BPT-12 Research & Evidence in Physiotherapy II – 2024

Basic Statistics

Renato Baptista, PhD

rbaptista@lunex.lu
Overview

• Types of graphs

• Data presentation in scientific papers (graphs and tables)

• Correlational statistics

• Tests of reliability

• Inferential statistics
o Hypothesis testing

o P-value
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Overview

• Types of graphs

• Data presentation in scientific papers (graphs and tables)

• Correlational statistics

• Tests of reliability

• Inferential statistics
o Hypothesis testing

o P-value
LU:NEX 3
Population, Sample, and Observations

Let us first introduce some terminology!

The units on which we measure data, such as persons, cars, animals or plants, are
called observations 𝜔
The collection of all units is called population Ω
If we consider a selection of n observations 𝜔!, 𝜔", ⋯ , 𝜔# ,then these
observations are called sample. A sample is always a subset of the population!!

Example: We may be interested in collecting information about those participating in a

statistics course. All participants in the course constitute the population 𝛀, and each
participant refers to a unit or observation 𝝎.

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Variables
• Qualitative
Variables which take values that cannot be ordered in a logical or natural way. Example:
1. The color of the eyes.
2. The name of a political party.
3. The type of transport used to travel to work.

• Quantitative
Variables that represent measurable quantities. The values which these variables can
take can be ordered in a logical and natural way. Examples:
1. Size of shoes.
2. Price for houses
3. Number of semesters studied.
4. Weight of a person.
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Variables

Scales with a systematic relation

Scale between levels. E.g., height,
weight, age,…

Independent categories. E.g.,

Variable type (Measure) Nominal
gender.

Scales without a systematic

relation between levels. E.g.,
Ordinal
motivation (very high, high, low,
very low)

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Variables

popula&on 𝛀

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Types of Statistics

Statistical testing in research

Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

Central tendency Variability Difference tests Correlation tests

- Average (mean) - Variance - Difference between - Relation between two or
- Median - Standard deviation groups, condition, time more variables (e.g. ,
- … - Standard error points,… height and weight)
- Confidence intervals
- …

Descriptive statistics describe Inferential statistics allow to make

the sample characteristics predictions about the population
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Descriptive Statistics – Summary

• Typical indicators for descriptive statistics are the central tendency and the variability
• The central tendency provides information about the characteristics of a sample
• The central tendency is usually expressed in mean or median values
• The variability describes the distribution of values around the mean
• The standard deviation is usually used as an indicator of variability in a sample
• For population measures, the standard error and 95% confidence intervals are
available

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 Types of Graphs?
When to use what type of figure?

Bar Line Pie Scatterplot

Comparing Illustrating Presenting proportions Showing relations

conditions or groups developments over (e.g. in a sample) between variables
time

Compare the training Performance development Proportions of Achilles Relation between jump
effects in the intervention from pre-test to post-test tendon ruptures in height and 20m sprint time
and control group
different sports
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Types of Graphs

What are graphs?

à Are diagrams representing the relationship between two or more “things” –
which we usually denote as variables!
à Graphs are an alternative way to summarize a variable’s information.
à Graphs provide clues that words and equations do not.
à They are a great tool to form hypotheses and draw conclusions.
à However, they can be inaccurately interpreted, resulting in incorrect answers or
conclusions.

That’s the reason why we are going to talk about few types of graphs 😃

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Types of Graphs: Pie Charts

• PIE CHART
Used to visualize the absolute and relative frequencies of nominal (categorical) and ordinal
variables.
Luxembourg Residents Nationality
Luxembourg
Residents %
Nationality
LUX 53,3
PRT 16,2
FRANCE 7,2
ITA 3,5
BEL 3,4
GER 2,2
Other EU 7,3
non-EU 6,9 LUX PRT FRANCE ITA BEL GER Other EU non-EU

LU:NEX 12
Types of Graphs: Bar Charts

• BAR CHART
Used to visualize the absolute and relative frequencies of observed values of a variable. Can
be used for nominal and ordinal variables.
Favorite kind of
People
movie
Comedy 30
Action 95
Romance 10
Drama 75
SciFi 55

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Types of Graphs: Histograms

• HISTOGRAM
Used to visualize the distribution of values of continuous variables.
M&M as favorite candy

📢 A histogram is NOT a bar chart 🚨!!

