Bridge Equipment

Capt. S. Swaroop
Nautical Faculty
B. Sc. Nautical Science
Semester - V
 Use of Bridge Equipment: The bridge equipments are used
for various purposes. Some of the bridge equipments like
VHF & MF/HF and SAT-C are used for communication, while
other bridge equipments like Radars and Speed logs are used
for collision avoidance. The bridge equipments like ECDIS are
used for anti grounding.
The navigation equipment of the vessel consists of a set of
devices that determine the ship's position, speed, course,
and also ensure safety during navigation in shallow waters or
when meeting other vessels.
Two main types of navigation are celestial and map.
1-Terrestrial Navigation
2-Celestial Navigation
Bridge Equipments:
1-Radar
2-GPS
3-DGPS
4-AIS
5-VDR
6-BNWAS
7-LRIT
 Unit – 1, Marine RADAR
Marine Radar (Radio Aid Detection And Ranging):
Marine Radar is an instrument of near perfect synchronization. It
needs no calculator or computer to do its basic functions. Radar
equipment acts as the eye of the ship at sea. Ranges and bearings
are obtained on board ship of the targets around the ship by the
fact that each component does a specific job at the correct time. A
short burst of electromagnetic energy is sent out through the
scanner which bounces (reflects) off a target and returns to the
receiver unit through the scanner.
The marine radar is equipment that is used the most on the ship’s
bridge by the OOW in carrying out a safe navigational watch. A
mandatory aid to navigation, the radar is used in identifying,
tracking (with integrated ARPA) and positioning of vessels
(including one’s own vessel) among other things in order to
adhere to the COLREGs so as to safely navigate a ship from one
point to another.
 The parabolic radar antenna transmits and receives
electromagnetic waves; as far as a target being displayed is
concerned, that is basically the wave that bounced off a
certain object that paints itself on the PPI (Plan Position
Indicator)
The frequency and the time taken by the flashes to return
(reflections) to the radar receiver of the ship helps to find out
whether the route of the ship can be continued with or not.
The transmission and receiving of the pulse travels twice the
distance in going and hitting the target and back; therefore,
the target displayed on the PPI is basically halved with regard
to its range
On the PPI, the reflections can be seen so that identifying
the actual distance of the objects can be even easier. The
same paint on the PPI can be also be checked for
determination of the bearing of the target.
 1-Working of Radar: The radar system sends out electromagnetic
waves at a high-speed, signal which will travel several miles in the
direction of radar facing. If there are no objects in the direction of
the wave, the radar screen will show blank.
2-What it Gives: If there is an object, which will reflect the wave
back to the radar, the computer set up of the radar will determine
the distance between the ship and the object along with its
location. Hence, it can be said that the radar basically reads two
things – The position of the object and the direction of the same.
3-Position of the object: The radar antenna is continuously
rotating on top of the ship sending and receiving signals. Hence,
the radar is sweeping the signals all around the ship. As the radar
pulse waves are reflected by an object, it will travel in the same
direction and will be received by the radar detecting the position
of the object. When the pulses are received back, the computer
screen will log the position.
 4-Determine own ships position: Since Radar sees further
than the naked eye, the echoes from islands and landmasses
can be used to determine own ships’ position. When running
near land, you can use peninsulas and other targets whose
echoes show distinct contours on the display to determine
own ships’ position. Distant, tall mountains or bridges may be
similarly used provided they are above the horizon
5-How the Radar displays targets: Radar targets are
displayed on what is called a Plan Position Indicator, or PPI.
This display is essentially a polar diagram, with the
transmitting ships’ position at the center. Images of target
echoes are received and displayed at their relative bearing,
and at their distances from the PPI center. Early model Radars
displayed targets and possess few features such as heading
marks and range rings. To view the display, a viewing hood
was required to block out extraneous light.
Radar Display
Measuring Bearing And Range Of A Target
Radar Display

With Control Panel

 Types Of Radar: The marine radar is classified under the
1-X-band (10 GHz, wavelength 3 cm), The x-band radar being
of higher frequency (9300 – 9500 MHz) is used for a sharper
image and better resolution.
2- S-band (3GHz, wavelenh10 cm) the S-band radar having
frequency (2900 – 3100 MHz) is used especially when in rain
or fog as well as for identification and tracking, .
Main Parts Of Radar: Marine Radar mainly consists of four
main units
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. Display
4. Scanner/Antenna.
 1-Transmitter : The transmitter sends out short powerful
burst of electromagnetic energy called pulses, through the
scanner at a specific number of times per second, called the
pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or pulse recurrence rate
(PRR). These pulses travel at the speed of light (300 mtrs per
micro second) and when they strike any object (target) in
their path, they are reflected back to the scanner as echoes.
2-Receiver : The receiver processes each echo after
receiving from the target and causes it to show up visually as
a bright spot , called a blip, on the screen of the display unit.
3-Display : The display unit has a circular screen
representing on a scale, an actual area around the ship and is
called Plan Position Indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird’s
eye view of the positions of the targets. The distance
represented by the radius of the screen is called the range
scale in use and this can be varied by a switch, as desired by
the observer.
 4-Scanner : Through the scanner the transmission and
reception takes place. During transmission the TR cell blocks
the receiver unit and during reception the TR cell blocks the
transmission unit. The scanner should rotate not less than 12
RPM and should rotate clockwise, continuous and automatic
through 360 degrees.
Hazards Of Radar : Personnel should observe the following
precautions to ensure :-
1-That persons are not exposed to harmful radiation
2-Visual inspection of feed horns, open ends of waveguides,
and any other opening that emits energy should not be
made unless the equipment is properly secured and tagged
for that purpose.
3-Operating and maintenance personnel should observe all
radiation hazard signs posted in the operating area
 4-All personnel should observe radiation hazard (radiation
hazards) warning signs that point out the existence of
radiation hazards in a specific location or area.
5-Ensure that radiation hazard warning signs are available
and posted.
6-Ensure that those radar antennas that normally rotate are
rotated continuously while radiating or are trained to a
known safe bearing.
7-Ensure that those antennas that do not normally rotate
are pointed away from inhabited areas(ships, piers, and the
like) while radiating.
8-Dummy loads should be employed where applicable in
transmitting equipment during testing .
• Characteristics Of Radar:
• Vertical Beam Width (VBW)
• Horizontal Beam Width (HBW)
• Pulse Length (PL)
• Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
• Wave Length (WL)
1. Vertical Beam Width (VBW): It is the vertical angle of the
scanner contained between the upper and lower edges of the
radar beam. The upper and lower edges of the beam are taken
to be the lines joining the half-power points above and below
centre of the beam. If the VBW is too small, targets would be
missed due to rolling and pitching, if the VBW is too large the
energy sent out through the scanner would be spread out over a
large vertical angle.
 This means a decrease in the intensity of the beam whereby
the amount of energy striking unit area of a target would be
small resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in the range of first detection of target. It is
generally of 20/25 degrees in order to over come the effects
of pitching and rolling.
2. Horizontal Beam Width (HBW): It the angle at the scanner
contained between the leading and trailing (side) edges of
the radar beam. The leading and trailing edges of the beam
are taken to be the lines joining the half-power points ahead
and behind the centre of the beam, in the direction of
rotation of the scanner. HBW causes all the target to appear
larger in azimuth by the amount equal to half the HBW on
either side. The value of the HBW of a radar set depends on
the type of scanner and its horizontal size. In commercial
marine radar sets the HBW is between 0.6 – 2 deg.
Vertical Beam Width

Vertical Beam Width

Antenna
Left hand side

Right hand side

3. Pulse Length (PL): Pulse Length is the time taken for a pulse
to leave the scanner ie., the interval between the instant the
leading edge of the pulse leaves the scanner and the instant
trailing edge leaves the scanner. Pulse Length is therefore,
usually expressed in micro-seconds but, the speed of radio
waves being taken to be 300 m/ , PL may also be expressed
in meters, if and when required to do so, it is also referred to
as Pulse Width (PW), and is controlled by the transmitter.
Pulse Length does not affect range accuracy, but range
discrimination. Marine radar sets may have 3 or 4 values of
PL, and are changed over with the change of range.
4. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): It is the number of
pulses sent out through the scanner in one second. The unit,
if used is Hertz. Marine radar sets have 2 or 3 values of PRF,
between 500 – 4000. PRF is also referred to as Pulse
Recurrence Rate(PRR). A higher value of PRF is preferred for a
clear and detailed picture
• Pulse Length and Pulse Repetition Frequency
Longer range scales have a low PRF while the shorter range
scales have a high PRF.
5. Wave Length (WL): Wave Length of a commercial radar set
may be either 3cm called X-band (9300-9500 mhz) or 10cm
called S-band(2900-3100 mhz). Radar pulses of different
wave lengths are influenced differently by external factors.
Hence the wave length of a radar set directly affects its
performance. After a radar pulse has left the scanner, its path
of travel and energy content are influenced by two main
factors
1- Attenuation
2- Diffraction
For a marine radar set 3cm wave length is generally
preferred.
If there are two radar sets of 3cm and 10 cm, they will have
inter switching facility for the display unit. In case any one
display fails or becomes non operational.
• Wavelength of Radar
Use Of Marine Radar
1-To calculate range and bearing of a target and there after use
the information to determine speed, course etc
2-Integration with other shipboard equipment (such as ECDIS)
to derive precise data
3-Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision
avoidance
4-Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as
lighthouses, fixed buoys and shore objects etc
5-Differentiating between targets in high traffic density areas
6-Determination of the weather, to an extent
7-Use by VTS in controlling coastal traffic
8-Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe
navigation
9-Alleviating/re workload on the OOW on the bridge
10-Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects.
Block Diagram Of Radar
Basic Components Of Radar set :
1. Power Source 12. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Delay Line 13. Time Base Unit
3. Trigger Unit 14. Deflection Coil
4. Modulator 15. Trace Blank
5. Magnetron
6. Scanner
7. T.R. Cell
8. Local Oscillator
9. Mixer Unit
10. I. F Amplifier
11. Video Amplifier
Basic Controls of Marine Radar Set :
1. Anti Clutter 14. Guard Zone
2. Range Rings 15. Heading Marker
3. Variable Range Marker(VRM) 16 Off Centre Control
4. Electronic Bearing Line(EBL) 17. Head Up
5.Electronic Range & Bearing Line (cursor)
6. Manual Tuning Switch 18. North Up
7. Gain Control 19. Course Up
8. Fast Time Control (FTC) 20. Target Acquire
9. Brilliance 21. Target Data
10.Focus 22. Power Control Switch
11.Parallel Index Lines (PI) 23. Standby Switch
12.Range Control 24. Alarm Reset Switch
13.Power On/Off switch
Range Rings

Min-
2
Max-6
Guard Zone
Ship’s Heading Marker
Use of Parallel Index line for safe navigation
Positioning Of Radar Display (Safe Distance): It has been
said that exposure to continuous, powerful electro-magnetic
energy (500kw) may cause some ill-effects to human health,
but pulses transmitted by marine radar are very short, weak
(25-60 kw) and present no danger at distances beyond 1
meter. One should avoid standing close to the radar system
when not required.
When selecting a site for the display unit, the following
points should be considered.
1. Safe distance from magnetic compass
2. Lighting from the display may cause problem for lookout
3. Viewing ability from site
4. Facilities for viewing radar screen
5. Facility for plotting
6. Comparison with the chart
7. Safe distance from any equipment.
8. Access for purpose of repairing.
• Range Discrimination : It is the ability of radar set to clearly
distinguish two small targets on the same bearing and slightly
different in ranges, as two separate targets on the display (PPI).
The factors that governs this is the Pulse Length (PL) which
causes all paint to expand rapidly outward by ½ pulse length in
metres.
• Bearing Discrimination : It is the ability of a radar set to clearly
distinguish two targets on the same range and slightly different
in bearings, as two separate targets on the display (PPI). The
factor which causes this is the Horizontal Beam width (HBW).
• Range Accuracy : As per performance standards for
navigational radar (IMO), the error in the range of an object,
obtained by using the range rings or the variable range marker,
should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale in
use, or 30m, whichever is greater.
• Range Discrimination
Bearing Discrimination
 Range accuracy of a radar set depends on:
1. Correct synchronization.
2. Uniformity and ractilinearity of the of the time base.
3. The scale of size of the tracing spot.
4. Height of the scanner.
Bearing Accuracy : As per performance standards for
navigational radar (IMO), the error in the bearing of an object,
obtained by using the Electronic Bearing Line (EBL) or the
cursor, should be capable of being measured with an
accuracy equal to, or better than +/- 1 deg.
Bearing accuracy of a radar set depends on :
1. Correct alignment of heading marker and scanner.
2. Correct alignment of heading marker and bearing scale.
3. Gyro error to be checked and corrected.
 4. Type of bearing marker used.
5. Rectillinearity of the trace.
6. Beam Width distortion.
7. Scale size of the spot.
Minimum Range : The minimum detection range of marine
radar set depends on the following factors,
1. The Pulse Length.
2. The de-ionisation delay.
3. The Vertical Beam Width and height of the scanner.
4. The Wave Length.
Maximum Range : The maximum range of a marine radar
set depends on the following factors,
1. Height of the scanner
2. Power of the set
3. Wave Length
4. Pulse Repetition Frequency
5. Pulse Length
5. Vertical Beam Width & Horizontal Beam Width
6. Receiver sensitivity
7. Nature of target
8. Weather condition
9. Sea & swell
Factors Affecting Radar Detection :
1- Radar Horizon
2- Sub-refraction
3- Super-refraction
4- Ducting
Radar Horizon : It is the distance from the ship to the sea, up to
where the radar rays can detect the target around the ship. The
range of the radar horizon depends on the height of the scanner
and on the amount of bending of radar rays.
There are various types of horizon:
Radar Horizon
Geometric Horizon
Visible Horizon
Theoretical Horizon
GH = Distance of geometric horizon from ship =1.93-Vh
VH = Distance of visible horizon from ship = 2.07-vh
RH = Distance of radar horizon from ship =2.20-vh
RT = Distance of target from radar horizon =2.20-Vx
HT = Theoretical detection range of target =RH+RT
Sem-V-A, 20.09.2021
• Ship’s Radar Horizon at sea

