Biology I for Non-Majors

Module 7: Cell Division

DNA and Genomes

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material of living organisms

• In humans, DNA is found in almost all the cells of the body
• It provides the instructions cells need to grow, function, and respond to their environment
• In eukaryotes such as plants and animals, the great majority of DNA is found in the nucleus
and is called nuclear DNA
• In bacteria and other prokaryotes, most of the DNA is found in a central region of the cell
called the nucleoid
• A cell’s set of DNA is called its genome
Chromosomes

• Each species has its own characteristic number of chromosomes

• Humans have 46 in a typical body cell
• Like many species of animals and plants, humans are diploid (2n)
• Most of their chromosomes come in matched sets known as homologous pairs
• The 46 chromosomes of a human cell are organized into 23 pairs
• The two members of each pair are said to be homologues of one another 
• Human sperm and eggs, which have only one homologous chromosome from each pair, are said to
be haploid (1n)
• The X and Y chromosomes are known as sex chromosomes
• The other 44 human chromosomes are called autosomes
Chromosomal Structure and Compaction

• DNA
• Chromatin
• Nucleosome
• Chromatin Fibers
• Sister chromatids
Interphase

• The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) 

• The cell is quite active at the biochemical level
• The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins as well as
accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the
nucleus
• Next is the S phase
• DNA replication results in the formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules
• Last is the G2 phase
• The cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for chromosome manipulation
• Some cell organelles are duplicated
• The cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic phase
Mitosis: Prophase

• Prophase
• The nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into small vesicles, and the membranous organelles fragment
and disperse toward the periphery of the cell
• The nucleolus disappears
• The centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell
• Microtubules that will form the mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther
apart as the microtubule fibers lengthen
• The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope
• Each sister chromatid develops a protein structure called a kinetochore in the centromeric region
Mitosis: Prometaphase and Metaphase

• Prometaphase
• The nuclear envelope is fully broken down and chromosomes are attached to microtubules from both
poles of the mitotic spindle
• Metaphase
• All the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, midway
between the two poles of the cell
• The chromosomes are maximally condensed
Mitosis: Anaphase and Telophase

• Anaphase
• The sister chromatids separate at the centromere
• The cell becomes visibly elongated (oval shaped) as the polar microtubules slide against each other at
the metaphase plate where they overlap
• Telophase
• The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense (unravel), relaxing into a chromatin
configuration
• Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes
• Nucleosomes appear within the nuclear area
Stages of Mitosis
Cytokinesis

• Cytokinesis is the second main stage of the mitotic phase during which cell division is
completed via the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells
• In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis follows the onset of anaphase
• In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cells
Cell Cycle Checkpoints

• External Regulation • Internal Regulation

• Death of a nearby cell • Near the end of G1
• Release of growth-promoting hormones • At the G2/M transition
• Crowding of cells
• Cell size
• During metaphase 
Cell Division and Cancer

• Cancer comprises many different diseases caused by a common mechanism: uncontrolled

cell growth
• The genes that code for the positive cell cycle regulators are called proto-oncogenes
• Normal genes that, when mutated in certain ways, become oncogenes, genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous
• Tumor suppressor genes are segments of DNA that code for negative regulator proteins
• When activated can prevent the cell from undergoing uncontrolled division
Sexual Life Cycles

• Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic
cells
• Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
• Three main categories of life cycles in multicellular organisms
• Diploid-dominant, in which the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage, such as with
most animals including humans
• Haploid-dominant, in which the multicellular haploid stage is the most obvious life stage, such as with
all fungi and some algae
• Alternation of generations, in which the two stages are apparent to different degrees depending on the
group, as with plants and some algae
Meiosis

• Sexual reproduction, specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into

offspring that may account for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction
• Meiosis employs many of the same mechanisms as mitosis
• The starting nucleus is always diploid and the nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are
haploid
• To achieve this reduction in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome
duplication and two rounds of nuclear division
Meiosis I

• Prophase I
• The nuclear envelope begins to break down, the proteins associated with
homologous chromosomes bring the pair close to each other
• The tight pairing of the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis
• The synaptonemal complex supports the exchange of chromosomal
segments between non-sister homologous chromatids, a process
called crossing over
Meiosis I (continued)

• Metaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes are arranged in the
center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles
• The homologous pairs orient themselves randomly at the
equator
• This randomness is the physical basis for the creation of
the second form of genetic variation in offspring
Meiosis I (cont.)

• Anaphase I
• The microtubules pull the linked chromosomes apart
• The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the centromere
• Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• The separated chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
• The remainder of the typical telophase events may or may not occur, depending on the species
• In some organisms cytokinesis occurs with reformation of the nuclear envelope; in other cases, the
envelope does not reform
• Two haploid cells are the end result of the first meiotic division
Meiosis II

• In some species, cells enter a brief interphase, or interkinesis, before entering meiosis II
• Interkinesis lacks an S phase, so chromosomes are not duplicated
• Prophase II
• If the chromosomes decondensed in telophase I, they condense again
• If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into vesicles
• The centrosomes that were duplicated during interkinesis move away from each other toward opposite
poles, and new spindles are formed
• The nuclear envelopes are completely broken down, and the spindle is fully formed
Meiosis II (continued)

• Metaphase II
• The sister chromatids are maximally condensed and aligned at the equator of the cell
• Anaphase II
• The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the kinetochore microtubules and move toward opposite poles
• Non-kinetochore microtubules elongate the cell
• Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense
• Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes
• Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four unique haploid cells
Stages of
Meiosis
Meiosis and Genetic Diversity

• Meiosis generates genetic diversity in 2 ways

• Crossing over: the points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic material are chosen more
or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through meiosis
• Random orientation of homologue pairs: the random orientation of homologue pairs during metaphase
of meiosis I is another important source of gamete diversity
• Genetic uniqueness is further enhanced during random fertilization
Karyotypes

• A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes, and includes their length,
banding pattern, and centromere position
• A karyogram (or ideogram) is a chart showing the karyotype

• The simplest use of a karyotype (or its karyogram image) is to identify abnormal
Chromosomal Abnormalities

• Disorders of chromosome number include the duplication or loss of entire chromosomes, as

well as changes in the number of complete sets of chromosomes
• Caused by nondisjunction, which occurs when pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
fail to separate during meiosis
• Nondisjunction can occur during either meiosis I or II
• An individual with the appropriate number of chromosomes for their species is
called euploid
• An individual with an error in chromosome number is described as aneuploid
• An individual with more than the correct number of chromosome sets (two for diploid species) is
called polyploid
Quick Review

• What are the two types of chromosomes in humans?

• List the major layers of chromosome structure
• What are the sub-phases of interphase?
• Draw the stage of mitosis
• How does cytokinesis differ between animals and plants?
• What are the major cell cycle checkpoints?
• How do errors in cell division relate to cancer?
• Define the major sexual life cycles.
• What are the stages meiosis I and II?
• How and when is genetic unique generated?
• What are common chromosomal errors and how are they diagnosed?