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Types of Graphs: Histograms vs Bar Charts
Gaps
No gaps

Bar Chart

Histogram

Categories Number ranges

a) Histograms (distributions of variables) vs Bar charts (compare variables).

b) Histograms (quantitative data) vs Bar charts (categorical data).
c) The bars in histograms cannot be reordered.

LU:NEX https://www.forbes.com/sites/naomirobbins/2012/01/04/a-histogram-is-not-a-bar-chart/#3a4cd86b6d77 15
Types of Graphs: Line Graphs

• LINE GRAPHS
Used to visualize quantitative data collected over a specific topic and a specific time interval.
Data points are connected by a line, and they represent the observations.

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Types of Graphs: Boxplots

• BOXPLOTS
Used to visualize the distribution of data based on a five number summary (“minimum”, first
quartile (Q1), median, third quartile (Q3), and “maximum”).

Median (Q2) The middle value of the data

Lower Quartile (Q1) the middle number between

the smallest and the median
Upper Quartile (Q3) the middle value between the
median and the highest value
Interquartile Range (IQR) Q1 to Q3
Lower Extreme Q1 - 1.5*IQR
Upper Extreme Q3 + 1.5*IQR
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Types of Graphs: Boxplots

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Types of Graphs: Scatter Plots

• SCATTER PLOTS
Used to visualize the relationship between two quantitative variables measured on the same
individuals.

è Useful to visually detect outliers

è Shows the type of relationship

between two variables

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Other forms of data presentation

• TABLES
Used to present results from research, e.g., within or between-group comparisons.

Chan MC, et al. Does Kinesiology Taping Improve the Early Postoperative Outcomes in Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Reconstruction? A Randomized Controlled Study. Clin J Sport Med. 2017 May;27(3):260-265.

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Other forms of data presentation

• TABLES
Or used to show
participants’
demographic
or clinical
characteristics.

Malisoux L, et al. Can parallel use of different running shoes decrease running-related injury risk?
LU:NEX
Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2015 Feb;25(1):110-5. 21
Outliers

• What is an outlier?
An outlier represents a value distant from the rest, due to variability or error

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Outliers

• How to detect an outlier?

a) Visually inspect data – Scatter plot

b) Box Plot graphic

c) Tukey’s rule to detect outliers:

Outliers are values more than 1.5 times the IQR:

1) Q1 − 1.5*IQR

2) Q3 + 1.5*IQR. IQR = Q3 - Q1

LU:NEX 23
Outliers

• Exercise!
Consider the database “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx” in StudyNet

To answer:
1) Is the maximal value of Hand Grip strength considered as an outlier?

2) Is the minimal value of BMI considered as an outlier?

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Exercises

• Please consider the studies 3, 4 and 6 in StudyNet, and answer the following
questions:
1) Is Figure 1 of study 3 a bar graph or a histogram? Justify.

2) What is the type of graphic in Figure 1, study 6?

3) Which variables, and what is their type, are presented in figure 2, study 6?

4) How many different sub-populations are represented in Table 2, study 6?

5) What variables are presented in Table 2, study 6?

6) In study 4, what is the most common type of injury, and area affected, in Alpine skiing?

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Overview

• Types of graphs

• Data presentation in scientific papers (graphs and tables)

• Correlational statistics

• Tests of reliability

• Inferential statistics
o Hypothesis testing

o P-value
LU:NEX 26
Correlational Statistics
• What is correlation?
Correlation is used to test the relationship between variables (quantitative or categorical).
It is a measure of how things are related.

Some examples of high correlation data:

• Caloric intake and your weight.
• The amount of time of your study and your grades.

Some examples of low correlation (or none) data:

• A cat’s name and the type of food they prefer.
• The cost of a car wash and the time you spend inside a shop.