Ship Radar
G
V

R
 Weather Effects On Radar Detection Range : When radio
waves pass through the atmosphere, some of their energy is
lost due to absorption , scattering and diffraction. Such loss
of energy is termed attenuation in the atmosphere. Weather
conditions such as drizzle, rain, hail, snow and fog cause loss
of echo strength and consequent decrease in detection range
of targets.
1- Drizzle 4- Snow
2- Rain 5- Fog
3- Hail 6- Sandstorm
 Factors Causing Faulty Interpretation : The following factors
cause the faulty interpretation of the target on the radar
display unit, which officer of the watch should be able to
identify to avoid confusion about the target.
1- Indirect Echo (False Echo)
2- Side Lobe Echoes
3- Multiple Echoes
4- Second Trace Echo
• Errors in Range and Bearing : The errors in the range and
bearing of a target on the radar display may be caused due to
1- Improper alignment of display centre
2- Improper alignment of cursor
3- Misalignment of VRM & EBL
4- Scanner’s ahead direction not aligned with ship’s head
5- Error in reading of Range & Bearing
• Points of concern for Officer Of The Watch
1- Shadow Areas (small targets on the other side of large
ship
and on the opposite side of hills)
2- Shadow Sectors ( masts, cranes and derricks)
3- Blind Sectors (funnel )
4- Blips of SART appear on display (Distress Situation)
• Blind Sector: Areas that cannot be scanned by the radar of
the vessel because they are shielded by elements of its
superstructure, masts,
• Shadow Sector: A sector on the radarscope in which the
appearance of radar echoes is improbable because of an
obstruction near the antenna. While both blind and shadow
sectors have the same basic cause, blind sectors generally
occur at the larger angles subtended by the obstruction.
• Stand-By: Stand-by When you won’t be using the radar for an
extended period, but you want to keep it in a state of
readiness, place it in stand-by by pressing the [STBY/TX] key.
The display shows “STBY,” (default setting) navigation data, or
goes into the economy mode. By pressing the Tx press button
the radar set will start transmitting again within 15 seconds
and targets will appear on the Radar display screen.
Shadow & Blind Sector In radar Display
Unit 1.4, Radar Plotting: Radar plotting is an art of
obtaining all the required in-formations from two or more
observations of each target on a radar screen. To estimate
the degree of risk of collision with another vessel, to find out
her closets point of approach(CPA). It involves the
construction of a triangle of relative velocities of own ship
and the target.
Plotting is divided into two:
1. Relative Plotting
2. True Plotting
Instruments Required for Radar Plotting :
1. Plotting Sheet 4. Drawing Compass (half moon)
2. Parallel Ruler & Divider 5. 6 inch or12 inch Scale
3. Pencil &Eraser 6. Calculator
7. Note book for solving problem and writing the answers.
Procedure for Plotting: The interval between two
observations of a radar plot is called the plotting interval.
This depends on the range scale in use, the speed of own
ship, the
speeds of targets, but most often the intervals used are 6 or
12 minutes.
The following letters are used to denote various points of
triangle on the plotting sheet.
C- Centre of the plotting sheet, representing the origin of
the
display.
O- Relative position of target at the beginning of the
plotting
interval.
A- Relative position of target at the end of the plotting
interval
N- The closets point of approach (CPA).
CN- CN is perpendicular to OA, CPA range.
WO- Own ship’s course and speed (distance) during the
plotting interval.
WA- Target’s true course and speed during the plotting
interval.
What to find out from the plotting :
1- True course of the target
2- Speed of the target
3- Closets Point of Approach (CPA)
4- Time of CPA
5- Aspect of the vessel
• OAW Triangle: Automatic radar plotting aids are essentially
utilized to improve the standard of collision avoidance at sea.
Primarily designed as anti-collision radar, the ARPA
technology removed the chore of plotting targets manually
on a reflection plotter or separate plotting aid. It helps to find
the required information like, True Course, Speed, CPA, TCPA
T Aspect of the target ship.
• Aspect: Aspect of a target is the relative bearing of the own
vessel from the target (or the angle between the target's
course and the theoretical line of sight), expressed in degrees
between 00 and 1800 red or green.
• Knowledge of the bearing of a target from the own vessel
and the aspect gives an idea of the angle of approach
between the two ships, which is necessary from the ROR
point of view.
• Closest Point of Approach (CPA): The closest point of
approach is that point where the range of the target would
be minimum assuming that both, own ship and target,
maintain the courses and speeds that they had during the
plotting interval. The range at CPA is also called 'Nearest
approach' .
• All bearing are expressed in the three figure notation and are
either true or relative, measured from the own vessel.
• The scale used to plot the position on the plotting sheet
should be as large as possible to ensure greater accuracy.
Even if a position falls outside the printed range circles, it
may be used as such so long as it falls on the plotting sheet.
When more than one target is being plotted on the same
plotting sheet. it is better to use the same scale for all of
them, in order to reduce the chances of error.
• Example: While on a course of 3400 (T) at 15 knots, a target
on the radar screen was observed at 0800 to bear 0200 (T) at
a range of 12 M. At 0812, it bore 017°(T) at 9 M range. Find
the time and range at CPA, course and speed of target and
the aspect at 0812.
• To find the time of CPA: The distance OA was relatively
covered by the target during the plotting interval. Hence find
how long it would take to cover the distance AN.
• In this case
• Time to CPA from 0812 =AN x plotting interval
AN (8.8)
TCPA =------------ x Interval (12 min) = 35 minutes.
(OA) 3
• CPA time = 0812 + 0035 = 0847 hrs.
• To find aspect at the last observation:
Aspect can easily be computed as follows:
1-Last Bearing of Target from Own Ship = 017°(T)
2-Bearing of Own Ship from Target = 197°(T) (017˚ + 180˚)
3-True Course of target = 273°(T)
4-Subtract 197˚ from 273˚ = 76˚
Own ship lies 76° on target's port side
Aspect at 0812 =76° Red.
• OAW
Triangle
Target Ship First Report
Own ship course
And Speed

Target Ship
Second Report Own Ship
Course & Speed

Target Ship True

Course & Speed

CN –CPA Distance
CPA Point

Centre
• Example:1
Own ship course 042 deg and speed – 15 knots, sighted a
target at 0640 hrs on bearing 351 (T) range 11 nm, and at
0652 hrs bearing 355 deg (T) range 7.1 nm.
Find
1-True Course, 344
2-Speed, 17.5
3-CPA, 1.4
4-TCPA ,0713
5-Aspect of the target at 0652 hrs.
• w
O 0640 hrs
Speed
15 Kts
W A 0652 hrs

