What is Digital Communication?

The process of exchanging information between different devices using digital

(discrete-time) signals is referred to as digital communication. In other words, digital

communication is the exchange of information among devices digitally.

Digital communication uses discrete time signals for representing data and

information. It is the fundamental building block that forms backbone of internet

technologies and modern telecommunication networks.

How The Digital Communication Works?

Digital communication involves the following three main working processes −

​ Encoding − Encoding is the process of converting original information signals

like image, audio, video, etc. into a digital format. The key process involved in

encoding is called sampling.

​ Transmission − Then, the encoded information signal is transmitted using

various communication channels like coaxial cables, optical fibers, radio

waves, etc.

​ Decoding − At the receiving end, the signal is decoded to retrieve the original

information. The process involved in decoding is referred to as signal

reconstruction.

Advantages of Digital Communication

The key advantages of digital communication are listed below −

​ Digital communication is more accurate and reliable as compared to the

traditional analog communication.

​ Digital communication provides faster way of conveying information over very

large distances.
 ​ Digital communication also provides easy error detection and correction

methods.

​ Digital communication is more immune to noise and interferences.

​ In long term, digital communication provides an inexpensive way of

information exchange.

​ Digital communication allows sending information in various formats like voice,

video, images, etc.

Disadvantages of Digital Communication

Apart from the advantages, digital communication also has certain disadvantages

and limitations which are listed below −

​ Digital communication involves a complex structure of interconnected devices

and consumes more power.

​ Digital communication requires wider bandwidth to provide high speed data

transmission.

​ Due to the large number of hardware components and high-speed data

processing, digital communication is subjected to high power losses.

For all of the above process we need waves

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave used for communication,

broadcasting, and various other applications.

Characteristics:

1. Frequency: 3 kHz to 300 GHz

2. Wavelength: 100 km to 1 mm

3. Speed: 299,792,458 m/s (same as light)

4. Electromagnetic spectrum: Longest wavelength, lowest frequency

Types:

1. AM (Amplitude Modulation) waves

2. FM (Frequency Modulation) waves

3. Shortwave radio

4. Microwave radio

5. Ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio

6. Very high frequency (VHF) radio

Properties:

1. Refraction: Bends around obstacles

2. Diffraction: Spreads around corners

3. Reflection: Bounces off surfaces

4. Interference: Overlaps with other waves

5. Attenuation: Loses intensity with distance

Applications:

1. Radio broadcasting (AM/FM)

2. Mobile phones

3. Satellite communication

4. Radar systems

5. Navigation (GPS)

6. Wireless networks (Wi-Fi)

7. Television broadcasting

8. Emergency services (911)

9. Military communication

10. Scientific research

How Radio Waves Work:

1. Transmitter converts information into radio waves

2. Antenna broadcasts radio waves

3. Receiver detects radio waves

4. Decoder extracts original information

Radio Wave Frequency Bands:
Modulation

Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform,

called the carrier signal, with a separate signal called the modulation signal that

typically contains information to be transmitted. This carrier wave usually has a much
higher frequency than the message signal does.

Key points:

● Carrier Signal: A high-frequency signal that acts as a base for transmitting

information.

● Modulation Signal: The low-frequency signal containing the information to be

transmitted.

● Modulation Process: The process of superimposing the modulation signal

onto the carrier signal.

Types of Modulation:
There are various types of modulation, each designed to alter a particular

characteristic of the carrier wave. The most commonly altered characteristics include:

● Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in

proportion to the amplitude of the modulation signal.

● Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave is varied in

proportion to the amplitude of the modulation signal.

●
 ● Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): The analog signal is sampled and converted

into digital code, which is then transmitted.

● Applications of Modulation:

Modulation is widely used in various communication systems, including:

● Radio and Television Broadcasting: To transmit audio and video signals

over long distances.

● Mobile Communications: To transmit voice and data signals between mobile

devices.