Find the relationship between variables.

Useful to make predictions about future events.
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Correlational Statistics

• How to read a correlation?

First, it is highly recommended that we have a visual notion of the relationship of the
variables using a scatter plot!

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Correlational Statistics

• How to read a correlation?

Using the correlation coefficient (Pearson coefficient), usually denoted by r. It describes the
strength and direction of the linear association between two continuous (interval or ratio)
variables.
Variation of the coefficient: −1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1

When variables are qualitative ordinal scale variables, then Spearman correlation coefficient
can be used as an alternative to the Pearson coefficient
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Correlational Statistics
Height(cm) Weight(kg)
• Example 158 48 Height vs Weight
162 57
100
163 57 R² = 0.793
170 60
154 45 90
167 55
177 62
80
170 65
179 70
170 68 70
180 80
182 81
60
r2 = 0.79
155 60
157 58 𝑟 = 0.79 = 0.89
166 63 50
177 80
174 79
40
169 70
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
188 88
179 80
172 77 Adding a trendline helps to show the tendency behavior
181 88 between variables
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Correlational Statistics

• Quick summary about correlation

• 𝑟 è Correlation Coefficient
• -1 à negative strong correlation

• 0 à no correlation
• 1 à positive strong correlation

• 𝑟 ! è Coefficient of Determination (R-squared): defined as the ratio of the amount of

variance explained by the regression model to the total variation in the data (we are
address this in the future!!)

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Correlational Statistics

• Exercise!
Determine the type (e.g., positive or negative) and magnitude of the correlation
between (considering the database “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx” in StudyNet):
1) BMI and Weight.
2) Weight and Height.

3) Weight and Hand Grip in female participants.

4) BMI and Weight in male participants.

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Overview

• Types of graphs

• Data presentation in scientific papers (graphs and tables)

• Correlational statistics

• Tests of reliability

• Inferential statistics
o Hypothesis testing

o P-value
LU:NEX 33
Reliability Tests

• What are reliability tests?

Reliability is the overall consistency of a measure. There is a high reliability if a measure
produces similar result under consistent conditions.

Percent Agreement or k-statistics (Cohen’s k), is the most used with categorical variables.

It determines how well an observation produces the same value, for the same patient, on
repeated measurements (ideally 2 examiners)

1) Intra and inter examiner reliability;

2) Intra and inter session reliability;

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Reliability Tests

• Example of a table
Percent agreement across multiple data collectors (fictitious data).

McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med (Zagreb). 2012;22(3):276-82.
LU:NEX 35
Reliability Tests: % of Agreement

• How to determine the % of agreement using a crosstab (briefly explained next)?

Sum the agreed observations and
divide them by the total number
of observations

total

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Reliability Tests: Crosstabulation

• Crosstabulation (crosstab)
The purpose of crosstabulation is to show in tabular format the relationship between two or
more categorical variables. Categorical variables include those in which distinct categories
exist such as gender, ethnicity, place of residence, responses, grades, and many more.

cells

Observed: the actual number of cases within

each cell.

Expected: assumes that the two variables are

independent of each other. The expected value
for each cell.
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Reliability Tests: Cohen’s Kappa Statistics

• Kappa statistics (k-statistics)

Interpretation of k-statistics

Range of k: −1 to +1
k = 0 è represents the amount of agreement that can be expected from random chance.
k = 1 è represents perfect agreement between the raters.
k = -1 è represents great disagreement among raters (low negative k are seen as no agreement).
McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med (Zagreb). 2012;22(3):276-82.
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Reliability Tests: Cohen’s Kappa Statistics

• Kappa statistics (k-statistics)

Kappa (k) statistic is used as a useful measure for
quantifying agreement beyond chance for categorical
variables, such as presence or absence of disease.