N
C
Answer:
1- Bearing – 355˚ (T) , Range – 7.1 nm
2- Target’s True Course – 117˚ (T)
3- Target Speed – 17.5 Knots
4- CPA – 1.4 nm
5- TCPA – 0713 hrs
6- Aspect - 58˚ (G)
 How to Make The Report Of a Target to The Master : A
target
should be reported to the Master on detection in stages.
1. By Radar:
Stage -I
At 0800 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (020x12m)
Stage -II
At 0806 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (019x10.5m)
drawing fwd / aft and range increasing / decreasing.
Stage -III
At 0812 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (017x9m)
Course of the target-273 deg, speed-12.5kts, CPA-1.9nm
drawing fwd / aft, range decreasing / increasing,
CPA time 0847 hrs. Aspect of the target Red- 76 deg (Port)
2.By Visual :
Stage –I
At 0800 hrs, target on 2/3/4 point on port / stbd side
Stage –II
At 0806 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / aft
Stage –III
At 0812 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / aft, range increasing / decreasing
crossing from port to stbd or stbd to port
Full Report Of The Target: The Full report is the information
found from the basic plot:
1-The time of the target’s last observation
2-The target’s last bearing, and how the bearing is changing
(drawing forward / aft or steady)
3-The target’s last range and how the range is changing
(range increasing or decreasing).
4-The target’s CPA & TCPA
5-The target’s true course
6-The target’s true speed.
7-The aspect of the target.
• Example of the Target’s Report:
1-Target at 1015 hrs.
2-Target’s bearing-052 deg, drawing forward.
3-Target’s range 2.5 nm, closing.
4-Target’s CPA 2.4 nm, 25 minutes at 1040 hrs.
5-Target’s true course – 298 deg.
6-Target’s true speed 18 knots.
7-Target’s aspect 058 deg Green.
Unit 1.2 Setting Up and Maintaining of Radar Display : The
main aim is to obtain a good navigational picture so that the
radar set can be used to the best of its ability as an aid to
navigation and collision avoidance. The sequence in switching
on and employing the controls can be different as per
manufacturer, but general procedure is as given below :
1. Make sure that the scanner is clear and scanner switch on.
2. Set gain control to minimum, brilliance & anti clutter zero.
3. Switch on the set, wait for transmission to start.
4. Turn up the brilliance control till trace is clearly visible.
5. Check for the cursor to be at the centre.
6. Check for VRM & EBL, adjust to be clearly visible.
7. Adjust the gain control for clear background (speckled).
8. Check & adjust other controls, feed in required data.
To switch on and monitor the targets on the radar display, the
Officer of the Watch has to know all the controls and their
functions.
Transmitter Controls:
1. Magnetron
2. Wave Guide
3. Scanner
Reception (Receiver) Controls:
1. T.R Cell 4. Linear Amplification
2. Mixer and L.O. 5. Logarithmic Amplification
3. I.F Amplifier
Display Controls:
1. Heading Marker 2. On / Off Switch 3. Standby Switch
4. PL Selector 5. Range selector 6. Scale Illumination
7. Off Centre 8. P.M Control 9. Scanner On/ Off 10. EBL
11.Display Selection 12. Rang Rings 13. Anti-clutter 14. VRM
15. Cursor 16. Panel Illumination 17. Relative/True motion
• Display : Display has a circular screen representing on a scale,
an actual area around the ship and is called the Plan Position
Indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird’s eye view (plan) of the
positions of targets around the ship. The distance
represented by the radius of the screen is called the range
scale in use. There are two types of display
1. True Motion Display
2. Relative Motion Display
True Motion Display: In true motion display the origin
(centre –represents own ship) moves across the radar screen
at the course and speed of the own ship. The course is fed in
directly from the gyro compass and speed from the ship’s log.
The movement of all targets on the radar screen are true,
stationary targets remain stationary where as moving targets
move on the screen on their actual courses and speeds.
The centre may be shifted at any time to any convenient
part of the radar screen, as desired by the operator. During
the course of its run, when the centre reaches its limiting
point it will jump back to the place where it was shifted. The
heading marker, EBL, VRM, range rings move along with the
origin.
Relative Motion Display : In relative motion display the
centre (origin-represents own ship) remains stationary, while
all other targets move on the radar screen, with a course and
speed opposite to that of own vessel. In this the stationary
targets also appear to move opposite to the own ship’s
course and speed on the radar screen.
The (origin)centre is normally centred over the radar screen
but can be shifted to a desired place on the radar display by
the operator (off centre facility).
• Kind of Radar Displays
1- Head Up Display
2- North Up Display
3- Course Up Display
4- Sea stabilised Display
5- Ground Stabilised Display
1.Head Up Display : In head up display the 12 o’clock or 000
of display represents the own ship’s course and hence
heading marker remains at the 000 of the fixed, graduated
around the PPI, in this all bearings are relative. The left side
of the radar screen denotes port side and right side,
starboard side of the ship. To find the true bearing of the
target, the own ship’s heading must be known to the
operator.
 The sum of the relative bearing of the target and true course
of own ship will give the true bearing of the target. If the sum
exceeds 360 deg, then 360 deg must be subtracted from the
total to obtain the true bearing of the target. During course
alteration smudging of the picture takes place.
2.North Up Display :In this the 12 o’clock or 000 of the
display represents true north and the heading marker
represents the true course of the own ship being steered. All
bearings of targets are true. As the own ship alters course,
the heading marker swings around to the new course on the
display, but all targets remain on their original (same) place,
they will not shift. Hence smudging of targets does not take
place during the course alterations or yaw.
North Up-Actual Course Head Up-Actual course at 000˚
Course Up, Same as Head up, when altering course picture does not smudge
3.Course Up Display : This is similar to the head up display,
in this all bearings are true, smudging of the picture will not
take place during course alteration. Shadow sectors and blind
sectors remain on the same parts of the display. The only
drawback is that the picture is course up while the chart is
north up.
4.Sea Stabilised Display : In sea stabilisation the movement
of the origin (centre of PPI) is the ship’s movement through
the water – gyro course and log speed. If the influence of
current in the area causes the course & speed made good
(movement over ground) to be different from the gyro course
and log speed, this can be observed when doing coastal
navigation, that the land and other fixed objects on the PPI
screen appear to have course & speed equal to the reversed
set & rate of current. Briefly on a sea stabilised display- all
movement of own ship, fixed objects and moving objects is
their movement through the water.
• In sea stabilization mode relative motion display of radar is
used & the Course is from gyro course and speed is from log
speed. Hence the fixed objects on the PPI appear to have a
course & speed equal to the reverse course& speed of own
vessel.
• The movement of own vessel, fixed object & moving object is
their movement through the water.
• This is ideal for collision avoidance action.
5.Ground Stabilization : In ground stabilization display the
set & rate of current is fed in the radar, where by the
movement of the origin on the PPI is the course & speed
made good (course over ground). So the fixed objects remain
stationary on the PPI and the movement of all moving
objects is their movement over ground.
• In ground stabilization mode true motion display of radar is
used & the Course & Speed is fed from GPS, hence the fixed
objects on the PPI remain stationary.
• The movement of all moving objects is their movement over
ground (COG & SOG).
• It is used for collision avoidance with fixed objects.
Performance Monitor: It is used to check the performance
of the Radar. Press the performance monitor button. A Plume
will appear. Measure the plume and compare it with the
maker's reading at the time of radar installation. The
Performance Monitor provides an effective means of
verifying the overall performance of Radar. The Performance
Monitor transmits a coded signal into the antenna for display .
The range and number of arcs display on the Radar Image will
indicate the performance of the system. The Performance
Monitor Operators Manual will provide detailed instructions.
• PM
 Measurement Of Range and Bearing :
Range Measurement : Range of any target on the display
(PPI) screen can be measured by the following methods.
Range can also be obtained by acquiring the target, there
after asking for target data details, in which required in-
formations are given.
1- Range Rings2- Cursor
3- Variable Range Marker (VRM)
Bearing Measurement : Bearing of any target on the display
(PPI) screen can be measured by the following methods.
Bearing can also be obtained by acquiring the target, there
after asking for target data details, in which required in-
formations are given.
1- Parallel Index Line 2- Electronic Bearing Line
3- Cursor
 Unit 1.3, IMO Performance Standards for Radar Equipment
General : The radar equipment should provide an indication,
in relation to the ship of the position of other surface craft ,
obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks in a
manner which will assist in navigation and avoiding collision.
Range Performance : The operational requirement under
propagation conditions, when the radar antenna is mounted
at a height of 1.5 mtr above sea level, is that the equipment
should in the absence of clutter give a clear indication of:
Coastlines :At 20 nm when the ground rises to 60m
:At 7 nm when the ground rises to 6m
Surface Objects :At 7nm a ship of 5000tgt
:At 3nm a small ship of 10m in length
:At 2nm an object such as navigational buoy
• Minimum Range : The surface objects specified above should
be clearly displayed from a minimum range of 50 mtrs up to a
range of one nautical mile, without changing the setting of
controls other than the range selector.
• Display :The equipment should without external magnifica
tion provide a relative plan display in the head up un
stabilized mode with an effective diameter of not less than:
1. 180mm on ships of 500tgt and more but less than 1600tgt.
2. 250mm on ships of 1600tgt and more but less than 10000
tgt.
3.340mm in the case of one display and 250mm in the case
of
other on ships of 10000 tgt and upwards.
The equipment should provide one of the two following sets
of range scales of display :
 1- 1.5, 3, 6, 12 & 24 nm and one range scale of not less than
0.5nm and not greater than 0.8nm.
2- 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 & 32 nm
Additional range scales may be provided.
The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings
should be clearly indicated at all times.
Range Measurement :
1- Fixed electronic range rings should be provided for range
measurements as follows:
a- Where range scales are provided in accordance with the
above 1, on the range scale of between 0.5 & 0.8 nm at
least two range rings should be provided and on each of
other range scales six range rings should be provided.
b- Where range scales are provided in accordance with above 2,
four range rings should be provided on each of the range rings.
2. A variable electronic range marker should be provided
with
a numeric readout of range.
3. The fixed range rings and the variable range marker
should
enable the range of an object to be measured with an error
not exceeding 1.5 % of the maximum range of the scale in
use or 70 mtrs, whichever is the greater.
4. It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the fixed
range
rings and the variable range marker and to remove them
completely from the display.
Heading Indicator :
1. The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on
the
display with a maximum error not greater than +/- 1 deg.
The thickness of the displayed heading line should not be
2. Provision should be made to switch off the heading
marker
by a device which can not be left in the “heading marker in
the off “ position.
Bearing measurement :
1. Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of
any object whose echo appears on the display.
2. The means provided for obtaining bearing should enable
the bearing of a target whose echo appears on the display
to be measured with an accuracy of +/- 1 deg or better.
Discrimination :
1. The equipment should be capable of displaying as
separate indications on a range scale of 2 nm or less, two
similar targets at a range of between 50 % & 100% of the
range scale in use, and on the same azimuth, separated by
not more than 50 mtrs in range.
2. The equipment should be capable of displaying as
separate
indications of two small targets both situated at the same
range between 50% &100% of the 1.5 or 2 nm range
scales,
and separated by not more than 2.5 degs in azimuth.
Roll Or Pitch : The performance of the equipment should be
such that when the ship is rolling or pitching up to + / - 10
degs the range performance requirements of range
measure
ment should be met.
Scan : The scan should be clockwise, continuous and
automatic through 360 degs of azimuth. The scan rate
should
be not less than 12 revolutions per minute. The equipment
should operate satisfactorily in relative wind speed of up to
Azimuth Stabilization :
1. Means should be provided to enable the display to be
stabilized in azimuth by a transmitting compass. The equip
ment should be provided with a compass input to enable
it to be stabilized in azimuth. The accuracy of alignment
with the compass transmission should be within 0.5 degs
with a compass rotation rate of 2 revolution per minute.
2. The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the un
stabilized mode when the compass control in inoperative.
Performance Check : Means should be available, while the
equipment is used operationally, to determine readily a
significant drop in performance relative to a calibration
standard established at the time of installation, and the
equipment is correctly tuned in the absence of targets.
 Anti-clutter Devices : Suitable means should be provided for
the suppression of unwanted echoes from sea clutter, rain,
and other forms of precipitation, clouds and sandstorms. It
should be possible to adjust manually and continually the
anti
clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls should be inoperative
in
the fully anti-clockwise positions. In addition, automatic anti
clutter controls may be provided, however, they must be
capable of being switched off.
Operation :
1. The equipment should be capable of being switched on
and
operated from the display position.
2. Operational controls should be accessible and easy to
 3. Where symbols are used, they should comply with the
requirement .
4. After switching on from off the equipment should become
fully operational within 4 minutes.
5. A standby condition should be provided from which the
equipment can be brought to an operational condition
within 15 seconds.
Interference : After installation on board, the bearing
accuracy as prescribed in these performance standards
should be maintained without further adjustment
irrespective of the movement of the ship in the earth’s
magnetic field.
Antenna System : The antenna system should be installed in
such a manner that the design efficiency of the radar system
is not substantially impaired
 Operation With Radar Beacons :
1. All radar operating in the 3cm band should be capable of
operating in a horizontal polarized mode.
2. It should be possible to switch off those signal processing
facilities which might prevent a radar beacon from being
shown on the radar display.
Multiple Radar Installations :
1. Where two radars are to be carried they should be installed in
such
a way so that they can be operated individually and both can be
operated simultaneously without being dependant up on one
another.
2. Where two radars are fitted, inter switching facilities may be
provided to improve the flexibility and availability of the
overall radar installation. Failure of one would not affect the
operation of the other.
Limitations of ‘X’ and ‘S’ Band Radars
1. Detection Range
2. Propagation Effects
(I) Interference Effect
(II) Diffraction Effect
3. Back Scatter
4. Attenuation
5. Polarization
 Unit – 1.5,
Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA)
Vector: Targets being tracked should display a vector on the
display , indicating the course of the target, (time adjustable or
having a fixed time scale) in a true or relative motion form which
clearly indicates the target’s predicted motion.
Vector Length Control (Future Position Control): This thumb
wheel control is set by the operator in minutes of time, resulting in
instantaneous vector length on the display. A switch is provided to
select the true motion / relative motion vectors
Vector lengths can be related to range scale :
12 minutes for 12 miles scale, 6 minutes for 6 miles scale.
Some ARPA have a facility for automatic vector suppression for
non dangerous targets, while tracking is continued.
Advantages of Vectors :
1. It shows the predicted motion of the targets.
2. It indicates the direction of the targets.
3. Show the meeting (Interception) points of the targets
4. Help to know if any change in the direction of the targets.
5. Identification of acquired targets.
6. Helps in making assessment of the targets.
Limitations of the Vectors :
1. Length of vectors as per range scale.
2. Target ship vector can not be changed.
3. Mistaking the direction of the relative vector for the
target’s true heading
4. May show wrong vector, due to error in input.
5. Failure in ship’s log will show error in vector length
Trial Manoeuvre: In order to help ship operator to make a
correct decision in limited time confronting with a variety of
data. The trial manoeuvre is based on ship movement
simulation considering ship manoeuvrability and external
influence.
Trial manoeuvre is one of the most important facilities
offered by ARPA for both collision avoidance and navigation.
When used in conjunction with vectors, a pictorial
prediction is available . All readout of targets, in the trial
manoeuvre mode would be the predicted values assuming
that the trial manoeuvre has been executed. When used with
relative vectors, it allows the officer of the watch to see what
effect specific alterations have with respect to land targets.
 When the trial manoeuvre mode is switched on , the
computer of the ARPA would require following in-formations:
1. New course.
2. New speed.
3. interval after which the planned action is to be taken.
4. The readout of any target, while the trial mode is in use.
It would give the new CPA & TCPA.
5. If provided the bow crossing range and time.
Use of Automatic Radar Plotting Aids : A marine radar with
automatic radar plotting aid (ARPA) capability can create
tracks using radar contacts. The system can calculate the
tracked object's course, speed and closest point of approach
(CPA), thereby knowing if there is a danger of collision with
the other ship or landmass.
• Unit -2, The Use of Radar In Navigation
• To calculate range and bearing of a target and there after use the
information to determine (find) speed, course, CPA, TCPA & Aspect.
• Integration with other shipboard equipment such as ECDIS and
VDR to derive precise data when required.
• Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision
avoidance.
• Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as
lighthouses, shore fixed buoys and RACON
• Differentiating between targets in high traffic density areas
• Determination of the weather, to an extent
• Use by VTS in controlling coastal traffic
• Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe
navigation
• Alleviating workload on the OOW on the bridge
• Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects.
 Use of Radar on Board Ship : The radar is the most
important bridge equipment. There are two radars used for
navigation on board ship (X-band & S-band). Radar is a very
vital component for safety at sea and near coastal. A
mandatory aid to navigation, the radar is used in identifying,
tracking (with integrated ARPA) and positioning of vessels
(including one's own vessel) among other things in order to
adhere to the COLREGs so as to safely navigate a ship from
one point to another. Their uses are as given below:
1- To fix the position of the ship (shore objects).
2- Collision Avoidance (Anti collision).
3- Anchor Watch
4- Navigation of the ship at sea.
 1-Fixing The Position of the ship by Radar : The effect of
wind and current near the coast may cause the ship to
deviate from the intended course. In order to keep the ship
on the intended course on the chart, the ship’s position is to
obtained frequently. This can be done by observing the
terrestrial object as given :
1- Visual bearings of two terrestrial objects.
2- Radar ranges of two terrestrial objects.
3- Bearing and range of an single known object.
4- Running fix of an single object.
One bearing & range
Three bearings of three objects
Three ranges of three objects
w

Running Fix with one object

Errors of Radar Fixing :
1- Delay in observation of a target.
2- Error in reading range and bearing .
3- Error in plotting on chart.
4- Error in instruments.
5- Any other error in radar equipment.
Reliability Of a Radar Fix :
1- Efficiency of the radar set.
2- Accuracy of the person involved.
3- Movement of the ship (rolling & pitching)
4- Plotting equipment in use (parallel ruler & divider).
5- Experience of the observer and plotter
2- Collision Avoidance (Anti collision): The radar is one of the
most used equipment/systems on board ships. It is designed
for detecting and tracking targets at a considerable distance.
Proper use of radar and radar plotting aids in both restricted
visibility and clear weather can help prevent collisions and
ensure the safety of the ship.
Accidents can occur if the watch keeping officer is not fully
conversant with the operation of the equipment and Collision
Prevention Regulations. For reliable interpretation, it is
essential that the radar operating controls be adjusted
properly.
Things To Consider While Using Radar On Ships:
1. CHOICE OF RANGE SCALE (frequently change range scale)
2. RANGE MEASUREMENT (properly measuring range)
3. BEARING MEASUREMENT (properly measuring bearing)
4. GAIN CONTROL (Proper adjustment)
5. REDUCING SEA CLUTTER / RAIN
6. OFF CENTRE DISPLAY
7. TARGET TRAILS
8. PI (PARALLEL INDEX) LINES
9. HEADING/SPEED/COURSE
10. BRILLIANCE
11. WATCH ALARM
12. VECTOR MODE
13. PAST POSITION
14. MARK (Select a target causing concern)
15. TARGET TRACKING/ AIS DATA BOX
16. PRESENTATION MODES (Relative / True Motion)
The radar display provides the operator a bird’s eye view where
other targets are portrayed relative to own ship. It is an
invaluable aid to navigation. Proper use and close monitoring
of the radar especially in reduced and restricted visibility can
help avoid the close quarter situation and/or collision. It is
therefore important that all radar users understand its use and
have a thorough knowledge of the equipment.
w
3-Anchor Watch : The Radar is very useful equipment for
monitoring anchor positions. For using the radar for anchor
watch requires shore / fixed objects.
The presence of RACON in the vicinity most proffered.
Straight coast with no edges is not useful for Radar bearing.
Following required for Anchor Watch:
1-Anchor Position
2-Radius of Position Circle (swinging circle)
3-Length of anchor cable paid out
4-Length of the ship
5-Identification of known fixed objects
6-Tide and current
7-Another way navigators make use of is with the EBL and
VRM on the radar.
8-OOW can set the EBL and VRM on the radar and point it to
the fixed object that he want to take bearing and range from.
9-If the EBL and VRM stay right there on the fixed object, the
ship has not moved and the anchor is holding.
10-The good thing in this is that each time OOW looks
on the radar screen, he can easily make out in a flash if the
ship is maintaining its position or not.
11-Ship’s speed can be a good indicator of the dragging
anchor.
12-A ship at anchor or when drifting will always head to the
resultant of all the external forces (the wind & current).
11-So when the ship is dragging her anchor, she will have the
negative speed over ground (GPS speed).
12-Not all seafarers use the practice of tying up a flag on the
anchor chain after anchoring.
13-There are two things we can do after anchoring.
(a)-Rest the anchor chain on the bar, or
(b)-Put the bar but keep it clear of the anchor chain
14-Watching the anchor chain in water is another way to know
if the anchor is dragging.
15-So If the anchor is dragging, the anchor will continue to
(a)-Go to long stay, medium stay, short stay
(b)-Rapidly come to up and down
(c)-Again go to long stay
 Conclusion
• Dragging anchor is not something a watch keeper desires but
it is something that may not be in control of the ship staff.
• The anchor may sometimes drag.
• Dragging anchor can lead to contact with other ship or
grounding of the ship.
• But all this can be avoided if the watch keeper is alert and
knows about the indications of the dragging anchor situation.
• Early identification is the key to avoid accident related to the
dragging anchor situations.
• Anchor dragging is totally acceptable situation provided it
does not lead to an accident.
4- Navigation of the ship (Consequences Of Ship Collision) :
Unfortunately the possibilities of loss of life in collision cases are
very high. Secondly, the environmental impact is very negative
especially if any one of the vessels in the collision happens to
carry any chemicals or any other harmful material that could
be dangerous for marine life.
1-Ship collision causes structural damage.
2-The financial consequences to ship owners.
3-Loss of ship.
4-Penalties.
5-Damage to coastal or off-shore infrastructure.
6-Loss of Life.
7-Loss of cargo.
8-Loss of job (if become handicapped, confiscation of COC)
 Many maritime accidents (Collisions) are caused :
1-Due to engine breakdowns.
2-Problems with electronic systems.
3-Equipment failure.
4-Sometimes equipment failure becomes natural phenomena
such as bad weather or heavy seas.
5-Causal approach for duty by OOWs.
6-Lack of proper and constant maintenance of equipment.
7-Failure to monitor a ship’s systems in order to check out
potential problems before they occur.
8-Lack of the necessary equipment, spare parts or gear
9-Breakdowns in operating procedures (follow check lists).
10-Breakdowns in communications procedures.
11-Lack of proper training (Infrastructure & Technology).
12-Poor decision-making by overworked personnel.
13-Inexperienced watch keepers on the bridge & navigational
errors.
 Use of Passive Trails (history) : It shows the record / history
of the targets being plotted on the radar display with the help
of radar in the following way :
a- To ascertain the past position of the target.
b- To know the intention of the target.
c- To ascertain the speed of the target.
d- It indicates the status of the target (moving / stationary).
e- It shows the presence of the moving target.
Indication of the trails depends up on the setting of true and
relative motion on the PPI.
Predictive Motion Vectors: In ARPA terminology, a vector is
a line sticking out of a tracked target, whose terminal point
indicates the predicted position of the target at the end of a
specific duration assuming that no alteration of course or
speed takes place during the intervening period.
• The length of the vector is, therefore, expressed in minutes of
time and this may be altered, as desired, usually between
one minute and sixty. Vectors are of two types true and
relative. It is not possible to switch on both types of vectors -
true and relative -at the same time.
True Vector: A true vector indicates true movement of the
target being tracked and is available on both, RM and TM
displays. True vectors, when switched on, would appear on all
moving targets that are being tracked and also on the
electronic centre (EC) -spot depicting the own ship. They
would not appear on stationary targets.
Relative Vector: A relative vector indicates the relative
movement of the target being tracked and is available on
both, RM and TM displays.
 Relative vectors, when switched on, would appear on all
targets that are being tracked regardless of whether they are
moving or stationary. They would not appear on own ship or
on targets having the same course and speed as own ship.
• All vectors on the PPI would be of the same length of time.
Any change of this duration, made by the user, would affect
all the vectors displayed.
• Frequent use of both, true and relative vectors alternately,
helps the officer of the watch in getting a pictorial
assessment of the current situation, and possible future
developments of the same, regardless of whether he is using
a True Motion (TM) or a Relative Motion (RM) display.
• Relative vectors are very important and useful when using
the ARPA in the trial manoeuvre mode, which is described
later.
Active Aids of ARPA :
1- Tracking of targets 6- Vectors
2- Ground Stabilisation 7- Guard Zones
3- Course up presentation 8- Manual Acquisition
4- Trail Manoeuvres 9- Automatic Acquisition
5-Map Drawing 10- CPA / TCPA Alarms

