis

A. Schneider Proposed the detailed version of Mitosis

Schneider Coined the term Karyokinesis

Whiteman Coined the term Cytokinesis

Farmer and Moore Coined the term Meiosis

Generation Time
• It is the time duration taken for one cell cycle to copy itself, i.e.,period between two cell
divisions.
• Generation time differs in different organisms as well as different cell types in the
same organism.
• Even differs in different cell types in same organisms.
Kern Plasm Theory:
•Kern plasm theory was proposed by Hertwig.
•This theory states that mitosis occurs due to disturbance in Karyoplasmic Index (KI) of
cell.
Karyoplasmic Index:
KI = Vn /(Vc - Vn )
Where;
•Vn= Volume of nucleus
•Vc= Volume of cell
•Vc - Vn = Volume of cytoplasm
•Karyoplasmic Index of a cell small in size having less cytoplasm is high.
•In small sized cell nucleus efficiently controls the activity of cytoplasm while as in a
large cell nucleus is not able to control the activity of cytoplasm.
•To gain control of nucleus on metabolism a large cell divides into two cells.
(a) Interphase
•Longest phase
•Non-dividing phase
•Also known as phase I / Inter-mitosis
•Intense cytogenic activities are held in this period.
•Chromosome material configuration is loosely coiled threads called as chromatin.
Interphase is further divided into four stages
(i) G1 Phase (Post mitotic Gap)
(ii) G0 Phase (Quiescent Stage)
(iii) S phase (Synthesis Phase)
(iv) G2 Phase (Pre - Mitotic Gap)
 Four stages involved in Interphase

(i) G1 Phase (Post Mitotic Gap)

•This is the primary growth phase of cell and is also known as the pre DNA synthesis
phase /
•Growth occurs during this phase as the cell gains its nutrients from the surrounding
environment.
•Synthesis of proteins, RNAs and organelles occurs here as it is a preparatory step for
the next phase.
•Longest and the most variable phase (6-15 hr)
(ii) G0 phase
•Only metabolic activity takes place in this phase.
•In G0 phase cells function as reserve cells or are at a temporary arrest.
•These have the capability to resume the cell cycle at any point of time.
•In animal body muscle cells and nerve cells permanently remain in G 0 phase.
(iii) S phase or synthesis phase
•Genome i.e.,DNA replicates in this phase.
•Synthesis of histone proteins (that help in DNA packing) also takes place in this phase.
(iv) G2 phase or pre-mitotic gap
•It is the duration between synthesis of DNA and next division and thus is also known
as post DNA synthesis phase
•In this phase events like replication of organelle like mitochondria, condensation of
chromosomes and assembly of microtubules to form spindles takes place other than
DNA synthesis.
•Microtubules 6nm in diameter are the constituents of spindle fibres, centrioles and cilia.
(b) Dividing Phase
•As the name suggests it is the basic phase of actual cell division, also known as M -
Phase or Mitotic Phase.
•Substages are as follows:
Karyokinesis
• It involves division of nucleus.
• Schneider in 1887 coined the term 'Karyokinesis'
• It is the longest phase of the dividing phase.
Stages involved in this phase are:
• Prophase
• Anaphase
• Metaphase
• Telophase
Cytokinesis
• It involves division of cytoplasm.
• Whetman in 1887 coined term 'cytokinesis'
• It takes place after Karyokinesis.
• Cytokinesis as in animal cell as compared to plant cell is different
• In animal cell a furrow moves from plasma membrane to cell centre and finally a cell
divides into two parts
• In plant cell formation of cell plate also known as fragmoplast in cell centre expands
towards plasma membrane.
• Cell organelles get distributed during cytokinesis.
 Diagrammatic representation of cell undergoing Cytokinesis

Cell Cycle Control

Cdks- These are cyclin dependent kinases (enzymes) that control the cell cycle
progression.

Flow chart of cell cycle control

Cell Cycle Checkpoints:

Checkpoin
Site Regulated Via.
t
•Cdk4/Cyclin D
•G1 •G1/S Boundary
Cdk6/Cyclin D

•Cdk2/Cyclin B also known as MPF ( M-

•G2 • G2/M
phase promoting factor)

• Metaphase/
•Metaphase • Cyclin B degradation
Anaphase
 Graphical representation of cell cycle checkpoints

Diagrammatic representation of cell cycle checkpoints

There are two types of cells:
(a) Somatic Cells -
•These cells involve only mitotic division.
(b) Germ Line Cells -
•These cells involve meiotic division.

