Basic radar principles

Introduction
• RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging.
• Scientist Heinrich Hertz demonstrated in 1886 that
radio waves would reflect from metal.
• 1930s UK, Germany, France and USA developed radar
techniques.
• Radar at sea on a warship in 1937.
• After WWII the radar started to enter merchant ships.
• Developed to suite the civil navigation and collision
avoidance.
 The Echo Principles

• A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in
predetermined directions. When these meet an object, they are usually reflected
or scattered in many directions. However, some of them absorb and penetrate
into the target to some degree. Radar signals are reflected especially well by
materials of considerable electrical conductivity —especially by most metals, by
seawater and by wet ground. Some of these make the use of radar altimeters
possible. The radar signals that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the
desirable ones that make radar work. If the object is moving either toward or
away from the transmitter, there is a slight equivalent change in the frequency of
the radio waves, caused by the Doppler Effect.
• Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the
transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving
antenna are usually very weak, they can be strengthened by electronic amplifiers.
More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also used in order to recover
useful radar signals.
 The echo principle
• The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium
through which it passes is what enables radar sets to
detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges at which
other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light,
infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly
attenuated. Such weather phenomena as fog, clouds, rain,
falling snow, and sleet that block visible light are usually
transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that
are absorbed or scattered by water vapour, raindrops, or
atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in
designing radars, except when their detection is intended.
 The echo principle

• The target is detected by the transmission of a pulse of radio

energy.
• A fraction of that energy is reflected towards the transmitter.
• The returned echo is normally weaker than the originally
transmitted pulse and has to be amplified upon return.
• The chance of detecting an echo depends on the power and
duration of the original transmission.
• Short blasts for echoes from close targets.
• Long time interval between blasts is required for distant
targets. Allows time for the echo to return.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
TYPES OF RADAR SYSTEMS
 Types
    Bistatic radar
• Bistatic radar is a radar system that comprises of a transmitter and a receiver
that are separated by a distance that is equal to the distance of the expected
target. A radar in which the transmitter and the receiver are located at the
same place is known as a monastic radar. Most long range surface-to-air and
air-to-air missiles employ the use of bistatic radar.

   Continuous wave radar

• A continuous wave radar is a type of radar where a known stable frequency
continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any of
the objects that reflect the waves. A continuous wave radar uses Doppler
technology, which means the radar will be immune to any form of
interference by large objects that are stationary or slow moving.
 
 Doppler radar

 A Doppler radar is a special form of radar that

employs the use of Doppler Effect to produce
velocity data about an object at a given distance.
This is achieved by sending electromagnetic signals
towards a target and then analysing how the object
motion has affected the frequency of the returned
signal. Doppler radars have applications in different
industries including aviation, meteorology,
healthcare and many others.
 Monopulse radar

• A monopulse radar is a radar system that compares

the received signal from a single radar pulse against
itself with an aim of comparing the signal as seen in
multiple polarizations or directions. The most
common form of monopulse radar is the adaptation
of conical scanning radar, which compares the
return from two directions to directly measure the
location of the target. It is important to note that
most of the radars that were designed since the
1960s are monopulse radars.
  Passive radar

• A passive radar system is a type of radar that is

designed to detect and track objects by
processing reflections from non-cooperative
sources of illumination in the environment.
These sources include such things as
communications signals and commercial
broadcasts. Passive radar can be categorized
in the same class of radar as bistatic radar.
 Instrumentation radar
• Instrumentation radars are radars that are
designed to test rockets, missiles, aircrafts and
ammunitions on government and private test
ranges. They provide a variety of information
including space, position, and time both in the
real time and in the post processing analysis.
  Weather radar

• Weather radars are radar systems that are used for

weather sensing and detection. This radar uses
radio waves along with horizontal or circular
polarization. The frequency selection of weather
radar depends on a performance compromise
between precipitation refection and attenuation as
a result of atmospheric water vapour. Some
weather radars are designed to use Doppler shifts
to measure the speed of wind and dual polarization
to identify precipitation types.
  Mapping radar

• Mapping radars are used to scan a large

geographical region for geography and remote
sensing applications. Because of their use of
synthetic aperture radar, they are limited to
relatively static objects. There are some specific
radar systems that can sense humans behind
walls thanks to the reflective characteristics of
humans that are more diverse than the ones
found in construction materials.
  Navigational radar

• Navigational radars are generally the same as search

radars. However, they come with much shorter
wavelengths that are capable of reflecting from the earth
and from stones. They are mostly common on commercial
ships and other long distance commercial aircrafts. There
are various navigational radars that include marine radars
commonly mounted on ships for collision avoidance and
navigational purposes. Navigational radars resemble
search radar, but use very short waves that reflect from
earth and stone. They are common on commercial ships
and long-distance commercial aircraft.
 Range as a function of time