Po à Percent agreement observed

Pe à Percent agreement expected

Κ = (0.94 – 0.57) / (1 – 0.57) = 0.85

McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistics. Biochem Med (Zagreb). 2012 Oct; 22(3): 276–282 - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3900052/
Hunt RJ. Percent agreement, Pearson's correlation, and kappa as measures of inter-examiner reliability. J Dent Res. 1986 Feb;65(2):128-30.
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Reliability Tests: Coefficient of Variation

• What is the Coefficient of Variation?

For continuous variables, the Coefficient of Variation (CV) provides a very simple way to
determine the relationship between the standard deviation and the mean of two sets of
observations (e.g., two goniometric measurements)

Values closer to zero show minimal variation

CV = (Standard Deviation / Mean) * 100

LU:NEX 40
 Reliability Tests: Coefficient of Variation

• How to determine the CV in excel?

1. Calculate the average for

each pair of observations.
2. Do the same for SD.
3. Divide SD by the average, for
each pair of observation.
4. Determine the total average
CV.

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Reliability tests: ICC

Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC)

The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient is another reliability measure to use in continuous variables
à It is sensitive for example to the extent to which subjects (individuals) keep their ranking order in
repeated measurements.
à Ranges between 0 and 1, and is always associated to a 95% confidence interval
à Generally speaking, ICC is calculated as a ratio ICC = (variance of interest) / (total variance) =
(variance of interest) / (variance of interest + unwanted variance).

Errors of random nature

Biases (systematic errors)

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Other Tests of Reliability

Standard Error of Measurement (SEM)

An estimation of the expected random variation in scores when no real change has taken
place.
The smaller the standard deviation and the higher the reliability, the smaller is the SEM.
A small SEM means that error is low, and observed differences in scores are more likely to be
true change.

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Other Tests of Reliability

Minimal Detectable Difference (MDD)

The minimum amount of change that needs to be observed, at either the group or individual
level, for it to be considered a real change and not simply related to measurement error

MDD = 2×𝑧"#% ×SEM,

where 𝑧"#% = 1.96

Furlan L, and Sterr A. The Applicability of Standard Error of Measurement and Minimal Detectable Change to Motor Learning
Research-A Behavioral Study. Front Hum Neurosci. 2018 Mar 22;12:95.
Beninato M., and Portney L.G.. Applying Concepts of Responsiveness to Patient Management in Neurologic Physical Therapy. From
JNPT 2011
See Table 2 of the paper of Neto et al (2015) in CANVAS
LU:NEX University 44
 Other Tests of Reliability

Minimal Detectable Difference (MDD)

Real modification in performance
or clinically significant
Increase in muscle strength

x Could be real measurement but

+MDC95 not clinically significant
x à high chance of random measurement error
SEM

-MDC95

Observed value > SEM à could possibly be a true or real measurement

Observed value – SEM < MDD à Not clinically significant due to random measurement error
Observed value – SEM > MDD à Real measurement and clinically significant
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Reliability Tests

• Exercise:
Consider the Excel dataset “Reliability” in StudyNet:

1) Determine the % of agreement and the Cohen’s Kappa for the SLR test
2) Determine the coefficient of variation for the shoulder abduction measurements

LU:NEX 46
Revision Exercise

• Exercise:
Consider the Excel dataset “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx”:

1) Create a Pie Graph for the variable Sex

2) Create a CrossTab for the variable Sex and Height (in groups of 5cm)
3) Calculate the mean for the Male and Female Hand Grip strength values
4) Create a Scatter Plot for the variables BMI and Hand Grip strength
1) Determine the Pearson r, and the coefficient of determination (r2), for the previous
variables

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Overview

• Types of graphs

• Data presentation in scientific papers (graphs and tables)

• Correlational statistics

• Tests of reliability

• Inferential statistics
o Hypothesis testing

o P-value
LU:NEX 48
Inferential Statistics

• Inferential statistics:
Inferential statistics refers to the generalization of results from a sample of participants to the
whole population.

Why is it helpful to use inferential statistics?

1. Making inferences about the population from the sample.
2. Concluding whether a sample is significantly different from the population.
3. If one model is significantly better than the other.
4. Hypothesis testing in general.

