Avionics

Unit - 5

AIRBORNE RADAR, ASTRIONICS

Propagation of radar waves:

Radar waves propagate through space in a manner similar to other electromagnetic waves, such as light
waves. Radar, short for "Radio Detection and Ranging," utilizes radio waves, which are a type of
electromagnetic radiation. Here's an overview of how radar waves propagate:

Generation: Radar waves are generated by a radar transmitter. This transmitter emits electromagnetic
radiation in the form of radio waves at a specific frequency.

Transmission: Once generated, radar waves propagate outward from the radar transmitter in all
directions. The transmitter emits bursts of electromagnetic energy, which propagate through the
surrounding medium, typically air or space.

Interaction with Objects: When radar waves encounter objects in their path, such as aircraft, ships,
vehicles, or terrain features, they undergo various interactions depending on the properties of the
objects and the frequency of the radar waves.

Scattering: Radar waves can scatter off objects in their path, reflecting some of the energy back towards
the radar transmitter. The amount of energy reflected depends on factors such as the size, shape, and
composition of the object, as well as the frequency and polarization of the radar waves.

Absorption and Attenuation: Some radar waves are absorbed or attenuated as they pass through certain
materials or substances. For example, radar waves at certain frequencies may be absorbed by rain, fog,
or foliage, reducing their range and effectiveness.

Refraction and Diffraction: Radar waves can undergo refraction and diffraction as they pass through
different mediums or encounter obstacles. These phenomena can cause radar waves to bend or spread
out, affecting their propagation path and behavior.

Detection: Radar receivers detect the radar waves that are reflected, scattered, or otherwise returned
to the radar system. By analyzing the properties of the returned signals, such as their time of arrival,
amplitude, phase, and Doppler shift, radar systems can determine the presence, location, and
characteristics of objects in the surrounding environment.

Overall, radar waves propagate through space by traveling outward from the radar transmitter,
interacting with objects in their path, and undergoing various phenomena such as scattering,
absorption, and diffraction. Understanding the propagation characteristics of radar waves is essential for
designing effective radar systems and interpreting the information they provide about the surrounding
environment.
Functional elements of radar:

The functional elements of a radar system can vary depending on its specific application and design.
However, most radar systems consist of several key components that perform essential functions in the
detection, tracking, and measurement of objects in the surrounding environment. Here are the
fundamental functional elements of a radar system:

Transmitter: The transmitter generates electromagnetic waves, typically in the radio frequency (RF) or
microwave frequency range. These waves are emitted into the surrounding space as radar pulses.

Antenna: The antenna is responsible for radiating the radar pulses into space and receiving the echoes
reflected back from objects in the environment. The design of the antenna determines the radar's beam
shape, directionality, and sensitivity.

Receiver: The receiver amplifies and processes the weak return signals received by the antenna. It
extracts information from the received signals, such as target position, velocity, and characteristics.

Signal Processor: The signal processor analyzes the received radar signals to extract useful information
about detected objects. It performs tasks such as signal filtering, pulse compression, target detection,
and tracking.

Display System: The display system presents the processed radar data to the user in a comprehensible
format. This may include a radar screen or display console that shows detected targets, maps, and other
relevant information.

Control Interface: The control interface allows the operator to interact with the radar system, adjusting
settings, selecting operating modes, and controlling the scanning or tracking functions.

Power Supply: The power supply provides electrical power to the radar system, including the
transmitter, receiver, signal processor, and other components. Depending on the application, the power
supply may be supplied by batteries, generators, or external power sources.

Data Link: In some radar systems, a data link is used to transmit radar data to other systems or
platforms for further analysis or decision-making. This may include communication links with other
radar systems, command and control centers, or networked platforms.

Environmental Sensors (Optional): Some radar systems may include additional sensors to gather
environmental data, such as weather radar systems that measure precipitation, wind speed, and
atmospheric conditions.

Auxiliary Components: Radar systems may also include various auxiliary components, such as cooling
systems, antennas, radomes, and support structures, depending on the specific application and
deployment requirements.

Overall, these functional elements work together to enable the radar system to detect, track, and
identify objects in the surrounding environment, providing valuable information for a wide range of
applications, including air traffic control, military surveillance, weather monitoring, navigation, and
scientific research.