• The time between the transmission and

reception of a pulse depends on the speed
and the distance travelled.
• If the speed of the pulse is known, time can be
measured and the range of the target can be
calculated.
• Marine radar ranging uses 300 000 000 m/s,
300m/μs (micro second).
 Range as a function of time

• D= distance travelled by the pulse (S x T)

• R= target range (S x T)/2
• T= Time elapsed (μs)
• S= The speed of radio waves (m/μs)
 The timebase

• Display electron acts as an electronic stop

watch. (Time base)
•The time taken for the spot to cross the screen
is equal to the time for the pulse to make it to
the target and back.
•Timebase works with range.
 Calibration of the timebase

• Each range scale has a timebase.

• Allows target to be displayed at a correct
distance.
 Display unit

• The display unit show our measurements.

• Displays radar settings, presentation,
orientation, target tracking…
• User friendliness.
• Menu or buttons…
• Different set, same key features.
• CRT or Raster scan
Display
 The synthetic display

• Real time displays not possible to store data.

• From the early 1970s the microprocessor
revolutionized the way of data handling.
• Data stored as binary numbers 1 and 0.
• On the synthetic display the echo is not
displayed directly.
 Principles of bearing measurement

• Directional transmission and reception

• Synchronization of scanner and trace
• The build up of the picture
• The heading marker
• Bearing measurements
 Directional transmission and reception in
marine radars

•To determine the bearing of a target the

transmission in the horizontal plane must be
restricted to one direction at a time (reception
correspondingly).
•The scanner has a narrow horizontal beamwidth
(IMO 2,5°) as low as 0,75°.
•Longer range, less accurate.
 Synchronization of scanner and trace

•Scanner covers 360°, synchronized with the

trace. Both rotated at the same speed. (IMO
less than 5s/revolution)
•Pulse interval 800μs, 3s/revolution, 3600
pulses sent out during one revolution.
•The scanner rotates 0,1° between the pulses.
•Each step is represented on the screen. The
picture is made of 3600 sectors.
 The build up of the picture

•The echo of a target will be “painted” once per

revolution of the scanner.
•The display is coated with luminous material so
an area once painted will glow for few
seconds.
•Targets are displayed in correct angles.
 The heading marker

•The reference point on a radar screen is the ships

heading.
•When scanner rotates and the axis of the
horizontal beam crosses the ships heading line a
short pulse is produced and indicates on the
radar screen.
 Bearing measurements

•You are able to measure the bearing to any

point on the radar screen.

•Today with EBL, in the early days with various

mechanical aids.
 Picture orientation

• Relative motion (RM)

• True motion (TM)
• Head up
• North up
• Course up
 Head up
• The ships present heading is up.
• On first PPI (plan position indicator) radars it
was the only option.
• No heading information needed.
• Corresponds directly with the view outside.
• When the ship changes course the whole
picture will turn.
 North up

• The true north is the fixed point for the radar

picture.
• The radar picture is stabilized by compass.
• True bearings.
• Easier orientation.
• The picture does not turn when own ship turns.
• Compares directly with the chart.
• Preferred by most navigators.
 Course up

• Stabilized radar picture.

• Combines the benefits from head up and
north up, as long as the ship is not changing
heading.
 Picture orientation
Head up NORTH UP Course Up

Blurs when own YES NO NO

ship alters course
Bearing Slow Good Good
Measurement
Angular disruption YES NO NO
of target trails
Corresponds with PERFECT Not obvious PERFECT, EXCEPT
the view AFTER LARGE
COURSE
ALTERATIONS
Corresponds with Not obvious Perfect Not obvious
Chart
RADAR DISPLAY
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
 Radar beam

•Stronger pulse at the beam axis.

 Radar beam (bearing error)

•When you come closer the error will

disappear
 Receiver

• The radar receiver converts the received signal

to a suitable shape (eg a video signal).
• The video signal is digitized. The receiver may
be connected to a signal processor, which
preprocesses data (filters) and supplies it to a
computer for display or to be stored.
Signal processing
Radar Antennas (Scanners)
ANTENNA -SWG
 Antenna Types
• SWG – Slotted wave guide
• Parabolic – Dish
• Strip line
FREQUENCIES
Radar Pulses
Range Discrimination
Minimum range
Radar beam height
Simplified Radar range equation
Blind sectors
REFLECTIONS
Reflective surfaces
RADAR REFLECTORS
RADAR REFLECTORS
Target materials
RADAR SURVEILLANCE