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Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing

• Hypothesis testing:
Hypothesis testing is one of the most used methods of inferential statistics.

Before going into the hypothesis testing, let us understand the following example:

Imagine the mean score of this class is 35 marks out of 100. I am not happy with this, and I
decide that extra classes on statistics are necessary in order to improve the performance of
the class. After taking the extra classes, the class scored an average of 40 marks out of 100.
How can we be sure whether the increase in marks is a results of the extra classes or is it just
random?

è Hypothesis testing let us answer that question!

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Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing

• Hypothesis testing:
Hypothesis testing determines the probability (p-value) of difference, or non-difference,
between groups.

The p-value provides evidence against the null hypothesis (H0) stated;
The smaller p-value is, the stronger the evidence against H0 and in favor of the alternative
hypothesis (Ha).

If p-value is equal or inferior to 0.05, then H0 is rejected in favor of Ha.

Biau DJ, et al. P value and the theory of hypothesis testing: an explanation for new researchers.
LU:NEX Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2010 Mar;468(3):885-92. doi: 10.1007/s11999-009-1164-4. 51
Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing

• Recalling the previous example…

• Null Hypothesis (H0):
Null hypothesis would be that the average marks after extra class are same as that before the
classes.

• Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):

Alternative hypothesis would be that the marks after extra class are significantly different
from that before the class.

Practical tip: Null hypothesis is generally kept which we want to prove.

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Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing

Null hypothesis - H0 (always assumes absence of differences)

à Runners using more than one pair of shoes have the same risk of sustaining a RRI than runners
who use only one pair of shoes

Alternative hypothesis - Ha
à Runners using more than one pair of shoes have a lower risk of sustaining a RRI than runners
who use only one pair of shoes
LU:NEX 53
 Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing

Please formulate the H0 and Ha for each one

of the selected lines in this table.

Chan MC, et al. Does Kinesiology Taping Improve the Early

Postoperative Outcomes in Anterior Cruciate Ligamenat
Reconstruction? A RCT. Clin J Sport Med. 2017 May;27(3):260-265.

LU:NEX 54
Pearson’s Chi-square Test

• Chi-Square test (χ2):

Is used to determine if there is a significant association between two categorical variables

The test compares the Observed (real) values with the Expected. For that, the expected
values must be calculated!

Chi-Square Test is given by: Observed

O& − E& "

"
𝜒 =)
E& Expected

LU:NEX 55
Pearson’s Chi-square Test

• Chi-Square test (χ2) example:

Suppose a company that manufactures chocolates, states that they manufacture 30% dairy
milk, 60% temptation and 10% kit-kat. Now suppose a random sample of 100 chocolates has
50 dairy milk, 45 temptation and 5 KitKat. Does this support the claim made by the company?

Null Hypothesis (H0): The claims are True

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): The claims are False.

LU:NEX 56
Pearson’s Chi-square Test

• How to compute the Chi-square test on Excel?

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑔𝑒×𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑥

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

LU:NEX 57
Pearson’s Chi-square Test

• How to perform the Chi-Square test on

Excel:

1. Copy and paste the observed values in a

second table;
2. Determine the expected value for all cells,
by multiplying the cells totals and dividing
by the overall total
3. Select the CHITEST function, which will
give the p-value of the association tested

LU:NEX 58
Pearson’s Chi-square Test

• Exercise:
Consider the Excel dataset “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx”:

1) Determine the association in distribution between the variables Sex and Height (in groups
of 20cm).
2) Determine the association in distribution between the variables Sex and BMI (in groups of
5).

LU:NEX 59
Student’s T-tests

William Sealy Gosset

Two fields of barley

LU:NEX 60
Student’s T-tests
• Let us understand better the concept of a T-test by breaking some spaghetti (no offense to Italians J)

• Research question:
→ Would a single spaghetti from two different brands break in
the same way? Or
→ How many pieces we obtain from breaking a single spaghetti
from two different brands?