Antenna:

The antenna is a crucial component of the radar system responsible for transmitting electromagnetic
waves into space and receiving the echoes reflected back from objects in the environment. Key aspects
of the antenna include:

Radiation Pattern: The radiation pattern determines how energy is distributed in space when
transmitting or receiving signals. The antenna design determines the shape and characteristics of the
radiation pattern, such as beam width, directionality, and gain.

Beam Steering: Some radar antennas are capable of steering the beam electronically or mechanically to
scan the surrounding space in different directions. This allows the radar to cover a wider area or focus
on specific regions of interest.

Polarization: Antennas can transmit and receive signals with different polarization states, such as linear
polarization (horizontal or vertical) or circular polarization. Polarization affects how radar waves interact
with objects in the environment and can influence the radar's performance in different conditions.

Aperture Size: The physical size of the antenna aperture determines its sensitivity and resolution. Larger
antennas generally provide higher gain and better resolution, allowing for longer detection ranges and
more precise target localization.

Array Configurations: Modern radar systems often use antenna arrays consisting of multiple individual
elements arranged in specific configurations, such as phased arrays or conformal arrays. These arrays
offer advantages in terms of beamforming, beam agility, and adaptive beam shaping.

Transmitter:

The transmitter generates electromagnetic waves, typically in the radio frequency (RF) or microwave
frequency range, and feeds them to the antenna for transmission into space. Key aspects of the
transmitter include:

Waveform Generation: The transmitter produces radar pulses with specific characteristics, such as pulse
width, pulse repetition frequency (PRF), and modulation scheme. These parameters determine the
radar's range resolution, target discrimination capabilities, and resistance to interference.

Power Amplification: The transmitter amplifies the electrical signals generated by the radar waveform
generator to sufficient power levels for transmission by the antenna. High-power amplifiers are required
to achieve the desired range and detection sensitivity.

Frequency Generation: The transmitter generates signals at the desired radar frequency or frequencies.
Some radar systems operate at a single frequency, while others employ frequency-agile techniques to
switch between multiple frequencies for improved performance or resistance to jamming.
Duplexing: Radar transmitters often employ duplexing techniques to separate the transmit and receive
functions, allowing the antenna to operate in both modes without interference. Common duplexing
schemes include time division duplexing (TDD) and frequency division duplexing (FDD).

Modulation and Coding: The transmitter may employ various modulation and coding techniques to
encode information into the radar pulses, such as pulse compression for improved range resolution or
spread spectrum modulation for enhanced resistance to jamming.

Types of radar:

There are different types of radars which include the following.

Bistatic Radar

This type of radar system includes a Tx-transmitter & an Rx- receiver that is divided through a distance
that is equivalent to the distance of the estimated object. The transmitter & the receiver are situated at
a similar position is called a monastic radar whereas the very long-range surface to air & air to air
military hardware uses the bistatic radar.

Doppler Radar

It is a special type of radar that uses the Doppler Effect to generate data velocity regarding a target at a
particular distance. This can be obtained by transmitting electromagnetic signals in the direction of an
object so that it analyzes how the action of the object has affected the returned signal’s frequency.

This change will give very precise measurements for the radial component of an object’s velocity within
relation toward the radar. The applications of these radars involve different industries like meteorology,
aviation, healthcare, etc.

Monopulse Radar

This kind of radar system compares the obtained signal using a particular radar pulse next to it by
contrasting the signal as observed in numerous directions otherwise polarizations. The most frequent
type of monopulse radar is the conical scanning radar. This kind of radar evaluates the return from two
ways to measure the position of the object directly. It is significant to note that the radars which are
developed in the year 1960 are monopulse radars.

Passive Radar

This kind of radar is mainly designed to notice as well as follow the targets through processing
indications from illumination within the surroundings. These sources comprise communication signals as
well as commercial broadcasts. The categorization of this radar can be done in the same category of
bistatic radar.
Instrumentation Radar

These radars are designed for testing aircraft, missiles, rockets, etc. They give different information
including space, position, and time both in the analysis of post-processing & real-time.

Weather Radars

These are used to detect the direction and weather by using radio signals through circular or horizontal
polarization. The frequency choice of weather radar mainly depends on a compromise of performance
among attenuation as well as precipitation refection as an outcome of atmospheric water steam. Some
types of radars are mainly designed to employ Doppler shifts to calculate the wind speed as well as dual-
polarization to recognize the types of rainfall.