Mitosis (Equatorial or equal division of nuclei)

•Equatorial division can be defined as the mode of division in which the number of
chromosomes in daughter nuclei is equals to that present in parental nuclei.
•Stages involved in Mitosis are described as follows:
(a) Prophase
• In this phase chromatin coils and condenses into chromosomes, as a result they
shorten and become thicker.
• Each chromosome comprises of two chromatids held together by a centromere.
Centromere is required for movement of chromosome towards poles.
• In animal cells centrioles possess short microtubules that radiate from them and later
centrioles move to opposite poles. Thus spindle fibres are formed.
• At the end of prophase nuclear envelope breaks up into small vesicles, spindle
disappear, nucleoli disappear and organelles like Golgi bodies, ER are not present.
(b) Metaphase (2-10 minutes)
• Spindle fibres get attached to chromosome through their kinetochores.
• Chromosome is positioned on the equator of spindle.
• This phenomenon is called as congression.
• As chromosome are on equator, centromeres also lie on equator forming an apparent
plate called as equatorial plate.
• At the surface of centromere, a disc shaped structure is present to which spindle fibres
attach during cell division.
• In plant cells, chromosomes are arranged irregularly on the equatorial plane.
• In animal cells larger chromosomes are usually peripheral in position with smaller ones
central in position,
 Acentric Mitosis Centriole is absent during mitosis

Centric Mitosis Centriole is present and is involved in cell division

(c) Anaphase (2-3 minutes)

•Spindle fibres pull the daughter centromeres to opposite poles.
•Separated chromatids are pulled along behind the centromeres.
•Due to slow removal of proteinaceous monomers in polar region shortening of spindle
fibres takes place.
•The pulled chromosomes attain V-shape with arms towards centre.
•Chromosomes move away from the centre during anaphase.
•Except sex chromosomes, all chromosomes move towards the pole simultaneously.
•(d) Telophase (1 hr)
•Chromatids reach the pole of the cell, uncoil and lengthen to form chromatin.
•In this phase spindle fibres disintegrate and centrioles replicate.
•Nuclear envelope is reformed at each pole.
•Nucleoli, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body reappear during this phase.
•Nucleolar organiser is associated with reappearance of nucleoi.
 Diagrammatic representation of cell undergoing all mitotic stages

Significance of Mitosis
•It is responsible in maintaining the number of chromosomes in the daughter cell as it is
an equational division.
•Also significant in the growth and development of multi-cellular organisms from a
single-celled zygote.
•It is a mode of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms.
•Important in wound repair and wound healing of damaged wounds and regeneration of
lost body parts.
Modifications in Mitosis

Types Characteristics

•Cryptomitosis or
•In this primitive type of mitosis all the events takes place inside nucleus
Promitosis

• Chromosomes are not distinctly visible as they fail to condense due to ab

•Dinomitosis
is present throughout cell division and intranuclear spindle formation takes

•Free Nuclear Division • Coenocytic division takes place as karyokinesis is not followed by cytokin

•Endomitosis • Division of nucleus does not take place while as chromosomes duplicate

Meiosis
• In this type of cell division four genetically non-equivalent daughter cells are formed
each containing half the number of chromosomes of parent cell.
• It includes two consecutive cell divisions and each division comprises of four stages .
• Germ cells i.e. sperm and egg are produced by meiosis.

Meiosis is of three types.

1. Zygotic or Initial meiosis- Meiosis takes place in zygote cell. For example
Thallophyta.
2. Sporic meiosis or Intermediate meiosis- Meiosis takes place during spore
formation. For example all plants except thallophyte.
3. Gametic meiosis or Terminal meiosis- Meiosis takes place during gamete
formation. For example animals.

Stages of Meiosis
•It involves two stages :

Meiosis I (Heterotypic division or Reduction division)

• This involves only segregation of homologous chromosomes.

Interphase
•In this phase each chromosome replicates.
•Two identical (genetically) sister chromatids are attached at their centromere.
•Centriole pairs replicate into two pairs.

Prophase I
• In this phase homologous chromosomes occur in pairs and chiasmata formation takes
place.
• Chromatids are exchanged, nuclear envelope is disintegrated and spindle fibre
formation takes place.
• This phase lasts much longer and is more complex than mitosis.