• Hypotheses:
→ Null: The spaghetti from the two different brands breaks in the
same way.
→ Alternative: The spaghetti from the two different brands
breaks differently from one another.

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Student’s T-tests

• Student’s T-test:
The t test tells us how significant the differences between group means are.

Requirements for the test:

1. Continuous variables
2. Normal distribution
3. Equal variance in the samples

Used to compare means between:

à Two samples from the same group/individual Paired samples T-test
(Compare SLR values between lower limbs)

à Two samples from different groups/individuals Independent samples T-test

(compare SLR values between males and females)
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Student’s T-tests

• There are three kinds of T tests:

Ø Independent-samples: comparing the means of two different groups;
Ø Dependent-samples: comparing the means of two conditions where the same people—or people
whose scores are correlated with each other—are in both groups;
Ø One-sample: comparing the mean of a sample with a pre-specified mean.

Then, there are three main questions that we should ask about the difference between groups (or
conditions, or the sample and population means):
1. Can I be certain that the difference between groups (or between conditions, or between the
sample mean and population mean) is not due to random chance?
2. How big is the difference?
3. Is this difference important?

LU:NEX 63
Student’s T-tests

• Student’s T-test:
Different variance
Difference between the means
within the sample
of the groups (same average)

𝐴𝑣𝑔! 𝐴𝑣𝑔"

LU:NEX
Consider the variability 64
Student’s T-tests

• Student’s T-test:
Difference between the means
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠
of the groups 𝑡= =
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑔% − 𝐴𝑣𝑔&
𝑡=
𝐴𝑣𝑔! 𝐴𝑣𝑔"
𝑠%! 𝑠&!
+
𝑁% 𝑁&

where,
s2 è variance
N è sample size

LU:NEX
Variability 65
Student’s T-tests
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠
• Student’s T-test: 𝑡= =
𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠

Independent samples T-Test formula:

𝐴𝑣𝑔% − 𝐴𝑣𝑔& where,
𝑡= $
𝑠!/" è variance of group A and B
𝑠%! 𝑠&! 𝑁!/" è sample size of group A and B
+
𝑁% 𝑁&

Paired/Dependent samples T-Test formula:

𝐴𝑣𝑔% − 𝐴𝑣𝑔& where,

𝑡= 𝑆𝐷!/" è standard deviation of group A and B
|𝑆𝐷% − 𝑆𝐷& |
𝑁 è sample size of the group (number of pairs)
𝑁
LU:NEX 66
Student’s T-tests
Calculating the p-value
T-test
Variance explained by Variance explained by
Group Comparison error
(Mean difference) (variability)

t-value
(the degree to which the difference can be explained by the group)

Compare the t-value to a threshold value

(e.g., corresponding to p < 0.05)

t > threshold t < threshold

Assume Ha Assume H0
The difference is significant The difference is NOT significant
LU:NEX 67
Student’s T-tests

• Table of critical t-values depend on

• Significance level (usually 5% è 0.05)

• Degrees of freedom

Sample size

𝑑𝑓 = 𝑁 − 𝑃

Number of parameters
or relationships

LU:NEX 68
Student’s T-tests

• Or we can do it in excel

1) Manually calculate the average, standard deviation, variance and t-value è check in the

table if t-vale is greater or lower than threshold

2) Or call the function “=TTEST(data1, data2, tails, type)”

LU:NEX 69
Student’s T-tests

• Exercise:
Consider the Excel dataset “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx”, and determine if there are differences
between the means of:

1) SLR values between the right and left leg.

2) Height in males and females.
3) HR between smokers and non-smokers.
4) Hand grip, above and bellow the mean of height.

For all analysis, formulate the H0 and Ha

LU:NEX 70
Student’s T-tests

• Exercise:
Consider the Excel dataset “BPT12_Simple_Data.xlsx”:

The WHO defines excessive weight as having >24.99kg/m2 (BMI).

Do people with overweight have higher Heart Rate compared with people with non-
overweight people ?

(use the 22.00kg/m2 as threshold)

LU:NEX 71
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