Mapping Radar

These radars are mainly used to examine a large geographical area for the applications of remote
sensing & geography. As a result of synthetic aperture radar, these are restricted to quite stationary
targets. There are some particular radar systems used to detect humans after walls that are more
different as compared with the ones found within construction materials.

Navigational Radars

Generally, these are the same to search radars but, they available with small wavelengths that are
capable of replicating from the ground & from stones. These are commonly used on commercial ships as
well as long-distance airplanes. There are different navigational radars like marine radars which are
placed commonly on ships to avoid a collision as well as navigational purposes.

Pulsed RADAR

Pulsed RADAR sends high power and high-frequency pulses towards the target object. It then waits for
the echo signal from the object before another pulse is sent. The range and resolution of the RADAR
depend on the pulse repetition frequency. It uses the Doppler shift method.

The principle of RADAR detecting moving objects using the Doppler shift works on the fact that echo
signals from stationary objects are in the same phase and hence get canceled while echo signals from
moving objects will have some changes in phase. These radars are classified into two types.

Pulse-Doppler

It transmits high pulse repetition frequency to avoid Doppler ambiguities. The transmitted signal and the
received echo signal are mixed in a detector to get the Doppler shift and the difference signal is filtered
using a Doppler filter where the unwanted noise signals are rejected.
Moving Target Indicator

It transmits low pulse repetition frequency to avoid range ambiguities. In an MTI RADAR system, the
received echo signals from the object are directed towards the mixer, where they are mixed with the
signal from a stable local oscillator (STALO) to produce the IF signal.

This IF signal is amplified and then given to the phase detector where its phase is compared with the
phase of the signal from the Coherent Oscillator (COHO) and the difference signal is produced. The
Coherent signal has the same phase as the transmitter signal. The coherent signal and the STALO signal
are mixed and given to the power amplifier which is switched on and off using the pulse modulator.

Continuous Wave

The continuous wave RADAR doesn’t measure the range of the target but rather the rate of change of
range by measuring the Doppler shift of the return signal. In a CW RADAR electromagnetic radiation is
emitted instead of pulses. It is basically used for speed measurement.

The RF signal and the IF signal are mixed in the mixer stage to generate the local oscillator frequency.
The RF signal is then transmitted signal and the received signal by the RADAR antenna consists of the RF
frequency plus the Doppler shift frequency. The received signal is mixed with the local oscillator
frequency in the second mixture stage to generate the IF frequency signal.

This signal is amplified and given to the third mixture stage where it is mixed with the IF signal to get the
signal with Doppler frequency. This Doppler frequency or Doppler shift gives the rate of change of range
of the target and thus the velocity of the target is measured.

Pulse-Doppler:

Pulse-Doppler radar is a type of radar system that combines pulse radar techniques with Doppler radar
principles to detect and track moving targets, such as aircraft or vehicles, while filtering out clutter and
stationary objects.
Pulse Radar Principle: Like conventional pulse radar, Pulse-Doppler radar emits short bursts, or pulses,
of radiofrequency energy toward a target. These pulses are then reflected off the target and received by
the radar receiver.

Doppler Effect: The Doppler effect is a phenomenon where the frequency of electromagnetic waves
changes when the source or receiver is in motion relative to the observer. In the case of radar, when a
target is moving towards or away from the radar, the frequency of the reflected radar waves is shifted
due to the Doppler effect.

Doppler Filtering: Pulse-Doppler radar utilizes the Doppler shift in the reflected radar signals to
distinguish between moving and stationary objects. By filtering out the Doppler-shifted signals, Pulse-
Doppler radar can isolate the returns from moving targets, effectively suppressing clutter from
stationary objects, such as buildings, trees, and terrain.

Moving Target Indication (MTI): Pulse-Doppler radar employs Moving Target Indication (MTI) techniques
to detect and track moving targets amidst clutter. MTI processing involves comparing successive radar
pulses to detect changes in the Doppler frequency shift, indicating the presence of moving targets.

Pulse Compression: Pulse-Doppler radar often utilizes pulse compression techniques to achieve high
range resolution while maintaining long detection ranges. Pulse compression increases the effective
pulse duration in the radar waveform, allowing for precise range measurements and target
discrimination.

High Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): Pulse-Doppler radar typically operates at a high Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF) to minimize range ambiguities and ensure accurate target tracking, especially at close
ranges and high closing speeds.

Applications: Pulse-Doppler radar is widely used in military and aerospace applications for air defense,
surveillance, reconnaissance, and target tracking. It is also employed in weather radar systems for
detecting and tracking severe weather phenomena, such as thunderstorms and tornadoes.

Civil Aviation Applications:

Weather Radar: Pulse-Doppler radar is employed in weather radar systems used by meteorologists and
air traffic controllers to monitor and track weather patterns, precipitation, and severe weather
phenomena. Doppler capabilities enable the detection of wind shear, microbursts, and other hazardous
weather conditions that pose risks to aviation safety.

Air Traffic Control (ATC): In civil aviation, Pulse-Doppler radar is utilized in ATC systems for aircraft
surveillance and air traffic management. Doppler processing allows ATC controllers to differentiate
between aircraft and stationary clutter, improving the accuracy of aircraft tracking and collision
avoidance.
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR): TDWR systems use Pulse-Doppler radar technology to
monitor weather conditions near airports, providing real-time information on wind shear, gust fronts,
and other hazards that could affect aircraft during takeoff, landing, and ground operations.

Airborne Weather Radar: Aircraft equipped with Pulse-Doppler weather radar systems use them to
detect and avoid hazardous weather conditions during flight. Pilots rely on radar images to navigate
around thunderstorms, turbulence, icing, and other weather-related hazards to ensure passenger safety
and comfort.

Military Applications:

Air Defense: Pulse-Doppler radar plays a critical role in military air defense systems for detecting,
tracking, and intercepting enemy aircraft and missiles. Doppler processing enhances target
discrimination and identification, enabling air defense systems to distinguish between hostile targets
and background clutter.

Surveillance and Reconnaissance: Military reconnaissance and surveillance platforms, such as airborne
early warning (AEW) aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), utilize Pulse-Doppler radar to
monitor large areas of interest and detect enemy movements, troop deployments, and other tactical
information.

Ground Moving Target Indication (GMTI): Pulse-Doppler radar systems equipped with GMTI capabilities
are used for ground surveillance and target tracking in military operations. These systems detect and
track moving vehicles, convoys, and personnel on the ground, providing situational awareness and
intelligence for military commanders.

Missile Guidance and Targeting: Pulse-Doppler radar is employed in missile guidance systems for
tracking and homing onto moving targets, such as enemy aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles. Doppler
processing enhances target tracking accuracy and resistance to countermeasures, improving the
effectiveness of missile systems.

Attitude determination and control of spacecraft:

Attitude determination and control (ADC) are crucial aspects of spacecraft operations, ensuring that the
spacecraft maintains its desired orientation or attitude in space. Here's an overview of attitude
determination and control for spacecraft:

Attitude Determination:

Sensors: Spacecraft are equipped with various sensors to determine their orientation relative to inertial
space. These sensors may include:

Gyroscopes: Gyroscopes measure angular rates of rotation and provide continuous information about
the spacecraft's attitude changes.
Star Trackers: Star trackers use star patterns to determine the spacecraft's orientation relative to the
stars.

Sun Sensors: Sun sensors detect the direction of the Sun's rays to determine the spacecraft's orientation
relative to the Sun.

Magnetometers: Magnetometers measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field to determine
the spacecraft's orientation relative to Earth's magnetic field.

Data Fusion: Attitude determination algorithms combine measurements from multiple sensors to
estimate the spacecraft's attitude accurately. Kalman filters and complementary filters are commonly
used for sensor fusion and attitude estimation.

Attitude Control:

Actuators: Spacecraft are equipped with actuators that generate torque to control their orientation.
Common actuators include:

Reaction Wheels: Reaction wheels use the principle of conservation of angular momentum to change
the spacecraft's attitude by spinning or counter-spinning.

Thrusters: Thrusters use controlled bursts of propulsion to exert torque on the spacecraft and adjust its
orientation.

Magnetic Torquers: Magnetic torquers interact with Earth's magnetic field to generate torque for
attitude control.