● Satellite Communications: To transmit signals between satellites and ground

stations.

● Wireless Networks: To transmit data between devices in a wireless network.

Benefits of Modulation:

● Efficient use of bandwidth: Modulation allows multiple signals to be

transmitted over a single channel.

● Improved signal quality: Modulation can reduce noise and interference in

the transmission.

● Increased transmission range: Modulation can extend the range over which

signals can be transmitted.

Modulation Index

The modulation index is a measure of the extent to which a carrier wave is

modulated by a modulating signal. It quantifies how much the carrier wave's

properties (amplitude, frequency, or phase) are altered by the information signal.

Why is Modulation Index Important?

 ● Signal Quality: A well-chosen modulation index ensures optimal signal

quality and minimises distortion.

● Transmission Efficiency: It affects the bandwidth required for transmission.

● Receiver Sensitivity: It influences the receiver's ability to detect and

demodulate the signal.

Modulation Index in Different Modulation Schemes:

The calculation of the modulation index varies depending on the type of modulation:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

Defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal (Am) to the

amplitude of the carrier signal (Ac):

Modulation Index (m) = Am / Ac

○ A higher modulation index leads to greater amplitude variations in the

carrier wave. However, excessive modulation can cause distortion.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM):

Defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation (Δf) to the frequency of the

modulating signal (fm):

Modulation Index (β) = Δf / fm

A higher modulation index results in wider frequency deviation.

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

○ The modulation index in PSK is related to the phase shift introduced in

the carrier wave.

Visual Representation of Modulation Index in AM:

Key Points to Remember:

● The modulation index is a dimensionless quantity.

● It is crucial to maintain an appropriate modulation index to avoid distortion and

ensure efficient transmission.

● The optimal modulation index depends on various factors, including the type

of modulation, the channel characteristics, and the desired signal quality.

Modulating Signal vs. Modulated Signal

In the world of communication systems, the terms "modulating signal" and

"modulated signal" are crucial to understanding how information is transmitted over

long distances.

Modulating Signal:

● Information Carrier: This is the signal that carries the actual information or

message to be transmitted.

● Low Frequency: It typically has a lower frequency compared to the carrier

signal.

● Source of Information: It can be an audio signal (like voice or music), a

video signal, or even digital data.

Modulated Signal:

● Result of Modulation: This is the signal that results from the process of

modulation.

● High Frequency: It has a higher frequency, usually in the radio frequency

range.
 ● Transmitted Signal: It is the signal that is actually transmitted over the

communication channel.

● Combination of Signals: It is a combination of the carrier signal and the

modulating signal.

● specific modulation techniques like (AM), (FM), or Phase Shift Keying (PSK)?

An AM (Amplitude Modulation) modulator is an electronic circuit that superimposes

an information-bearing signal (modulating signal) onto a high-frequency carrier wave

by varying its amplitude. This process allows the transmission of information over

long distances using radio waves.

Key Components of an AM Modulator:

1. Carrier Signal Generator: Generates a high-frequency sinusoidal wave.

2. Modulating Signal Source: Provides the information signal, such as audio or

video.

3. Nonlinear Device: This device, often a transistor or diode, is used to multiply

the carrier and modulating signals.

4. Filter: Removes unwanted frequency components, leaving only the desired

AM signal.

Types of AM Modulators:

1. Square-Law Modulator:

○ Uses a nonlinear device (e.g., transistor or diode) to produce the

product of the carrier and modulating signals.

○ Simple to implement but has lower efficiency and higher distortion.

2. Balanced Modulator:

○ Employs two identical nonlinear devices to suppress the carrier

component.
 ○ Provides better efficiency and reduced distortion compared to the

square-law modulator.

3. Switching Modulator:

○ Uses a switching device (e.g., transistor) to switch the carrier on and off

in accordance with the modulating signal.

○ Offers high efficiency and good linearity.

Applications of AM Modulation:

● Radio Broadcasting: AM radio is widely used for broadcasting music, news,

and talk shows.

● Amateur Radio: Ham radio operators use AM for communication.

● Shortwave Radio: AM is used for long-distance communication.

Advantages of AM Modulation:

● Simple to implement

● Low cost

● Good noise immunity

Disadvantages of AM Modulation:

● Lower bandwidth efficiency compared to FM

● Susceptible to interference
An FM modulator is a device that implements frequency modulation, a technique

used to encode information in a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency.

This modulation method is widely used in various communication systems, including

radio broadcasting, telecommunications, and signal processing.

Key Components and Working Principle:

1. Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO):

○ The core component of an FM modulator.

○ Generates a carrier signal whose frequency is controlled by an input

voltage.

○ The modulating signal is applied to the VCO as this input voltage.

2. Modulating Signal:

○ The information-bearing signal that needs to be transmitted.

○ It can be an audio signal, a video signal, or digital data.

3. Frequency Deviation:

○ The extent to which the carrier frequency deviates from its center

frequency in response to the modulating signal.

○ A higher frequency deviation results in a wider bandwidth and better

noise immunity.

Types of FM Modulators:

1. Direct FM Modulator:

○ Directly applies the modulating signal to the VCO.

○ Suitable for narrowband FM applications.

2. Indirect FM Modulator:

○ Uses a phase modulator followed by a frequency multiplier.

 ○ More complex but allows for higher frequency deviation.

Applications of FM Modulation:

● Radio Broadcasting: FM radio provides high-quality audio transmission with

reduced noise interference.

● Telecommunications: Used in various communication systems, including

mobile phones and satellite communication.

● Signal Processing: Employed in various signal processing techniques, such as

frequency shift keying (FSK) and Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK).

Advantages of FM Modulation:

● Improved Noise Immunity: FM signals are less susceptible to noise and

interference compared to AM signals.

● Higher Fidelity: FM can transmit high-quality audio signals with greater fidelity.

● Wider Bandwidth: FM allows for a wider bandwidth, enabling the transmission

of more information.

Demodulation: Recovering the Original Signal

Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. It's the technique used to extract

the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. In simpler

terms, it's the process of retrieving the original message from the modulated signal.

How Demodulation Works:

1. Received Signal: The modulated signal, which is a combination of the carrier

wave and the information signal, is received.

 2. Demodulation Process: The demodulator, a specialized electronic circuit,

processes the received signal to extract the original information.

3. Original Signal Recovery: The demodulator removes the carrier wave,

leaving behind the original signal, which can be an audio, video, or data

signal.

Types of Demodulation:

The type of demodulation used depends on the modulation technique employed.

Here are some common types:

1. Envelope Detection:

○ Used for AM (Amplitude Modulation) signals.

○ The envelope of the modulated signal, which corresponds to the

original signal, is extracted using a diode and a low-pass filter.

2. Frequency Discrimination:

○ Used for FM (Frequency Modulation) signals.

 ○ The frequency variations in the modulated signal are converted back

into the original signal using a frequency discriminator circuit.

3. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL):

○ A versatile demodulation technique used for various modulation

schemes, including FM and PSK (Phase Shift Keying).

○ A PLL circuit tracks the phase of the carrier wave and extracts the

original signal.

Applications of Demodulation:

Demodulation is essential in various communication systems, including:

● Radio and Television: To recover audio and video signals from modulated

radio waves.

● Mobile Communications: To decode voice and data signals from mobile

networks.

● Satellite Communications: To extract information from satellite signals.

● Wireless Networks: To decode data transmitted over Wi-Fi and other

wireless networks.
Bandwidth

When fm is given
Am reciever

An AM (Amplitude Modulation) receiver is an electronic device that receives an

amplitude-modulated radio wave and demodulates it to recover the original audio

signal. It's essentially a radio receiver that tunes in to AM radio broadcasts.

Key Components of an AM Receiver:

1. Antenna:

○ Captures the radio waves and converts them into electrical signals.

2. RF Amplifier:

○ Amplifies the weak received signal to a stronger level.

3. Mixer:

○ Combines the RF signal with a signal from the local oscillator to

produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal.

4. Local Oscillator:

○ Generates a signal at a fixed frequency that is mixed with the RF signal

to produce the IF signal.

5. IF Amplifier:

○ Amplifies the IF signal, providing additional gain and selectivity.

6. Detector (Demodulator):

○ Extracts the original audio signal from the IF signal using a process

called envelope detection.

7. Audio Amplifier:

○ Amplifies the recovered audio signal to a level suitable for driving

speakers or headphones.

8. Speaker or Headphones:

○ Reproduces the amplified audio signal as sound.

Block Diagram of an AM Receiver:

How it Works:

1. Signal Reception: The antenna captures the AM radio wave and converts it

into a weak electrical signal.

2. RF Amplification: The weak signal is amplified by the RF amplifier to

increase its strength.

3. Frequency Conversion: The mixer combines the RF signal with a signal from

the local oscillator to produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal. This

process is called frequency conversion or heterodyning.

4. IF Amplification: The IF signal is further amplified by the IF amplifier, which

provides additional gain and selectivity.

5. Demodulation: The detector extracts the original audio signal from the IF

signal using envelope detection.

6. Audio Amplification: The recovered audio signal is amplified by the audio

amplifier to drive the speaker or headphones

Super heterodyne radio receiver

Superheterodyne radio receivers are a type of radio receiver that uses a specific

technique to convert incoming radio signals to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) for

easier processing.

Key Components:

1. Mixer: Combines the incoming radio frequency (RF) signal with a locally

generated oscillator signal.

2. Local Oscillator (LO): Generates a frequency that's mixed with the incoming RF

signal.

3. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier: Amplifies the converted signal.

4. Detector/Demodulator: Extracts the original information (audio, etc.) from the IF

signal.

Working Principle:

1. The incoming RF signal is received by the antenna.

2. The mixer combines the RF signal with the LO signal, producing a new frequency.

3. The new frequency (IF) is amplified by the IF amplifier.

4. The detector/demodulator extracts the original information.

Advantages:

1. Improved selectivity

2. Better sensitivity

3. Reduced noise

4. Increased frequency stability

5. Easier tuning

Applications:

1. AM/FM radios

2. Shortwave radios

3. Television receivers

4. Radar systems

5. Communication receivers

Types:

1. Single-conversion superheterodyne

2. Double-conversion superheterodyne

3. Triple-conversion superheterodyne

History:

Invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1918, superheterodyne receivers revolutionized

radio communication.
 The superheterodyne radio was invented in an age when radio technology was very basic and

radio receiver performance lacked what we would take for granted today. The superhet radio, or

to give it is full name, the supersonic heterodyne wireless receiver represented a major step

forwards in performance, but initially it was not widely used, partly because it was invented at the

end of the First World War, and secondly because it used a lot of valves / tubes and these were

very expensive at this time.

FM receiver
An FM receiver is an electronic device designed to receive and demodulate FM

(Frequency Modulation) radio signals. It converts these radio waves into audio

signals that can be reproduced through speakers or headphones.

Key Components of an FM Receiver:

1. Antenna:

○ Receives radio waves from the atmosphere.

○ Converts electromagnetic waves into electrical signals.

2. RF Amplifier:
 ○ Amplifies the weak received signal to a stronger level.

3. Frequency Mixer:

○ Shifts the frequency of the received signal to an intermediate frequency

(IF) for further processing.

4. IF Amplifier:

○ Amplifies the signal at the intermediate frequency.

○ Filters out unwanted noise and interference.

5. Frequency Discriminator:

○ Demodulates the FM signal, converting frequency variations into

amplitude variations.

○ Extracts the original audio signal.

6. Audio Amplifier:

○ Amplifies the demodulated audio signal to drive speakers or

headphones.

How an FM Receiver Works:

1. Signal Reception: The antenna captures FM radio waves and converts them

into electrical signals.

2. Signal Amplification: The RF amplifier boosts the weak signal for further

processing.
 3. Frequency Conversion: The frequency mixer shifts the signal to an

intermediate frequency, making it easier to filter and amplify.

4. Signal Filtering and Amplification: The IF amplifier amplifies the signal at

the intermediate frequency, removing unwanted noise and interference.

5. Demodulation: The frequency discriminator demodulates the FM signal,

recovering the original audio information.

6. Audio Amplification: The audio amplifier boosts the demodulated audio

signal to drive speakers or headphones.

Types of FM Receivers:

● Portable FM Receivers: Compact and battery-powered, ideal for personal

listening.

● Car FM Receivers: Integrated into car audio systems, often with additional

features like Bluetooth and USB connectivity.

● Home Audio Receivers: High-fidelity receivers for home entertainment

systems, offering advanced features and superior sound quality.

Applications of FM Receivers:

● Radio Broadcasting: Listening to FM radio stations for news, music, and

entertainment.

● Mobile Communications: Receiving FM radio broadcasts in vehicles.

Radio wave propagation

Radio wave propagation refers to the behavior of radio waves as they travel from one

point to another through the atmosphere or space. As a form of electromagnetic

radiation, radio waves are subject to various phenomena like reflection, refraction,

diffraction, absorption, polarization, and scattering.

Modes of Radio Wave Propagation:

1. Ground Wave Propagation:

○ Occurs at lower frequencies (MF, LF, VLF).

○ Radio waves travel along the Earth's surface, following its curvature.

○ Used for long-distance communication, especially at night.

2. Sky Wave Propagation:

○ Occurs at higher frequencies (HF).

○ Radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere, a layer of ionized gases

in the Earth's upper atmosphere.

○ Enables long-distance communication, particularly at night and during

periods of high solar activity.

3. Space Wave Propagation:

○ Occurs at very high frequencies (VHF, UHF, SHF).

○ Radio waves travel directly from the transmitting antenna to the

receiving antenna.

○ Used for line-of-sight communication, such as television broadcasts

and satellite communications.

Factors Affecting Radio Wave Propagation:

● Frequency: Different frequencies propagate differently. Lower frequencies

can travel longer distances and penetrate obstacles better, while higher

frequencies have better line-of-sight propagation.

● Ionospheric Conditions: The ionosphere's density and composition vary with

solar activity, affecting the propagation of HF radio waves.

● Atmospheric Conditions: Atmospheric conditions like temperature, humidity,

and pressure can affect the propagation of radio waves.

● Terrain and Obstacles: Obstacles like buildings, mountains, and trees can

block or scatter radio waves

In the context of radio communication, AF, IF, and RF refer to different frequency

ranges:

AF (Audio Frequency):

● Range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz

● Description: The range of frequencies that humans can hear.

● Role in Radio: Audio signals, such as voice or music, are in this frequency

range. They are often used as the modulating signal in radio transmissions.

IF (Intermediate Frequency):

● Range: Varies, typically in the kilohertz range (e.g., 455 kHz)

● Description: A fixed frequency used in superheterodyne receivers to amplify

and filter the received signal before demodulation.

● Role in Radio: By converting the received signal to a fixed IF, the receiver

can use efficient and stable filters and amplifiers.

RF (Radio Frequency):

● Range: Typically above 3 kHz

● Description: The range of frequencies used for radio wave transmissions.

● Role in Radio: RF signals carry the modulated information over long

distances. They are used as carrier waves to transmit audio or data signals.

How they are related:

In a typical radio receiver, an RF signal is received and mixed with a local oscillator

signal to produce an IF signal. The IF signal is then amplified and filtered before

being demodulated to recover the original audio (AF) signal.