Stages of Meiotic Prophase I

1. Leptotene:
•This is the early stage in Prophase I.
•In this stage chromosomes start to appear.
•Some of them are already replicated while some are in the phase of process of
replication.
•All the chromosomes in nucleus are directed towards centrioles.
Zygotene:
•This stage is in the mid stage in prophase I that involves synapsis i.e. active and
specific pairing of homologous chromosomes that leads to the formation of bivalents
haploid in nature.
•Formation of synaptonemal complex i.e. three strands of DNA and proteins takes place
and this structure helps in pairing and chiasmata formation.
Pachytene:
•This phase is marked by the paired homologous chromosome contraction.
• Each chromosome comprises of a pair of chromatids and the two attached
chromosomes i.e. four chromatids are termed as tetrad.
• Both the chromatids of a chromosome are called sister chromatid.
• The event crossing over takes place in this stage between non sister chromatids which
develop recombination nodules
Diplotene:
•This stage is in the late prophase I. It involves the separation of chromatid pairs from
the tetrad.
•This event is called terminalisation. Chiasmata can be seen very often in this stage.
• In this stage synaptonemal complex dissolves.
Diakinesis:
•This stage is the last stage of Prophase I.
•It involves the four chromatids each consisting of bivalent to move apart.
• Nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear by the end of this stage.
Metaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes in pairs are aligned on the equator of cell with each pair
facing each pole respectively. The alignment event is also known as congression.
• In each chromosome both chromatids are attached to spindle fibres at their
kinetochores respectively.
Three types of spindle fibres appear in the cell
1. Chromosomal/ Kinetochore spindle fibres
2. Supporting/Continuous spindle fibres
3. Interzonal Spindle
Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate from each other with sister chromatids still
attached to the centromere moving towards each pole of the cell respectively.
•The chromosome fibre contracts thus resulting in disjunction of chromosomes.
•This stage is responsible for the reduction in chromosome number in daughter cells.
Telophase I
• In this phase daughter nuclei are formed from each pair of homologous chromosome.
• Spindle fibres disappear and cytokinesis occurs in this stage.

Cytokinesis I
•Cytokinesis in animals takes place by constriction or successive furrow formation while
as in plants it does not occur after meiosis I.
• Gap between meiosis I and II is known as Interkinesis.
• Replication of DNA is absent during this phase although preparation of meiosis II takes
place.

Meiosis II (Homotypic division or Equational division)

•It involves division of centromeres.

Prophase II
• Re-condensation of chromosomes begins along with re-formation of spindle fibres that
become attached to sister chromatids at centromere.
Metaphase II
• Alignment of the chromosomes on the equator of the cell takes place.
• The microtubules from opposite poles of spindle get attached to kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
• The chromatids of each chromosomes face the opposite pole and centromere divides
in order to separate chromatids.
Anaphase II
• The chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes and move to opposite poles.
Centromere splits and results in separation of chromatids.
Telophase II
• Daughter nucleus is formed at each pole as daughter chromosomes reach opposite
poles, nuclear envelope is reformed and chromosomes begin to uncoil.
Cytokinesis
•This stage finally results in the formation of four haploid cells. Each daughter cell
formed contains one member of each pair of homologous chromosomes. All cells
produced in meiosis are genetically dissimilar due to crossing over of maternal and
paternal genes.

Significance of Meiosis
•It is the process by which variation occurs in the successive generations of the same
species due to crossing over.
•The chromosome number is maintained in sexually reproducing organisms as the germ
cells (sperm and egg) are haploid.
 Diagrammatic representation of stages involved in meiosis

Amitosis
• This type of equal or unequal division is the fastest one and involves direct division of
nucleus and cytoplasm simultaneously by constriction.
• This type of cell division does not involve chromosome condensation, spindle
formation and division is devoid of sequential changes in the cell.
Mitosis Meiosis

Somatic cells of the body undergo Germ cells undergo division by

division by mitosis meiosis

Takes place in both sexually and Occurs in sexually reproducing

asexually reproducing organisms. organisms only.

Two division stages are involved

These cells divide only once
as meiosis I and II

Before division interphase occurs Interphase occurs in only meiosis I

DNA replicates just one time in

DNA replicates only one time per
total in both the stages of division
division cycle
cycle

Prophase time period is short like Duration of prophase is long and it

few hours. involves various stages as well

Cell division is twice although

Cell division is only once.
chromosomes divide only once.

It involves synapsis of
Synapsis does not take place
homologous chromosomes

Crossing over does not takes

Crossing over takes place
place.

Two homologous chromosomes

form tetrad or bivalent and each
Each chromosome comprise of two
bivalent comprises of four
chromatids united by a centromere
chromatids attached by two
centromeres

It is in the beginning of prophase It is in interphase I DNA replication

chromosomes are duplicated. takes place

Synaptonemal complex is absent Synaptonemal complex is present

Chiasmata occur during prophase

Chiasmata are absent
I and metaphase I

The metaphase plate comprise of

The metaphase plate comprises of
paired chromosome pairs thus all
chromosome pairs thus all the
centromeres line up in two planes
centromeres line in the same plane
that are parallel to one another.

Progeny cells are genetically

Progeny cells are genetically same
different due to crossing over