Control Algorithms: Attitude control algorithms use feedback control techniques to command the
spacecraft's actuators based on the difference between the desired and actual attitude. Proportional-
Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers and optimal control methods are commonly used for attitude
control.

Control Modes:

Three-Axis Stabilization: In three-axis stabilization mode, the spacecraft maintains stability along all
three axes (roll, pitch, and yaw) by continuously adjusting its attitude.

Spin Stabilization: Some spacecraft use spin stabilization, where the entire spacecraft rotates at a
constant rate around its axis to maintain stability.

Control Laws: Attitude control laws define how the spacecraft responds to external disturbances,
commands from ground control, or changes in mission requirements. These laws prioritize stability,
pointing accuracy, power consumption, and other mission objectives.
Challenges and Considerations:

Accuracy: Attitude determination and control systems must achieve high accuracy to meet mission
requirements, especially for spacecraft with precise pointing or stabilization needs.

Power and Mass Constraints: Spacecraft systems, including attitude determination and control, must
operate within strict power and mass constraints to ensure mission success and spacecraft longevity.

Redundancy and Reliability: To enhance mission reliability, spacecraft often incorporate redundant
sensors, actuators, and control algorithms to maintain attitude control even in the event of component
failures.

Dynamic Environments: Spacecraft may encounter dynamic environments, such as gravitational

perturbations, solar radiation pressure, and atmospheric drag, which can affect attitude control and
require adaptive control strategies.

Attitude determination and control are critical for the success of space missions, ensuring that
spacecraft maintain their desired orientation, stability, and pointing accuracy throughout their
operational lifetimes.

Magnetometers:

Function: Magnetometers measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field to determine the
spacecraft's orientation relative to Earth's magnetic field.

Usage: Magnetometers are particularly useful for attitude determination when the spacecraft is in
Earth's orbit, as they provide a reference direction along Earth's magnetic field lines.

Calibration: Magnetometers require calibration to compensate for spacecraft-induced magnetic fields

and other sources of interference.

Sun Sensors:

Function: Sun sensors detect the direction of the Sun's rays to determine the spacecraft's orientation
relative to the Sun.

Usage: Sun sensors are commonly used for coarse attitude determination and initial attitude acquisition.
They provide azimuth and elevation angles relative to the Sun.

Limitations: Sun sensors may experience challenges in accuracy and reliability during eclipse or twilight
periods when the Sun's intensity is reduced.

Star Trackers:

Function: Star trackers use star patterns to determine the spacecraft's orientation relative to inertial
space. They identify and track known stars to accurately determine the spacecraft's attitude.
Accuracy: Star trackers offer high accuracy and precision in attitude determination, making them ideal
for long-duration missions and precise pointing requirements.

Operational Modes: Star trackers can operate in either autonomous or commanded modes,
autonomously identifying stars and updating attitude estimates, or responding to ground commands.

Telemetry Systems:

Function: Telemetry systems collect and transmit data from onboard sensors and systems to ground
control stations. This includes attitude sensor measurements, actuator commands, and spacecraft
telemetry.

Data Transmission: Telemetry systems transmit attitude sensor measurements, such as magnetometer
readings, sun sensor data, and star tracker measurements, to ground control for analysis and
processing.

Commanding: Ground control stations use telemetry systems to send commands to the spacecraft's
attitude control system, such as adjusting thruster firings or reconfiguring sensor settings.

Monitoring: Telemetry systems provide real-time monitoring of spacecraft attitude and health
parameters, allowing ground operators to assess spacecraft performance and detect anomalies.

Integration and Redundancy:

Sensor Fusion: ADC systems often integrate measurements from multiple sensors, such as
magnetometers, sun sensors, and star trackers, using sensor fusion algorithms to improve accuracy and
reliability.

Redundancy: Spacecraft may incorporate redundant sensors and telemetry systems to enhance
reliability and fault tolerance. Redundant systems provide backup capabilities in the event of sensor
failures or anomalies.

In summary, magnetometers, sun sensors, star trackers, and telemetry systems play critical roles in
spacecraft attitude determination and control, providing essential data for maintaining orientation,
stability, and pointing accuracy during space missions. Integration, calibration, and redundancy
strategies ensure robust ADC performance and mission success.

Students are instructed to go through the below link for further detailed explanation about attitude
determination and control of spacecraft.

[Link]