Alarms of ARPA :
1- CPA / TCPA alarm
2- Intruder Alarm
3- Poor / Lost target alarm
4- Time for action alarm
5- Change of course alarm
6- Wrong action alarm
7- Equipment Malfunction alarm
8- Memory full alarm
 Radar Transponder Beacon (RACON): It is a radar
transponder beacon, its name is derived from radar beacon.
As the ship’s pulse from the scanner arrives at the RACON, it
amplifies and return the pulse to the scanner as a strong
signal of the same frequency and creates a short bright line
on the PPI. The closer/inner edge is to be taken as the
position of the beacon.
The RACON is adjusted in such a way that it will not respond
unless the ship’s pulse that arrives is above a given signal
strength, because of this the effective range of a RACON is
30 miles apx. Each RACON is so designed as to appear as
different morse letter for identification purposes.
A RACON is useful in identifying light vessels or buoys in
poor visibility, specially in areas of traffic density and
crowded anchorages.
• In response to the radar transmissions the device emits
characteristic signal identified as a line marked on radar
screen. If the beacon frequency is same as ships radar it
automatically get superimposed on radar display. Else you
will need to tune your radar facility to match the same.
• This results in a small icon displayed on the radar set that
gradually forms a short line of dot and dash ( Morse
character ) identifying the location and distance from
hazardous zone prone to past accidents.
• The length of the line displayed on-screen qualifies to 2-3
nautical miles. RACON works in between the maritime radar
frequency of 9 and 3 GHz for the 3 to 10 cm standard radar.
• Much modern RACON amplifies and send the same radar
signal back to its source. This is then represented on the PPI
display as a bright line giving off the range and bearing of the
radio transponder beacon.
 RACON as a device is prohibited to be used other than for
maritime safety, as an aid for navigation and to satisfy other
maritime needs. Some of the major applications of the device
other than navigation aid are:
1-To identify landfall or sharp positions along costliness
2-As a mark for specific environment protected area in small
scale.
3-To identify navigation channels under the bridge.
4-As a primary indicator of offshore platform positions.
5-Mark lighthouse and navigation buoys.
6-To identify turns and center lines near port or in congested
waters
7-Marking temporary but risk prone zones.
8-To identify major area of any hazard or to show/mark area
prone to regular navigational hazards.
Morse code letter from A - to - Z
 Search and Rescue Transponder (SART) : It enables search
and rescue units to locate ships or survivor craft when in
distress. It is a portable device to be taken to the life boat
and life raft when abandoning the ship.
When interrogated by radar waves of the X-band (3cm or 9
Ghz)a SART gets triggered into transmitting a series of 12
pulses of 400 mW. These signal appear as a distinctive line of
12 blips on the PPI of X-band radar, signals extend outwards
from the position of the SART, along the line of bearing, for
distance of 8 nm on the PPI. The gap between successive
blips is 0.6 nm. As the SAR unit approaches the SART, the
blips change to wide arcs. These arcs eventually turn to
concentric circles when the SAR unit is within about one nm
from SART.
A SART should have body of highly visible orange or yellow
colour and should be capable of the following :
Features Of SART :
1- Manual activation and de-activation.
2- Frequency range from 9.2 GHz to 9.5 GHz.
3- Response of 12 blips when interrogated by ship’s radar.
4- Power out put 400mW.
5- Strong to withstand damage when dropped in the water
from 20 m height.
6- Fully water tight up to depth of 10 m for 5 minutes.
7- Not to be affected by the sea water or oil.
8- Should work between temperature of -20 deg to +55 deg.
9- Duration of working for 96 hrs in standby mode.
10-Duration of working 8 hrs when continuously
interrogated.
Emergency Position Indication Radio Beacon(EPIRB):It is a
device to alert search and rescue services (SAR) in case of an
emergency out at sea. It is tracking equipment that transmits a
signal on a specified band to locate a lifeboat, life raft, ship or
people in distress.
An EPIRB is a secondary means of Distress alerting which is
to say that it comes later in the hierarchy of alerting SAR
authorities in case of distress. It is mandatory to carry one
EPIRB on every ship and two EPIRBS for all Registered ships
(and other types of vessels).
• An EPIRB transmits signals to the satellite. The signal consists of an
encrypted identification number (all in digital code) which holds
information such as the ship’s identification, date of the event, the
nature of distress and chiefly, the position.
• A UIN is a Unique Identifier Number that is programmed into each
beacon at the factory. The UIN number consists of 15 digit series
of letters and numbers that make up the unique identity of the
beacon. The UIN is on a white label on the exterior of the beacon.
The UIN is also referred to as the Hex ID.
• The Local User Terminal (satellite receiving units or ground
stations) calculates the position of the casualty using Doppler Shift
(is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave (or other
periodic events) for an observer moving relative to its source).
• The LUT passes on the message to the MRCC (Mission Rescue Co-
Ordination Centre). Furthermore, the MRCC is responsible for the
SAR ops and oversees the execution of the rescue mission.
 Battery:
1-12 Volt battery
2-48 hours of transmitting capacity
3-Normally replaced every 2 to 5 years
False Alerting: It is possible that the EPIRB might get
activated by mistake by an individual onboard. In order to
prevent a chain of SAR operations in motion, it is imperative
that the EPIRB false transmission is cancelled. In case the
EPIRB is falsely activated, the nearest coast station or RCC
(Rescue Co-Ordination Center) must be informed
immediately of this event and as mentioned, cancel it.
• The cancellation intimation must also be sent to the
appropriate authority (for example, DG Shipping for Indian
Registered Ships or for ships plying in Indian waters when the
false alert is transmitted). The ship owner and/or the agent
must also be informed.
 Types Of EPIRB
• COSPAS-SARSAT– EPIRBS under the COSPAS-SARSAT system
work on the 406.025 MHz and 121.5 MHz band and are
applicable for all sea areas
• INMARSAT E– 1.6 GHz band is the one which this EPIRB
works on. These are applicable for sea areas A1, A2 and A3
• VHF CH 70– This works on the 156.525 MHz band and are
applicable for sea area A1 only
• How Does An EPIRB Work?
• The device contains two radio transmitters, a 5-watt one, and
a 0.25-watt one, each operating at 406 MHz, the standard
international frequency typically signalling distress, 406MHz.
The 5-watt radio transmitter is synchronised with a GOES
weather satellite going around the earth in a geosynchronous
orbit.
 Testing EPIRB
1-The EPIRB should be tested once a month to ensure
operational integrity. The procedure to do so is as follows:
2-Press and release the test button on the EPIRB
3-The red lamp on the EPIRB should flash once
4-Within 30 seconds of pressing the button, the strobe, as
well as the red light, should flash several times
5-After 60 seconds of operation, the EPIRB will switch off
Maintenance of EPIRB
1-The EPIRB must be inspected visually for any defects such
as cracks
2-It is advisable to clean the EPIRB once in a while with a dry
cloth
 3-While cleaning, the switches must be specifically checked
4-The lanyard of the EPIRB must be neatly packed into the
container of the EPIRB without any loose ends dangling about
5-The expiry date of the battery must be checked to cover
the immediate as well as the next voyage at the least
6-Send the EPIRB back to the service agent or the supplier if
the EPIRB fails the monthly checks
7-Change the battery onboard if the facilities are available or
send it to the servicing agent if there isn’t
8-If the EPIRB has been used in an emergency, it must be
returned to an authorized service agent for a battery change.
9-In the event that the HRU has crossed its expiry date, the
HRU ought to be replaced on board
AIS overlay on Radar / ARPA :An overlay is a procedure that
estimates the attributes of one or more features by
superimposing them over other features, and figuring out the
extent to which they overlap. The use of overlays is to
estimate the attributes of features in a map layer based on
data in another map layer.
Radar overlay : It is the best means of verifying cartographic
data and the output of navigation sensors. The radar and AIS
overlay feature of an ECDIS not only duplicates
the radar itself, but can also be used to verify the entire
navigational system.
All the navigators should be familiar with the fundamental
principles for using ECDIS as a part of an integrated shipboard
navigational system and be able to react promptly to system
malfunctions and/or failures. to combine different types of
navigational information. For example ;-
 AIS (Automatic Identification System) with radar images,
ECS (Electronic Chart System) became the first full-featured
integrator of this kind – a computer system combining
information from a pre-defined set of external sensors on
one screen with an electronic chart as the backdrop.
Whereas early ECS could only display GPS locations on an
electronic chart, today’s ECDIS can integrate course data from
gyro, satellite and magnet compasses as well as data from
echo sounders, wind sensors, AIS, ARPA and other sources.
The added data provide vital support for navigational tasks.
Radar overlay (a raw radar image overlaid on an electronic
chart) is the best means of verifying cartographic data and
the output of navigation sensors.
The radar overlay feature of an ECDIS not only duplicates the
radar itself, as some navigators know, but can also be used to
verify the entire navigational system. The purpose of this
article is to explain how this works.
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 Parallel Indexing Technique: Parallel index technique is an art
of manoeuvring a ship to a desired position, or along a
desired
track, in such a manner that the entire manoeuvre is carried
out while using the PPI only. The chart is consulted before
hand and a little pre-computation may be done, but no fixes
are on the chart because continuous monitoring is done on
the PPI with the help of the parallel index.
 Allowances for current and wind are made, as & when
necessary, during the manoeuvre, by inspection of the ship’s
progress on the PPI.
Use of Parallel Indexing :
1- To check the direction of the ship’s heading.
2- To obtain the bearing of an target.
3- To obtain bearing between two targets.
4- To obtain approximate distance between two targets.
5- To obtain the CPA range.
Types of Parallel Indexing Techniques:
1- To steer a course to pass a given distance of a point.
2- To alter course off a navigational mark or point of land
3- To anchor with no navigational mark right ahead.
Altering Of Course (Wheel Over Point, Way Point & Wheel Over Position)

New course
Way Point
Wheel O Psn

Old course
 Wheel Over Point : When the wheel is turned the ship takes
some time to respond and this primarily due to the inertia of
the ship. Hence the wheel should be turned over at a point
earlier than the point from which the ship is required to turn.
This point at which the wheel is to be turned over is known
as wheel over point. The distance between the wheel over
point and the ship commencing its turn is denoted by ‘ F ‘
and depend upon the following :
1- Ship’s length 2- Ship’ beam 3- Ship’s displacement
4- Ship’s speed 5- Ship’s trim 6- Type of ship
Wheel Over Position :For a safe turn, it is necessary for a
vessel to determine her wheel-over position or point. Wheel-
over position is a point where the rudder is put over and the
vessel starts turning to the new course. This will depend
upon the ship's turning characteristics and present condition.
 Wheel Over Position : Point from where to commence the
altering of course before reaching altering position (new
course). The distance of wheel over point from the point
where the turn is to become effective is usually taken as one
ship’s length but it is recommended to find it out by some
practice turns on the type of ship one is serving.
While marking the wheel over position, the following factors
are to be taken in consideration.
1- Characteristics of the vessel. 2- Visual / radar objects
3- Parallel Indexing . 4- Rate of turn.
Distance of wheel over line from the new course line
= F sin0 + R (1 –cos 0) where,
F = one ship’s length (usually),
R = Radius of the turn
 TO FIND & MARK APPROX. W/O POSITION:
• F = 0.1 to 0.15 NM
• P = R(1-Cos Ө) = F Sin Ө
• Rate of turn = (V / R) x 0.96
• where V = speed of vessel
• Distance to new course = Radius x Tan Ө/2
• First the Master of the vessel has to decide the radius of turn
required, depending on the manoeuvring
• characteristics of the vessel & available sea room.
• A reference point such as an is
• land, buoy, etc. can be also used to decide the radius of turn.
• Wheel over point = F + Distance to new course
• Distance to new course can be found by the above formula.
• Once the Master has decided on the radius of turn, a tabular ready
rackoner may be prepared for various course change angles.
 Safety Margins for Wheel Over Position : On executing the
turn, the following factors are to be kept in mind :
1- Due to current and wind, the ship is likely to drift port/
stbd
2- Ensure that the ship remains in the arc during the turn.
3- During the turn, the ship is likely to heel over to opposite
side of the turn.
4- If depth of water is less, squat effect may take place.
5- Accuracy of navigational equipments.
6- Possibility of main engine break down.
7- Possibility of steering failure.
8. Additional preventive measures (look out and safe speed)
9. Position of the ship must be plotted frequently.
10-Execution of the turn should be monitored, right from
the
beginning to the end.
 Unit - 3
Terrestrial Navigation System : Terrestrial navigation is a
field of study that helps sea-faring people locate points at sea
and on the land. Similarly, it involves being able to identify
the position of the ship anywhere in the world. Cadets are
instructed in the use of nautical charts, compass corrections
and voyage planning.
It is the method of navigation used by mariners that uses
landmarks as reference points, ship’s stability, fuel
consumption and ship’s speed along with tides and currents.
This is the opposite of celestial navigation, which plots
positions in relation to the stars.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
some basic principles of terrestrial navigation includes:
With the perceived vulnerability of GNSS systems, and their
own propagation and reception limitations, renewed interest
in LORAN applications and development has appeared.
Enhanced LORAN, also known as eLORAN or E-LORAN,
comprises advancement in receiver design and transmission
characteristics, which increase the accuracy and usefulness of
traditional LORAN. With reported accuracy as good as ±8
meters, the system becomes competitive with unenhanced
GPS. eLORAN also includes additional pulses, which can
transmit auxiliary data such as DGPS corrections. These
enhancements in LORAN make it a possible substitute for
scenarios where GPS is unavailable or degraded.
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 Enhanced Loran (E-LORAN-Long Range Navigation) :
To be precise, e-Loran, as an internationally standardised
positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) service, will be soon
implemented over a wide range of applications , as an
independent, dissimilar, complement to Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS).
Loran is a good back up for GNSS
Capability, Independence, Interoperability,
Different mode of operations
Robustness to jamming
Can serve multiple modes including timing
Other back ups exist { Loran can serve tactical purposes
Future of eLoran is uncertain
 PNT users will be capable of retaining the safety, security,
and economic benefits of GNSS, even when their satellite
services are disrupted or when using e-Loran in areas where
GNSS in not available.
Principle of E-Loran : e-Loran signals travel over the surface
of the earth (i.e., they are ground waves), they are subject to
small propagation delays that depend on the electrical
conductivity of the ground. To achieve the high level of
accuracy required for aviation approaches, harbour entrance
and approach manoeuvre, and to recover precise time, these
propagation delays must be measured and the corrections
must be applied. User and System Monitor Receivers will
store and employ these Signal Propagation Corrections to
maximize the accuracy and also provide integrity for the
solutions they deliver.
 E-Loran is an independent dissimilar complement to global
Navigation satellite system (GNSS). It allows GNSS users to
retain the safety, security and economic benefits of GNSS,
even when their satellite services are disrupted.
The principal difference between E-Loran and traditional
Loan-c is the addition of a data channel on the transmitted
signal. This conveys application specific corrections, warnings
and Integrity in-formations to the users receivers.
E-Loran is also capable of providing the exceedingly precise
time and frequency reference needed by the tele-communica
tion system that carry voice and internet communications.
 Errors Of E-Loran
The major error sources in maritime eLoran are the
1-Residues of atmospheric noise,
2-Transmitter related noise,
3-Cross Rate Interference (CRI).
While the impact of the first two factors is well understood
and can be modelled (Safar et al. 2010), the issue of CRI has
not been sufficiently described so far.
 Important Features Of E-Loran
1- Transmitting station broadcasts using corrections data via a
data channel.
2- Monitoring site receives the signal and applies the
correction to provide integrity.
3- Monitoring site receives the signal and generates the
correction.
4- Control station validates and stores the corrections from
the monitor site.
5- The control station forwards the correction to the
appropriate transmitting station.
6- The transmitting station validates the incoming
corrections
and formats them for broadcast.
 Range and accuracy: During the day the ionosphere only
weakly reflects shortwave signals, and LORAN was usable at
500–700 nautical miles (930–1,300 km) using the ground waves.
At night these signals were suppressed and the range dropped
to 350–500 nautical miles (650–930 km). At night the sky waves
became useful for measurements, which extended the effective
range to 1,200–1,400 nautical miles (2,200–2,600 km).
At long ranges the hyperbolic lines approximate straight lines
radiating from the centre of the baseline. Thus at short
distances the lines cross at angles close to 90 degrees, and this
angle steadily reduces with range. Because the accuracy of the
fix depends on the crossing angle, all hyperbolic navigation
systems grow increasingly inaccurate with increasing range.
ELoran is capable of providing this level of service by meeting
the accuracy, availability, integrity, and continuity
performance requirements for:
• aviation non-precision instrument approaches
• maritime harbour entrance and approach manoeuvres
• land-mobile vehicle navigation
• location-based services
• precise time and frequency users
 Unit- 4, Gyro Compass
A Gyro compass is a form of gyroscope, used widely on ships
employing an electrically powered, fast-
spinning gyroscope wheel and frictional forces among other
factors utilizing the basic physical laws, influences of gravity
and the Earth's rotation to find the true north.
Gyro compass, navigational instrument which makes use of
a continuously driven gyroscope to accurately seek the
direction of true (geographic) north. It operates by seeking an
equilibrium direction under the combined effects of the force
of gravity and the daily rotation of Earth.
Master Compass: Discovers and maintains the true north
reading with the help of a gyroscope.
Repeater Compasses: Receive and indicate the true
direction transmitted electrically from the Master Compass.
 A modern gyrocompass unit consists of:
1-A master unit, 4-A speed unit,
2-A control cabinet, 5-Auxiliary Electrical Transmission Unit
3-A power supply unit 6-Alarm Unit
The compass card has illumination facility and its brightness
is adjustable.
The Gyrocompass system applications are based upon two
fundamental characteristics, which are:
• Gyroscopic Inertia: The tendency of any revolving body to
uphold its plane of rotation.
• Precession: A property that causes the gyroscope to move,
when a couple is applied. But instead of moving in the
direction of the couple, it moves at right angles to the axis of
the applied couple and also the spinning wheel.
 Relationship Between Applied Force And Precision:
If an external force is applied to the gyroscope to change the
direction of the rotor axis, the gyro resists the angular
movement and moves in a plane at a right angle to that of
the applied force, the resulting movement being called
precession.
Precession: A property that causes the gyroscope to move,
when a couple is applied. But instead of moving in the
direction of the couple, it moves at right angles to the axis of
the applied couple and also the spinning wheel.
A Gyro compass is a form of gyroscope, used widely on ships
employing an electrically powered, fast-spinning gyroscope
wheel and frictional forces among other factors utilizing the
basic physical laws, influences of gravity and the Earth's
rotation to find the true north.
 Properties Of Free Gyroscope : When the disc is made to
spin on its axis it is continuously pointing to a fix direction as
the same direction as it was started it will not change the
direction, although the supporting base is moved or tilted
this unique property of a spinning free gyro scope is called
rigidity of a space.
Basic Properties Of Gyroscopes: Gyroscope have two
basic properties: rigidity and precession. These properties are
defined as follows:
1. Rigidity :The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro wheel
tends to remain in a fixed direction in space if no force is
applied to it.
2. Precision: Gyroscope rotor spin on one axis this axis is
known as “Axis of Spin” and after the loading this axis convert
in 45 degree angle so this axis is known as “Axis of precision”
and this motion is called “Precision Motion ”.
 Advantages Of Using Gyro Compass: The gyrocompass was
an important invention for nautical navigation because
it allowed accurate determination of a vessel's location at all
times regardless of the vessel's motion, the weather and the
amount of steel used in the construction of the ship.
Function Of Gyro Compass: A Gyro compass is a form of
gyroscope, used widely on ships employing an electrically
powered, fast-spinning gyroscope wheel and frictional
forces among other factors utilizing the basic physical laws,
influences of gravity and the Earth's rotation to find the true
north.
How Gyro Compass Settles After Switching: It is measured
from true north (000°) clockwise through 360°. The compass
is said to be "settled" if any three reading taken at intervals of
thirty minutes, when the compass is on a level and stationary
base, are within a band of 0.7°.
 Usage and Errors
• Gyro compasses are pre-eminently used in most ships in
order to detect true north, steer the ship, and find bearings
and record courses.
• But due to the ship’s course, speed and latitude, there could
appear some steaming errors. It has been found that on
Northerly courses the Gyro compass north is slightly
deflected to the West of the true meridian whereas on
Southerly courses it is deflected to the East.
• Modern ships use a GPS System or other navigational aids to
feed data to the Gyrocompass for correcting the error. An
orthogonal triad of fiber optic design and also ring laser
gyroscopes which apply the principles of optical path
difference to determine the rate of rotation, instead of
depending upon mechanical parts, may help eliminate the
flaws and detect true north.
 Effect of Earth’s Rotation on a free Gyroscope :
Rotation causes a deflection of ocean and air currents.
The earth rotates much faster than the winds or currents
move. This causes a large “g” deflection in the direction that
winds move and ultimately results in rotation around low
pressure cells and high pressure cells. Effect of Rotation of
the Earth As you have learned, a free gyro maintains its spin
axis fixed in space, and not fixed relative to
the Earth's surface. Likewise, the Earth's rotation would carry
the post around so that at 2400 hrs it would be upside down.
Then, at 0600 hrs the next day, the post would be pointing to
your left.
 Errors Associated with Gyro Compass :
1-Drift Error 2-Tilt Error 3-Damping Error
4-Latitude Error 5-Course & Speed Error
6-Rolling Error
1-Drift Error : Gyroscope drift causes an non-zero angular
velocity to be measured while the sensor is static. The
erroneous gyroscope output produced in the absence of
movement is called bias offset error. In determination of the
orientation, the angular velocity is mathematically integrated.
2-Tilt Error : A free gyroscope is a wheel, constructed
similarly to a flywheel and suspended with 3 degrees of
freedom. ... The gyroscope may spin around the spinning axis,
and turn around the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. The
centre of mass of the wheel is at the intersection of the 3
axes.
 3-Damping Error : For the purpose of damping error, a
latitude rider / adjuster is provided with the gyro
compass which shifts the lubber line equal to the amount
of error in the appropriate direction. The gyro
compass settles in the N/S direction by sensing Earth's
spinning motion.
4-Latitude Error : Latitude error is a constant error, the
magnitude of which is directly proportional to the earth's
rotation at any given latitude. It is, therefore, present even
when the ship is stationary. As has previously been stated,
a gyrocompass will always settle close to the meridian with
an error in tilt.
5-Course & Speed Error : It is an error of the gyro-compass;
it is from the gyroscope axis deviation to the true north
direction. It depends on the vessel speed, the ship course and
the latitude. It is maximum in courses of 0 ° and 180 ° and
null in courses of 90 ° and 270 °.
 6-Rolling Error : Gyro compass fitted on a ship also senses
the accelerations present within the vessel at the time
of rolling and pitching. The errors resulting due to that are
known as rolling errors. It is caused by force generated by a
combination of Earth's rotation and Ships movement.
Principal Parts Of Gyrocompass : A
modern gyrocompass unit consists of following units
1-Master unit.
2-Control cabinet.
3-Power supply unit .
4-Speed unit.
5-Auxiliary electrical transmission and alarm units.
The compass card has illumination facility and its brightness
is adjustable.
 Types Of Gyro Compasses used on board Merchant Ship:
GPS Compass - comprising 2, or preferably 3, antennas aligned
symmetrically fore and aft, will show the ship's heading, in either
true or magnetic form, and is normally accurate to within +/- one
degree on a steady heading. As with all satellite derived data, it is
vulnerable to signal error and reliant on a supply of electricity.
Fluxgate Compass - uses a number of electrical coils wound on a
magnetic core to detect its alignment with the magnetic meridian.
It will also detect any other magnetic fields around it and is
therefore as susceptible to deviation as the standard compass.
Electro-Magnetic Resistors - used in some electronic compasses
to measure the earth's magnetic field. As the vessel changes
direction or alignment with the magnetic meridian, resistance
increases or decreases and is interpreted as heading.
• Gyro Compass - usually fitted on larger vessels. It is set to
point true north and does not use the earth's magnetic field.
It is normally accurate to +/- one or two degrees. Modern
fiber optic gyro compasses are continuously corrected by
computers, which are updated from GPS. It can take many
hours for a gyro compass to operate correctly from the time
it is switched on, or switched back on, after a power outage.
• Laser and Atomic Compasses - still in early days of
development for commercial marine use but may be
commonplace in the not too distant future.
 Compass Follow Up System : The principal object of the
present invention is to provide a novel electrical follow-up
system for gyro compasses and for other purposes that
substantially eliminates hunting of the follow-up element, the
said system being so constructed and arranged as to cause
the follow-up element to move in substantial synchronism
with the apparent movement of the sensitive element.
In most follow-up systems heretofore used, there is a
decided tendency for the follow-up element to hunt around
its position of rest or coincidence with the position of the
sensitive element, that is, to mechanically oscillate back and
forth through a small arc across this position. There are many
objections to mechanical hunting because, among other
things, it sets up similar oscillations in the repeater
compasses driven from the master compass, rendering them
difficult to read.
 Gyro Compass Repeater System : The bearing repeater
compass offers an analogue and a digital display for
indication of heading information. The heading source – gyro
compass, magnetic compass or satellite compass – is also
indicated. A fixed 360° scale on the outer ring allows relative
bearings to be taken.
Procedure for Starting Of Gyro Compass :
1-Follow maker’s instructions
2-Follow ISM checklist (Check ship head, liquid level, sphere
position)
3-Switch on pulse generator
4-Switch on main gyro power
5-Unlock horizontal gimbals system
6-Switch on all repeaters
 Procedure for Stopping of Gyro Compass :
-Follow maker’s instructions
-Follow ISM checklist
-Switch off all repeaters (Gyro, Course recorder, radar)
-Place gimbals system horizontal and lock it.
-Switch off main Gyro power
-Switch off pulse generator
Maintenance Of Gyro Compass :The compasses are a very
important tool for the safety of navigation. Vessel owners and
masters must ensure that compasses are maintained in good
working order, adjusted and a table or curve of residual
deviation is made available.
 Care & maintenance of Gyro Compass & Magnetic Compass:
1.Doors giving access to corrector magnets should always
remain closed.
2.Quardrantal correctors & their brackets should be painted
to prevent rust.
3.Wooden parts of the binnacle should be varnished and not
painted, as painting may cause the doors to jam.
4.Brass parts of the binnacle should be regularly polished.
5.The binnacle light should be switched off at daytime & while in
port.
6.All magnetic material & electric wires etc should be kept as far
away
from the compass as possible.
7.The hood should always be in place except when the compass is
being used, Cover it again after use.
8.Unship the azimuth mirror from magnetic compass when gyro
compass is used for bearings.
 Unit – 5, Ship Security Alert System:
Ship Security Alert System
• The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is a safety measure for
strengthening ship's security and subduing acts of piracy and/or
terrorism against shipping.
• It is the part of the ISPS code and is a system that contributes to
IMO efforts to strengthen the maritime security and suppress the
acts of terrorism and piracy against shipping. In case of an
attempted attack of piracy or terrorism, the ship’s security alert
system beacon can be activated and appropriate law enforcement
or military forces can be sent for action.
• The basic idea is that in case of an attempted piracy effort,
terrorist act, or any other incident which can be defined as a
threat to the ship under the maritime security, the ship's SSAS
beacon would be activated, responding to which an appropriate
law-enforcement or military forces would be dispatched for rescue.
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w1
 On activation of Ship’s Security Alert System
• The RCCs or SAR centers are notified directly.
• National authorities dispatch appropriate forces to deal with the
terrorist or pirates.
• The Company Security Officer is alerted at the same time, as the
above authorities are alerted on activation of ship security alert
system.
• When the maritime security staff comprehends probable danger
from pirates or terrorists, a Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) alert
is triggered
• The beacon transmits a specific security alert, with important
details about the ship and its location, to the administration and
to the owner, or appointed professional SSAS management and
monitoring services
• Once receiving the signal, the administration will notify the
nearest national authorities of the area which will dispatch
appropriate military or law-enforcement forces to deal with the
terrorist or pirate menace
 When the Ship Security Alert System is Activated, following
details will be sent to the administration:
1-Name of ship
2-IMO number allotted to the ship
3-The Call Sign of the ship
4-The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) position of
the ship in latitude and longitude
5-Maritime Mobile Service Identity
6-Date and time of the alert according to the GNSS position
(as per the current time the ship is sailing)
 Legislation on Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)
According to the international requirements regarding the
security of ships and of port facilities, following ships must be
provided with an SSAS:
• All cargo ships which are constructed on or after 1st July 2004
• All passenger ships and high-speed craft intended to carry
passengers which are constructed before 1 July 2004 not
later than at the first survey of their radio installation after
1st July 2004
• Oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers and
cargo high-speed craft of 500 GT and above constructed
before 1 July 2004 not later than at the first survey of their
radio installation after 1 July 2004
• Other cargo ships of 500 GT and above constructed before 1
July 2004 and mobile offshore drilling units not later than at
the first survey of their radio installation after 1 July 2006.
 The responsibility of the Signal Receiver:
• The SSAS signal is received by the administration (flag state)
and either by the owner or another representative selected
by the administration (professional SSAS management and
monitoring services)
• An email or phone number is dedicated to receiving the SSAS
alert and should be continuously monitored by the
administration representatives as missing the alert or acting
late on it can cause severe harm to the life and property
• Once the signal is received, the date and time should not be
misunderstood as the local time of the administration or
owner’s location. The date and time represent the location of
the ship which is currently sailing.
 The standard procedure for testing of Ship Security Alert
System is as follows:
E-mail DG the following information at least three hours in
advance when requesting for a test :
Name of the vessel and its present position.
Intended date and time (UTC) and IST of the test.
Declaration of Security : (DoS) is defined by the Safety of Life
at Sea (SOLAS) Convention as "an agreement reached
between a ship and either a port facility or another ship with
which it interfaces, specifying the security measures each will
implement".
• The DoS is intended to be used in exceptional cases usually
related to higher risk. These are the times when there is a
need to reach an agreement between the port facility and
the ship as to the security measures to be applied.
 When to Use The Ship’s Security Alert System
• When the maritime security staff or ship’s staff comprehend
probable danger from terrorists or pirates, the SSAS alert is
triggered. There are two triggering points, one in the wheel
house (bridge) and other at a suitable place known only to
few concerned / responsible persons.
• The SSAS alerts are to be sent by the security staff necessary
at a routine priority from the ship to it’s administration
directly or other proper recipient, designated by the
administration, to check the operational status of the SSAS.
• These routine priority SSAS alerts might be chosen by the
designated person and administration to have other
informed about these routine priority checking of SSAS.
 Benefits Of SSAS
1-Fully for the purpose of Maritime Security.
2-Use of the Inmarsat C, Mini –C and Satellite Services.
3-Up-gradation over older GMDSS version.
4-Global Coverage.
5-Suitable for tracking.
6-Daily reports at routine priority, if required
7-Also Web based Tracking.
8-Confirms to IMO standards and SOLAS Ch XI-2/6
compliance
9-Installation & testing by the professionals.
10-Very effective in time of emergency, without alerting the
attackers.
 Limitations Of Ship Security Alert System:
• The SSAS setup on a ship is still considered as an additional
financial burden on ships and ship owner try to stick to the
regulation by providing only two ship security alert system
switches on a ship. It is possible that during the attack, these
two locations are not accessible and if the number of the
switch is increased, it will add to the safety of the ship and its
crew
• The regulation does not make it mandatory to have an
independent source of power to the ship’s SSAS. In case
of failure of main power or fault in the emergency backup
power, the SSAS will not work
• As discussed earlier, the switches are provided in two
locations which includes bridge as one location. It is
important for the Master to ensure the ship’s crew knows the
location of the switches. The familiarization of the locations
in every drill is still not practiced in many ships which may
lead to confusion in case of a real emergency
• There are many agencies/ third party who are dedicated to
monitoring the SSAS alert from the ship. To save the cost,
many owners do not opt for such agencies and prefer to keep
this service in-house (Company security officer). It is naïve to
think that CSO will never miss a call or a message or the
phone dedicated to the alert will never run out the battery
 Security Exercises
These drills may include situations like
• Bomb threat at port / at sea
• Change in security level
• Stowaway or Bomb search
• Pirate Attack
ISPS code has set three security levels.
• Security Level 1
• Security Level 2
• Security Level 3
 Unit – 6, Induced Magnetism In Ship and Magnetic
Compass Correction
The Method of Determination And Compensation of The
Effects of Ship’s magnetic Field On The Magnetic Compass:
Once the compass is installed on board it should be swung
to determine the error and how it will be corrected. The
swing ing of the compass must be done against known
heading, so that the precise error can be determined.
-A deviation table to be created for the various headings and
the compass corrected to reduce the overall deviation. This
correction is done by adjusting the effect of additional lumps
or magnets or iron placed close to the card.
-Compass adjusting is done by a compass adjuster .
Objective is to reduce and record the error so that when
navigating this correction can be applied to the heading.
 Method Of Obtaining a Table Of Deviation : At sea the
table of deviation is obtained by swinging the ship either side
(P & S)through 360 deg at a constant rate of turning. Gyro
compass headings are noted after every 10 deg of change.
Compass error, variation and deviation are worked out .
Deviation is caused by iron, magnets and magnetic fields
(from electronic equipment), all of which influence the
Earth's magnetic field around the ship.
 Procedure When Swinging Ship :
1- Ship should be in sea going condition.
2- Ship should be upright and having normal trim.
3- Compass to be tested before bringing on board ship.
4- Lubber line aligned with ship’s fore and aft line.
5- Azimuth mirror should be accurate.
6- There should not be any metallic object close by.
7- No magnetic material near by.
8- There should not be any vessel by 3-5 cable (0.5 nm).
9- Flinders bars are to be tested and adjusted.
10-The soft iron spheres are to be adjusted by slacking at
the
mounting.
• Swinging the compass, or swinging the ship (as the
operation is sometimes more accurately called as the ship
swings around the compass card which, ideally, remains
pointing north), involves taking the vessel to a suitable
location in open water with plenty of room for maneuvering.
With the vessel steady on each of the eight primary compass
points, existing compass headings or bearings are compared
with what we know the actual magnetic headings or bearings
should be, the difference being the deviation.
• During the process, any magnetic fields, created by the ship’s
structure, equipment, etc, which cause the compass to
deviate are reduced or, if possible, eliminated, by creating
equal but opposite magnetic fields using compensating
correctors. These are placed inside the compass binnacle or
adjacent to the compass:
 --Magnets are aligned fore and aft and athwart
ships to create horizontal magnetic fields to
compensate for the permanent horizontal
components of the ship’s magnetism.
– Soft iron correcting spheres or plates and the
Flinders bar compensate for the induced
magnetism caused by the effect the earth’s
magnetic field has on the ship’s magnetism.
– Heeling error magnets compensate for the
vertical component of the ship’s magnetism.
• The timing and logistics of this operation are often governed
by the tide, the weather and other vessels in the vicinity. The
time it takes to swing and adjust the compass is also
influenced by the condition and accessibility of the compass
and correctors, the maneuverability of the vessel, the skill of
the helmsman and the complexity of, and reasons for, the
deviating magnetic fields involved.
• On successful completion of compass swing, a table
recording any remaining residual deviation and a statement
as to the good working order of the compass will be issued. A
current deviation card / certificate of adjustment is a legal
requirement on all sea going commercial vessels.
• Deviation can be determined by a number of methods: the
sun’s azimuth or known bearings of distant objects, such as a
mountain peak or lighthouse are considered most accurate.
In certain circumstances, such as poor visibility, calibration is
carried out by making comparisons with other navigation
instruments, such as a gyro or GPS compass.
• Using other navigation instruments to find deviation is only
satisfactory if the absolute accuracy of these instruments has
first been verified, or any known error is factored into the
calculations. Most professionals prefer something tangible,
such as a fixed landmark, with a known position and bearing
to work with.
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 Heeling Error : Heeling error is the difference in deviation
between, when vessel is upright and when heeled and
heading on the same course and same side.
Deviation when upright - 7 deg E
Deviation when heeled - 5 deg E
Heeling Error - 2 deg E
Cause Of Heeling Error : When a ship heels, the compass
being gimballed remains horizontal. A magnetic field acting
vertically at the compass position will cause no deviation
when ship is upright. But when the ship heels this field acts at
an oblique angle. The horizontal components of this oblique
field will cause a deviation called heeling error.
Effects Of Heeling :
1-Effect on ship’s head
2-Effect on Latitude
 Heeling Error Correction : Correction is achieved by means
of permanent magnets set vertically in HE bucket, which can
be raised or lowered in the binnacle, under the compass card.
The amount of correction may be varied by increasing /
decreasing the number of magnets or by lowering / raising
the HE bucket.
Care and Maintenance of Liquid Compass :
1- Keep magnet compass away from computers and other
electrical devices.
2- Keep magnetic compass away from heaters and hot places
heat can damage inner system.
3- Ensure it does not make contact with any communication
system / device.
4- Avoid dropping /bumping the compass on hard surfaces.
5- There should not be a air bubble in side the bowl.
6- Ensure cover is placed during rough / bad weather.
7- Ensure gymble is free and moving properly during rolling
and pitching.
8-Any repair should only be made by a compass
manufacturer
or other competent person using proper test facilities.
9- A certificate is to be issued by the repairer, as a proof for
the repair carried out to the master.
 Cause Sitting of Compasses With Reference to The
Proximity Of Magnetic Material & Electrical Appliances: The
needle of a compass is itself a magnet, and thus the north
pole of the magnet always points north, except when it is
near a strong magnet. When you take the compass away
from the bar magnet, it again points north. So, we can
conclude that the north end of a compass is attracted to the
south end of a magnet.
The compass on ships is often mounted in a binnacle which
is a stand or housing. They are located in a place on the ship
to allow the ship's navigator to determine position and
course. They may be located near the helm so that the sailor
steering the ship can maintain the correct course.
 Induced magnetism and its effects on the compass:
Induced magnetism varies with the strength of the
surrounding field, the mass of metal, and the alignment of
the metal in the field. Since the intensity of the earth’s
magnetic field varies over the earth’s surface, the induced
magnetism in a ship will vary with latitude, heading, and heel
of the ship.
With the ship on an even keel, the resultant vertical induced
magnetism, if not directed through the compass itself, will
create deviations that plot as a semicircular deviation curve.
This is true because the vertical induction changes magnitude
and polarity only with magnetic latitude and heel and not
with the heading of the ship. Therefore, as long as the ship is
in the same magnetic latitude, its vertical induced pole
swinging about the compass will produce the same effect on
the compass as a permanent pole swinging about the
compass. Figure 6 below illustrates the vertical induced poles
in the structures of a ship.
 Care & Maintenance Of Liquid Magnetic Compass: The
compass card should be clear to read, centered, free of
friction and able to rotate properly. To check that the card is
free of friction, a magnet can be brought up to the bowl so
that the card is deflected by 10 degrees. Once the magnet is
removed, the card should promptly return to its original
heading.
1-The compass bowl must be topped up fully with liquid
(glycol and distilled water solution) so that no air gaps or
bubbles form. Any bubble greater than 20mm should be
rectified.
2-The compass card should be clear to read, centred, free of
friction and able to rotate properly. To check that the card is
free of friction, a magnet can be brought up to the bowl so
that the card is deflected by 10 degrees. Once the magnet is
removed, the card should promptly return to its original
heading.
 3-The binnacle bolts should be securely mounted.
4-The fore/aft and port/starboard correctors are in the
correct position, as recorded by the previous compass
adjustment.
5-The azimuth ring should fit correctly and be free to move
through a full rotation.
6-The azimuth mirror should be in the correct place and
rotate correctly. Checking the alignment takes the azimuth of
a celestial body in both the arrow-up and arrow-down
positions. If there is a difference, the mirror is not aligned
with its plane.
7-The light should work correctly and should not cause a
deflection in the compass card when the supply current is
switched on.
8-The lubber line should be correctly centred. To check this
out, take an azimuth off the forward mast headlight.
9-It should be easy to view the magnetic compass from the
steering position and make a precise reading.
10-Finally, the Master should ensure that the compass
remains reliable by regularly checking the compass error
book. This stops massive changes in deviation from going
unnoticed.
 Unit – 7 Other Navigational Aids
7.1, Global Positioning System (G.P.S): It is satellite based
navigation system consists of 24 orbiting satellites in a 6 different
orbits / paths. This system is more accurate than any other existing
system with world wide coverage in all weather conditions. It
gives position in latitude & longitude with the help of satellite.
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Nav-star GPS is a
satellite-based radio navigation system. It is a global navigation
satellite system that provides geo location and time information to
a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites Obstacles
such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS
signals.
GPS provides the fastest and most accurate method for mariners
to navigate, measure speed, and determine location. This enables
increased levels of safety and efficiency for mariners worldwide.
 It is important in marine navigation for the ship's officer to
know the vessel's position while in open sea and also in
congested harbors and waterways. While at sea, accurate
position, speed, and heading are needed to ensure the vessel
reaches its destination in the safest, most economical and
timely fashion that conditions will permit. The need for
accurate position information becomes even more critical as
the vessel departs from or arrives in port. Vessel traffic and
other waterway hazards make maneuvering more difficult, and
the risk of accidents becomes greater.
GPS Working Principle : The GPS signal consists of pseudo
random code, ephemeris and almanac data. The pseudo random
code identifies the satellite because each satellite is having a
unique
code. Ephemeris data is constantly transmitted by each satellite
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 and contains important in-formation such as status of the
satellite, current date & time. The almanac data tells the GPS
receiver where each satellite should be at any time through
out the day. Each satellite transmits almanac data showing
the orbital in-formation for that satellite and for every other
satellite in the system. The user’s GPS receiver reads the
message and saves the ephemeris and almanac data for
fixing the position.
Each satellite transmits two codes :
1- P-code - Precision code (US Military)
2- C/A code – Coarse Acquisition Code, all civilian GPS users.
 Segments of G.P.S : This system consists of three segments:
1- Control segment.
2- Space segment.
3- User segment.
1. The Control Segment: This part consists of worldwide
land based stations located at Atlantic Area, Pacific Area,
Diego Suarez and Indian Ocean. It has one master control
station and upload station located at Colorado Springs USA.
The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data
from these satellite to pass the in-formations to master
control station after receiving the data from the monitoring
stations. The stations constantly monitor the orbits of the
satellites and use very precise radar to check altitude,
position and speed. The master control station does the
necessary computation to predict the future path and
position of all the satellite.
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 2. Space Segment : It consists of 24 operational satellites
evenly placed in 6 different orbits. All the satellites have a
propulsion system to maintain their orbital path and can be
remotely controlled. The angle between each of the 6 orbital
planes and the equatorial plane is 55 deg. The satellites are
launched at a height of 20000 kms above the earth’s surface.
The orbital speed of each satellite is 3.9 km/sec and it takes
12 hrs to complete one orbit. These satellites are so placed in
the orbit that a receiver any where on the surface of the
earth can receive signal from minimum 4 satellites with an
elevation of more than 9.5 deg.
3- User segment : It consists of a receiving antenna receiver
with built in computer and display unit. The receiver locks
onto one satellite and from this satellite it obtains the
almanac of all the other satellites and there by selects the
four most suitable satellites for position fixing.
 The fix obtained is displayed on the display unit along with
other in-formations, such as course and speed made good.
Global Navigation Satellite Systems : One of the first GNSS
systems is the well-known American based Global Positioning
System (GPS). Since GPS is not the only available network,
the term GNSS is used to describe all the combined
navigation networks globally. This term includes Russia’s
GLONASS, China’s BeiDou-2 and the European Galileo.
As of October 2018, the United States' Global Positioning
System(GPS) and Russia's GLONASS are fully operational
GNSSs, with China's Bei Dou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)
and the European Union's Galileo scheduled to be fully
operational by 2020. India, France and Japan are in the
process of developing regional navigation and augmentation
systems as well.
 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System : IRNSS is an
independent regional navigation satellite system designed to
provide position information in the Indian region and 1500
km around the Indian mainland. Simply put, the Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is similar to the
GPS (global positioning system) of the US, Glonass of Russia
and Galileo of Europe as well as China’s Bei-dou. It consists of
a constellation of seven satellites.
Features: It is a constellation of total 7 satellite launched in
space and a ground facility on land to receive signals from
space satellites. 3 of its satellite Located in Geostationary
orbit and 4 are inclined to geosynchronous orbit. However
full NAVIC system has 9 satellite, 2 on ground in standby
mode.
It covers whole India and region surrounding it up to 1500
km.
It provide accuracy up to 20m as claimed by ISRO.
Its apogee(farthest point) is 20,657km and Perigee is 284 km
 The satellite weighs average 1330 kg approx. and each have
solar panels to generate 1400wt.
A master control facility is set up on land to receive signals
from these satellites.
Areas of coverage :
1.Primary Service Area: To provide accurate position
information service to users in India as well as the region
extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its
primary service area.
2.Extended Service Area: It lies between primary service
area and area enclosed by the rectangle from Latitude 30 deg
South to 50 deg North, Longitude 30 deg East to 130 deg East.
Services Provided By IRNSS
IRNSS would provide two types of services, namely
Standard Positioning Services available to all users and
Restricted Services provided to authorised users. (Encrypted
 Differential GPS : DGPS (Differential GPS) is essentially a
system to provide positional corrections to GPS signals. DGPS
uses a fixed, known position to adjust real time GPS signals to
eliminate pseudo range errors. An important point to note is
that DGPS corrections improve the accuracy of position data
only.Global Positioning Systems are enhancements to the
Global Positioning System which provide improved location
accuracy, in the range of operations of each system, from the
15-meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 1-3 cm in case of
the best implementations.
Each DGPS uses a network of fixed ground-based reference
stations to broadcast the difference between the positions
indicated by the GPS satellite system and known fixed
positions. These stations broadcast the difference between
the measured satellite pseudo ranges and actual (internally
computed) pseudo ranges, and receiver stations may correct
their pseudo ranges by the same amount.
 Dfference between DGPS and GPS:
• DGPS: Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an
enhancement to the GPS (Global Position System). DGPS rely
on two stations with accuracy of 10cm.
• GPS system based on the satellite technology of 24 satellites
and can have the nominal accuracy of 15 meter.
Different types of DGPS
1-SBAS – Correction messages are sent from Geostationary
Satellites, for example, EGNOS or WASS.
2-RTCMv2 – Correction messages are sent from a static base
station, giving 40 – 80 cm accuracy.
3-RTK – Correction messages are sent from a static base
station signal giving <2cm accuracy on RTK enabled units.
 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84): The World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS84) is a datum featuring coordinates that
change with time. It is a global datum, which means that
coordinates change over time for objects which are fixed in the
ground. This is because the tectonic plates on which New Zealand
sits are constantly moving, albeit reasonably slowly. In New
Zealand this movement is about 5cm per year. This continuous
ground movement means that even in the absence of earthquakes
and other localized land movements, WGS84 coordinates are
constantly changing. These are often referred to as dynamic or
kinematic coordinates. Therefore it is important that coordinates
in terms of WGS84 have a time associated with them, especially
where the best levels of accuracy are required.
Currently, WGS 84 uses the Earth Gravitational Model 2008. This
geodetic defines the nominal sea level surface by means of
a spherical harmonics series of degree 360 (which provides about
100 km latitudinal resolution near the Equator).
 Limitations of GPS :
1- Inaccuracy, GPS devices rely upon receiving signals from at
least four satellites.
2-Lack of Local Knowledge. Local knowledge counts for a lot
when traveling (Location of the receiver).
3-Driving Distraction, programming navigation was the
most distracting activity for drivers
4-Signal or Battery Failure.
5-Reliance on US Department of Defence.
6-Privacy Issues.
7-Commercial Exploitation.
Alarms Of GPS :
1- Cross track alarm
2- Arrival Alarm
3- Anchor watch alarm
4- Track Side safety margin alarm
5- Man over board alarm
6- Satellite error alarm
7- Power failure alarm
• Swinging Circle is a ship term used when the vessel is
at anchor. This is the theoretical radius in which the vessel is
expected to swing when at anchor.
• The radius of the swinging circle is generally calculated as
(Number of Shackles x 27.5 m + Length of the Ship in meters).
After anchoring, the officer of watch (OOW) should ensure
that the vessel remains within the Swinging Circle and that no
other vessel anchors within the vessel’s swinging circle plus
some safety distance as decided by the Master. As is evident,
the swinging circle is not fixed and depends on the number of
shackles paid out.
Length of cable + Length of Ship
Swinging Circle Radius : = ---------------------------------------------
1853.2
Errors of GPS : As GPS signals travel down to the Earth from
space, the layers of the atmosphere refracts and slightly
delays the signals, particularly within the ionosphere. This
delay interferes with the range solutions from
the GPS receiver on the ground to the satellite, resulting in
positional errors of several meters.
1-Satellite clock error: GPS position calculations, as discussed
above, depend on measuring signal transmission time from
satellite to receiver; this, in turn, depends on knowing the
time on both ends.
2-Upper atmosphere (ionosphere) error: As GPS signals pass
through the upper atmosphere (the ionosphere 50-1000km
above the surface), signals are delayed and deflected. The
ionosphere density varies; thus, signals are delayed more in
some places than others.
• 3-Receiver clock error: GPS receivers are equipped with quartz
crystal clocks that are less stable than the atomic clocks used in
NAVSTAR satellites. Receiver clock error can be eliminated,
however, by comparing times of arrival of signals from two
satellites (whose transmission times are known exactly).
• 4-Satellite orbit error: GPS receivers calculate coordinates relative
to the known locations of satellites in space, a complex task that
involves knowing the shapes of satellite orbits as well as their
velocities, neither of which is constant.
• 5-Lower atmosphere error: The three lower layers of atmosphere
(troposphere, tropopause, and stratosphere) extend from the
Earth’s surface to an altitude of about 50 km. The lower
atmosphere delays GPS signals, adding slightly to the calculated
distances between satellites and receivers. Signals from satellites
close to the horizon are delayed the most, since they pass through
the most atmosphere.
 6-Multipath error: Ideally, GPS signals travel from satellites
through the atmosphere directly to GPS receivers. In reality,
GPS receivers must discriminate between signals received
directly from satellites and other signals that have been
reflected from surrounding objects, such as buildings, trees,
and even the ground. Antennas are designed to minimize
interference from signals reflected from below, but signals
reflected from above are more difficult to eliminate.
Dilution of Precision: The arrangement of satellites in the sky also
affects the accuracy of GPS positioning. The ideal arrangement (of
the minimum four satellites) is one satellite directly overhead, three
others equally spaced nearer the horizon (but above the mask
angle). Imagine a vast umbrella that encompasses most of the sky,
where the satellites form the tip and the ends of the umbrella
spines.
GPS coordinates calculated when satellites are clustered close
together in the sky suffer from dilution of precision(DOP), a
factor that multiplies the uncertainty associated with User
Equivalent Range Errors (UERE - errors associated with satellite
and receiver clocks, the atmosphere, satellite orbits, and the
environmental conditions that lead to multipath errors).
What can affect GPS accuracy?
GPS satellites broadcast their signals in space with certain
accuracy, but what you receive depends on additional factors,
including satellite geometry, signal blockage, atmospheric
conditions, and receiver design features/quality. For example,
GPS-enabled smart phones are typically accurate to within a
4.9 m (16 ft.)
 Geometric/Position Dilution of Precision:
• GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) or PDOP (position dilution
of precision) describes error caused by the relative position of the
GPS satellites. Basically, the more signals a GPS receiver can “see”
(spread apart versus close together), the more precise it can be.
• From the observer’s point of view, if the satellites are spread apart
in the sky, then the GPS receiver has a good GDOP.
• But if the satellites are physically close together, then you have
poor GDOP. This lowers the quality of your GPS positioning
potentially by meters.
Atmosphere Refraction:
• The troposphere and ionosphere can change the speed of
propagation of a GPS signal. Due to atmospheric conditions, the
atmosphere refracts the satellite signals as they pass through on
their way to the earth’s surface.
• To fix this, GPS can use two separate frequencies to minimize
propagation speed error. Depending on conditions, this type of
GPS error could offset the position anywhere from 5 meters.
• Unit – 7, AIS
• 7.2, Automatic Identification System (AIS): It is an automated
tracking system that displays other vessels in the vicinity. It is a
broadcast transponder system which operates in the VHF mobile
maritime band. Your own ship also shows on the screens of other
vessels in the vicinity, provided your vessel is fitted with AIS. If AIS
is not fitted or not switched on, there is no exchange of
information on ships via AIS. The AIS onboard must be switched
on at all times unless the Master deems that it must be turned off
for security reasons or anything else. The working mode of AIS is
continuous and autonomous.
• It is fitted on ships for identification of ships and navigational
marks. However, it is only an aid to navigation and should not be
used for collision avoidance. Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) ashore
use AIS to identify, locate and monitor vessels. The Panama Canal
uses the AIS as well to provide information about rain along the
canal as well as wind in the locks.
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• AIS as an aid to collision avoidance
• AIS contributes significantly to the safety of navigation. All
the information that is transmitted and received enhances
the effectiveness of navigation and can greatly improve the
situational awareness and the decision making process. As an
assistant to the OOW, the tracking and monitoring of targets
by the AIS as well as determining information on the CPA and
TCPA adds great value to the safety of navigation overall.
However, the user should not solely rely on the information
from the AIS for collision avoidance. AIS is only an additional
source of information for the OOW and only supports in the
process of navigating the vessel.
 SOLAS Requirements Of AIS :
• The IMO Convention for the Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS)
Regulation V/19.2.4 requires all vessels of 300 GT and above
engaged on international voyages and all passenger ships
irrespective of size to carry AIS onboard.
AIS Types
• Class A: Mandated for all vessels 300 GT and above engaged on
international voyages as well as all passenger ships
• Class B: Provides limited functionality and intended for non SOLAS
vessels. Primarily used for vessels such as pleasure crafts
• AIS operates principally on two dedicated frequencies or VHF
channels:
• AIS 1: Works on 161.975 MHz- Channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to
ship)
• AIS 2: 162.025 MHz- Channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore)
 Working
• Originally, AIS was used terrestrially, meaning the signal was
sent from the boat to land, and had a range of roughly 20
miles (also taking into account the curvature of the earth). As
ships began sailing further and further away from land,
they began sending the signal to low orbit satellites, which
then relayed information back to land. This meant ships could
sail as far as they like, and we’d always have peace of mind
knowing exactly where they are, and how they’re doing.
• The AIS system consists of one VHF transmitter, two VHF
receivers, one VHF DSC receiver, and a standard marine
electronic communications link to shipboard display and
sensor systems. Position and timing information is normally
derived from an integral or external GPS receiver. Other
information broadcast by the AIS is electronically obtained
from shipboard equipment through standard marine data
connections.
• Although only one channel is necessary, each station
transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid
interference and to avoid communication loss from ships. A
position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250
time slots established every 60 seconds. AIS stations
continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid
overlap of slot transmissions.
• It’s pretty easy to install as well, as AIS is generally integrated
with ship bridge systems or multifunctional display, but
installing a standalone system is as straightforward as
plugging in a couple of cables and switching on the plug.
 AIS system consists of the following Units:
• Dedicated Antenna working on VHF frequency
• Receiver and transmitter
• Processor
• Display screen
Types of AIS
• There are two types of AIS.
• 1- Type ‘A’,
• 2- Type *B
 Purpose of AIS: To improve the safety of navigation by
assisting in the efficient navigation of ship, protection of the
environment, and operation of Vessel Traffic Services (VTS),
by satisfying the following functional requirements:
• (1) In a ship-to-ship mode for collision avoidance;
• (2) As a means for Coastal States to obtain information about
a ship and its cargo; and
• (3) As a VTS tool, i.e. ship-to-shore (traffic management).
• The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is a system used by
ships and Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) principally for
identification and locating vessels.
• AIS provides a means for ships to electronically exchange ship
data including: identification, position, course, and speed,
with other nearby ships and VTS stations.
 A.I.S TRANSPONDER
• The AIS transponder exchanges the information in a standard
format as given bellow
Ship’s name
Ship’s position
Ship’s call sign
Ship’s speed, course and heading
Navigational status (Moored, Underway, At Anchor)
Type of ship (Bulk Carrier, Container Ship, Passenger Ship)
Rudder angle
Rate of turn
Ship’s draft
Hazardous cargo
 Working Of AIS :
The A.I.S is designed to work / operate in one of the
following mode
1. In a ship-ship mode for collision avoidance
2. As a means for coastal states to obtain information about a
ship and lt’s cargo.
3. As a traffic management tool when interrogated with a VTIS

Types Of Frequencies Used By A.I.S

I- AIS I-161.975 Mhz Channel 87-B
II- AIS II-161.025 Mhz Channel 88-B
 AIS Message

• AIS is designed to work automatically &

continuously in a ship-ship mode, but the
specification provide for switch over to an assigned
mode for operation in an area subject to a
competent authority responsible for traffic
monitoring with the data transmission interval &
time state set remotely by the shore authority. The
AIS can work in a polling mode in which the data
transfer occurs in response to interrogation from
another ship or shore station.
 Types Of Information Provided by AIS
1.Static Data
2.Dynamic Data
3.Voyage related Data
4.Safety Message

1. Static Data-This information is programmed into the

system at the time of commissioning of the ship and basically
consists of the followings
• IMO Number
• Name of the ship
• Ship’s Call Sign
• Length & Breadth of the ship
• Type of ship
• Location of A.I.S antenna
 2. Dynamic Data : This information is derived by interfacing
ship’s GPS and other equipments with the help of sensors
and mainly consists of the following in-formations
• Ship’s Position
• Time in UTC (GMT)
• Course over ground
• Speed over ground
• Ship’s heading
• Navigational Status
• Rate of turn
• Angle of heel (optional)
• Pitch & Heel (optional)
 3. Voyage Related Data :
This data is to be entered manually by the concerned officer
at the beginning of the voyage and can be amended at any
time as & when required. This data can be protected with
the help of a password. The following data is to be fed
• Ship’s draft
• Nature of cargo
• Destination & ETA
• Route Plan (List of main waypoints)
4. Safety Message–Short safety messages are fixed or pre
formatted text messages are fed into the system and are to
be addressed to a specified (one or more) or to all stations in
the area. The content should be relevant to safety
information ie ice sighted, buoy not in position or missing etc.
 Limitations of A.I.S
• The OOW should be aware of that other small ships, warships,
coastal stations and VTIS centers might not have AIS.
• The OOW should be aware of that due to operational reasons
ships might switch off their AIS, may not give full in-
formations.
• The users must be aware of that transmission of wrong
information implies a risk to other ships as well as to own ship
• The users remain responsible for all in-formations entered
into the system.
• The accuracy of the AIS information received is only as good
as the AIS in-formations transmitted.
• The OOW should be aware that poorly calibrated equipment
will not give accurate in-formations and cause confusion.
• The potential of AIS as anti collision device is recommended
• The AIS information may be used to assist in collision
avoidance decision making.
• The AIS is an additional source of navigational information, it
does not replace OOW, but supports the navigational system.
• The use of AIS does not negate the responsibility of the OOW
to comply with collision regulations.
• The user should not rely on AIS as the sole information
system but should make use of all safety related in-
formations.
• The use of AIS on board ship is not intended to have any
special impact on the composition of navigational watch.
 7.3, Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
The main purpose of the Voyage Data Recorder is to record
and store ship’s critical parameters to facilitate the
reconstruction of the incident for the purpose of
investigation and analysis. The use of this equipment is now
being extended from the air crafts to the ships as well, so
that a more effective casualty investigation can be carried out.
A Voyage Data Recorder will make a major contribution in
increasing the operational safety at sea and efficiency in
navigation.
A ship’s VDR is far superior to a black box of an aero plane as
it stores a variety of data and that too for not less than a
period of 12 hours. The data records covering the last 12
hours are continuously overwritten by the latest data.
w
 Benefits (USE) Of Voyage Data Recorder (VDR):
• Accident Investigation
• Response Assessment
• Support In Training
• Promotion of Best Practices
• Reduction In Accidents
• Reduction In Insurance Costs
VDR Modules : Voyage Data Recorder consists of the
following modules. It also may have a replay facility.
• Data Management Module
• Audio Module
• Final Recording Unit
• Remote Alarm Module
• Replay station (Optional)
1 Data Management Module- This unit acquires and
processes all the data, so that it can be stored in the
specified format. The data from various sources would be
fed to this unit, as they are interfaced with this unit.
2 Audio Module–This unit consists of an audio mixer for
recording the bridge audio collected from various micro
phones placed in the wheel house, bridge wings, engine
room and other critical places. VHF audio signals will be also
recorded as it is interfaced with it.
3 Final Recording Unit-This unit is a crash survival, pressure
tight, fire proof and penetration resistant storage device to
store the required data. This would be in the form of a
capsule, resistant to shock , fire & deep sea pressure. It is to
be located in a suitable place (bridge wings or monkey island)
4. Remote Alarm Unit-Remote alarm unit is a small ,
connected to data management unit and will generate
audible & visible alarms to indicate any error status In the
equipment.
5. Replay Station-it is optional, used to download and
replay the recorded data. It is to visualize the information
graphically and manually so that it can be displayed as
required. This can help in self analysis and taking correct
action.
S-VDR :The primary purpose of a voyage data recorder
(VDR) or a simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR) is to
maintain a store of information, in a secure and retrievable
form, concerning the position, movement, physical status,
command and control of a vessel over the period leading up
to and following an incident.
 Informations Recorded By VDR
A typical Voyage Data Recorder should be capable of
recording the following in-formations automatically and
maintain the record for at least past 12 hrs.
• Date & Time Wind Speed & Direction
• Ship’s Position Hull Stresses & Hull Opening
• Ship’s Heading & Speed Bow Thruster Use
• Bridge Audio
• VHF Communication
• Radar & ARPA data
• Main Alarms
• E/R orders & Response
• Fire Door Status
• Rudder Order & Response
• Carriage requirements for VDR
• As with all the navigational equipment carried onboard, the
VDR also comes under the purview of the SOLAS Chapter V,
Regulation 20 as well as Annex 10. The details of it are as
follows:
• Passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002
• Ro-Ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002
Passenger ships other than Ro-Ro constructed before 1 July
2002
• Ships other than passenger ships of 3000 GT and upwards
constructed on or after 1 July 2002
• Cargo ships of 20000 gt. and upwards constructed before 1
July 2002.
• Cargo ships of 3000 GT and up to 20000 GT constructed
before 1 July 2002
General Operational Requirements
1-The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records
of pre-selected data items relating to the status and output
of the ship’s equipment and command and control of the
ship.
2-To permit subsequent analysis of factors surrounding an
incident, the method of recording should ensure that the
various data items can be correlated in date and time during
playback on suitable equipment.
3-The system should include functions to perform a
performance test at any time, e.g. annually or following
repair or maintenance work to the VDR or any signal source
providing data to the VDR.
4-This test may be conducted using the playback equipment
and should ensure that all the required data items are being
correctly recorded.
Maintenance Of VDR
1-As with all navigational equipment, checks and
maintenance are important for proper operation of any
electronic systems.
2-Only qualified personnel should work inside the equipment.
3-As far as routine checks are concerned, examine the cables
for signs of damage and also check that all connections are
rigid.
4-The battery should be replaced every four years, the
backup battery must be replaced with new one by a qualified
service engineer.
5-Regulation 18.8 of SOLAS Chapter V states the
requirements for maintenance.
6-A certificate stating that the results of such tests were
satisfactory is to be retained onboard.
Limitations Of VDR:
• 7.5, Long Range Identification & Tracking (LRIT):
The Long Range Tracking and Identification (LRIT) is an
international tracking and identification system incorporated
by the IMO under its SOLAS convention to ensure a
thorough tracking system for ships across the world.
It came into existence on the 19th May 2006 and was
incorporated formally starting from January 2008. Based on
these lines, those ships which were built on or following
31st December 2008 were required to have this system of
vessel identification.
LRIT provides an enhanced level of Maritime Domain
Awareness that is the first of its kind. LRIT is a satellite-based,
real-time reporting mechanism that allows unique visibility to
position reports of vessels that would otherwise be invisible
and potentially a threat to the United States.
 LRIT Equipments: The LRIT system consists of the ship borne
LRIT information transmitting equipment, Communications
Service Providers (CSPs), Application Service Providers (ASPs),
LRIT Data Centers, including any related Vessel Monitoring
System(s) (VMSs), the LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP) and
the International LRIT Data Exchange. Certain aspects of the
performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or audited by
the LRIT Coordinator acting on behalf of the IMO and its
Contracting Governments.
Purpose Of LRIT:
• Long Range Identification and Tracking or LRIT enables a
Contracting Government to obtain ship identity and location
information in sufficient time to evaluate the security risk
posed by a ship off its coast and to respond, if necessary, to
reduce any risks.
Long-range identification and tracking is also not a GMDSS
communications system but it may use GMDSS equipment,
particularly Inmarsat C terminals. LRIT is the subject of a new
regulation included in chapter V of SOLAS which applies to ships
constructed after 31 December 2008 with a phased-in
implementation schedule for existing ships. The new regulation
does not apply to ships which operate exclusively within sea area
A1 and are fitted with AIS.
LRIT information is available to:
1-Contracting Governments are entitled to receive information
about ships navigating within a distance up to 1,000 nautical miles
off their coast, and about ships which have indicated an intention
to enter a port irrespective of distance.
2-Administrations are entitled to receive information about their
own flagged ships irrespective of where the ships are located.
The ship borne equipment is required to automatically
transmit the LRIT information at 6-hour intervals to an LRIT
Data Centre and also be capable of being remotely
configured to transmit at variable intervals and be capable of
responding to a polling command. LRIT Data Centers are set
up nationally or regionally by Governments and communicate
through an International LRIT Data Exchange. Governments
obtain LRIT data from the Data Centers by request providing
that they are so entitled according to an LRIT Data
Distribution Plan which is administered by the IMO.
Governments bear all the costs associated with LRIT and
there are no charges to ships. LRIT information may also be
made available for search and rescue purposes.
 Ship come who under LRIT :
As per the LRIT requirements, the ships that come under its
purview are:
1. All ships used for the purpose of passenger transportation.
Such a criteria includes even the faster and speedier ships
2. All offshore rigs used for the purpose of drilling oil in the
high seas.
3. All ships used for the purpose of cargo-carrying. This
criterion also includes speedier vessels as also ships with a
weight of over 300 gross tons.
 Requirement of LRIT :
• The main requirements to the system’s application are the
following:
• The transmitting device and gadget to send the information
data
• Specific providers for this type of communication service.
One such service provider is the Absolute Maritime Tracking
Services, Inc. (AMTS) established by the Panama Flag Registry.
This service provider is the sole service provider to those
ships falling under the Panamanian registration
• Centres of data for the system
• Service providers for the overall application of the system
• A thorough distribution plan for the data collected from the
system
• International data exchange for the LRIT application also
forms an important part of the overall system requirements
• In order to ensure whether the system is operating as it
needs to be, there is auditing carried out at regular intervals
by a coordinator for the system. This coordinator acts as the
representative of all the countries under the SOLAS
convention that have incorporated the Long Range Tracking
and Identification system.
• Technology has helped us to achieve a lot and with the help
of the Long Range Tracking and Identification technology, all
unwanted and problem-inducing factors of maritime
operational lines can be successfully attended to.
 Data Transmitted By Ship : As per SOLAS chapter – V,
regulation 19-1 on LRIT, refers to the requirement that a
vessel automatically transmit the following in-formations at 6
hours intervals, which can be received up to 1000 nautical
miles, :
1- Ship name
2- Call Sign
3- MMSI No
4- Position of the vessel
5- Date & Time of position
7.4, Bridge Navigation Watch Alarm System (BNWAS):
It is an automatic alarm system which sounds an alarm if the
watch keeping officer on the bridge of a ship falls asleep,
becomes ill or is absent for too long from the bridge. It is
auto matically engaged when the auto pilot is activated /
started.
as per IMO standards, it is required to have a dormat stage
and 3 alarm stages.
BNWAS is a monitoring and Alarm system which notifies
other navigational officers or master of the ship if the officer
on watch (OOW) does not respond or he/she is incapable of
performing the watch duties efficiently, which can lead
to maritime accidents.
Purpose Of BNWAS:
The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system
(BNWAS) is to monitor bridge activity and detect operator
disability which could lead to marine accidents. The system
monitors the awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW)
and automatically alerts the Master or another qualified OOW
if for any reason the OOW becomes incapable of performing
the OOW’s duties. This is achieved through a mix of alarms
and indications which alert backup OOWs as well as the
Master. BNWAS warnings are given in the case of incapacity of
the watch keeping officer due to accident, sickness or in the
event of a security breach, e.g. piracy and/or hijacking. Unless
decided by the Master only, the BNWAS shall remain
operational at all times.
 Operational Requirements of BNWAS
• The BNWAS primarily has three modes of operation:
1-Automatic
2-Manual ON
3-Manual OFF
Alarms and Indications
• Once the BNWAS is put into operation, the dormant period should
be between 3 to 12 minutes. This dormant period is the time in
which the BNWAS is active without giving any alarm and it only
once the dormant period is over that the alarm is sounded and the
alarm/indication is sounded and the reset function needs to be
activated
• Once the dormant period ends, a visual indication (first stage;
flashing indication) must be activated indicating/demanding that
the officer rest it, if available and active
• If not reset within 15 seconds of the visual indication, an audible
alarm is sounded (first stage).
• If at the first stage the audible alarm is not reset, 15 seconds after
the audible alarm, another audible alarm (second stage; sound
should have its own characteristic tone or modulation intended to
alert, but not to startle, the OOW) is sounded in the backup
officer’s and/or Master’s cabin
• If at the second stage the audible alarm is not reset, 90 seconds
after it, another audible alarm is sounded (third stage; easily
recognisable, indicates urgency, volume sufficient for it to be
heard throughout the locations above and to wake sleeping
persons) at the locations of further crew members capable of
taking corrective actions
• Except for passenger vessels, the second and third stage alarm can
be combined to sound at all locations. If this is applied, the third
stage alarm may be omitted
• For very large vessels, sufficient time of up to 3 minutes must be
accounted for the backup officer or the Master to the reach the
Bridge to tend to the situation.
 The Reset Function
• Reset can only be done from physically located areas of the bridge
providing proper look out
• Reset can be only be done with a single operator action (for those
familiar with BNWAS, one stroke to the round reset switch) which
starts the dormant period further, cancelling the alarms/
indications
• Constant activation of the dormant period vis a vis the reset
button should not extend the dormant period to more than that is
set or bring about any suppression of the alarms/indications
Additionally
• An “Emergency Call” feature must be present to immediately skip
to the second and third stage alarms. This is present for the OOW
to summon immediate assistance
• Accuracy of the BNWAS should be within the window of 5% or 5
seconds, whichever is lesser
• Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period setting
shall be restricted to the Master only
• To be powered from the main power supply. The malfunction
indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call facility
should be powered from a battery maintained supply
• Outputs should be available for integration with other bridge
equipments if need be.
Regulations for BNWAS
• SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 19 states:
• Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger
ships irrespective of size constructed on or after 1 July 2011
• Passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July
2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2012
• