UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLING

-KHAN SHAFIQUA ASEEM
SYLLABUS
1.1. Introduction: Meaning of Research and Types
of Research, Research Process.
1.2.Defining the Research Problem: What is a Research
Problem?, Selecting the Problem, Technique Involved in
Defining a Problem, Illustrations.
1.3.Research Design: Meaning of Research Design, Features
of a Good Design, Different Research Designs.
Assignment: Developing a Research Plan,
1.4. Sampling: Meaning, Types, Procedure, Assignment:
Design Sample method.
1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH

◼ Research in general refers to….

◼ A search for knowledge.
◼ A scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic.
◼ Research is an art of scientific investigation.
◼ Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.
◼ “Redman and Mory” define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
◼ Research is a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
◼ A voyage of discovery.
◼ Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to
increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific
procedures.

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
Need and importance of Research in Business
(just for information)
▪ Product Development
▪ Reduction in costs
▪ Marketing Mix Decisions
▪ Customer Relationships
▪ Dealer Relationships
▪ Competitive Advantage
▪ HR plans and policies
▪ Financial Management
▪ Market Expansion
Types of
research
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. DESCRIPTIVE VS ANALYTICAL RESEARCH.

Descriptive research:
◼ Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of Analytical research:
different kinds. ◼ The researcher has to use facts or information already
◼ The main characteristic of this method is that the available, and analyze these to make a critical
researcher has no control over the variables; he can evaluation of the material.
only report what has happened or what is happening.
◼ Researchers discover causes even when they cannot
control the variables.
2. APPLIED VS. FUNDAMENTAL

Applied research: Fundamental research/ basic/ pure:

◼ Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem ◼ is mainly concerned with generalizations and with
facing a society or an industrial/business the formulation of a theory.
organization. ◼ Fundamental research is directed towards finding
◼ The central aim of applied research is to discover a information that has a broad base of applications
solution for some pressing practical problem.
◼ Examples of fundamental research:
◼ Example for Applied research.
◼ Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
◼ Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a relating to pure mathematics.
solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem. ◼ Research carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behavior.
◼ Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution or the
copy research or the marketing research or evaluation
research.
 3.QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE:
Quantitative research: ◼ Qualitative research:
◼ is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. ◼ is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.
◼ It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in ◼ Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
terms of quantity.
◼ It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,
◼ Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem opinions, and motivations.
by way of generating numerical data or data that can ◼ It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop
be transformed into usable statistics. ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
◼ It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, ◼ Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured
and other defined variables – and generalize results or semi-structured techniques.
from a larger sample population. ◼ Some common methods include focus groups (group
discussions), individual interviews, and
◼ Quantitative data collection methods are much more
participation/observations.
structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
◼ The sample size is typically small, and respondents are
◼ Quantitative data collection methods include various selected to fulfill a given quota.
forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys,
face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews
4.CONCEPTUAL VS. EMPIRICAL:

Empirical research:
Conceptual research:
◼ relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
◼ is that related to some abstract system and theory.
idea(s) or theory. ◼ It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
◼ It is generally used by philosophers being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research.
and thinkers to develop new
◼ In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source,.
concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones. ◼ In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
◼ He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the
desired information.
 5. SOME OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
◼ One-time Research: Research confined to a single time period.
◼
Longitudinal Research: Research carried on over several time periods.
◼
Diagnostic Research: It is also called clinical research which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency
with which it occur and the possible solutions for it.
◼
Exploratory Research: It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no
knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of
the problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research.
◼
Experimental Research: It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the
other variables constant or controlled.
◼
Historical Research: It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find the origin and
development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, in order to understand the present and to anticipate
the future.
Research process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Research process
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
 1.2 DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a Research problem?

❖ The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.
❖ A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
SELECTING THE PROBLEM

◼ The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one,
although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection.
◼ Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be
borrowed.
NECESSITY IN DEFINING THE PROBLEM

◼ A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
◼ Questions like:
1. What data are to be collected?
2. What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
3. What relations are to be explored.
4. What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

1. Statement of the problem in a general way

2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem
AN ILLUSTRATION
Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as follows:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?
In this form the question has a number of ambiguities
❑ Rethinking and discussions about the problem may result in narrowing
down the question
❑ Further rethinking and rephrasing might place the problem on a still better
operational basis
Thus, all relevant factors must be considered by a researcher before finally
defining a research problem
CONCLUSION
We may conclude by saying that the task of defining a research problem,
very often, follows a sequential pattern
1.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

◼ “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.”(From C R Kothari book)
◼ “Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data” – David & Nachmias
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

1. FOCUS ON OBJECTIVES
2. FLEXIBILITY
3. SUITABILITY
4. SIMPLICITY
5. SELECTION OF RIGHT TECHNIQUES / METHODS
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGN

❖ RESEARCH DESIGN IN CASE OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

❖ RESEARCH DESIGN IN CASE OF DESCRIPTIVE AND DIAGONISTIC
RESEARCH
❖ RESEARCH DESIGN IN CASE OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING RESEARCH
STUDIES
1.4 SAMPLING

◼ Meaning-The process of obtaining information from a subset

(sample) of a larger group (population)
◼ The results for the sample are then used to make estimates of
the larger group
Population-The entire group of people of interest from whom the
researcher needs to obtain information.
Element (sampling unit)- one unit from a population.
Sampling-The selection of a subset of the population.
Sampling Frame- Listing of population from which a sample is chosen
TYPES OF SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

◼ Simple random sampling is defined as a sampling technique where every

item in the population has an even chance and likelihood of being
selected in the sample. Here the selection of items entirely depends on
luck or probability, and therefore this sampling technique is also
sometimes known as a method of chances.
◼ Method of lottery-
◼ Using the lottery method is one of the oldest ways and is a mechanical example of
random sampling. In this method, the researcher gives each member of the
population a number. Researchers draw numbers from the box randomly to choose
samples.
2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

◼ Researchers calculate the sampling interval by dividing the entire population size by the desired
sample size.
◼ Systematic sampling is defined as a probability sampling method where the researcher chooses
elements from a target population by selecting a random starting point and selects sample members
after a fixed ‘sampling interval.’
◼ All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is
selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
◼ Step one: Develop a defined structural audience to start working on the sampling aspect.
◼ Step two: As a researcher, figure out the ideal size of the sample, i.e., how many people from the entire population
to choose to be a part of the sample.
◼ Step three: Once you decide the sample size, assign a number to every member of the sample.
◼ Step four: Define the interval of this sample. This will be the standard distance between the elements.
◼ For example, the sample interval should be 10, which is the result of the division of 5000 (N= size of the
population) and 500 (n=size of the sample).
◼ Systematic Sampling Formula for interval (i) = N/n = 5000/500 = 10
◼ Step five: Select the members who fit the criteria which in this case will be 1 in 10 individuals.
◼ Step six: Randomly choose the starting member (r) of the sample and add the interval to the random number to
keep adding members in the sample. r, r+i, r+2i, etc. will be the elements of the sample.
3. CLUSTER SAMPLING

◼ Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population
into sections or clusters that represent a population.
◼ For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of
immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states
such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc.
◼ The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same
number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every
office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these
are your clusters.
4. STRATIFIED SAMPLING

◼ Stratified sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into
smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While
sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group
separately.
◼ For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging
to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the
annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to
$40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the
characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze
which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that
would bear fruitful results.
NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

◼ A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.
◼ Some examples of convenience sampling could include recruiting friends to participate in your
study, collecting data from locations that are nearby.
◼ Example- You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after
each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at
the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
2. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING

◼ Sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population
without following systematic procedure.
◼ For instance, a person who is obtaining opinions for a political poll at a
shopping mall by randomly selecting passers-by is using a form of accidental
sampling.
3. JUDGMENTAL/ PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

◼ This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise
to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
◼ It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very
small and specific.
◼ For example, if the researcher wants to investigate the study habits of 100 students in a class, he may
exercise his own judgement and choose 10 students who, in his opinion, are representative of the
entire class
4. QUOTA SAMPLING

◼ In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a
pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample
will have the same qualities found in the total population.
◼ For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what brand of
cigarettes in a particular city. They apply survey quota on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50,
and 51+. From this information, the researcher gauges the smoking trend among the population of
the city.
5. SNOWBALL/ CHAIN REFERRAL SAMPLING

◼ If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people.
◼ Snowball sampling is a recruitment technique in which research participants are asked to
assist researchers in identifying other potential subjects.
◼ You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all homeless
people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate
in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that she knows in the area.
Snowball sampling
STAGES IN SAMPLING DESIGN/ PROCEDURE

1. Define the research objectives

2. Decision on universe
3. Decision on Area
4. Selection of sampling frame- A source list from which sample is drawn
5. Decision on sampling unit
6. Decision on sample size
7. Selection of sampling method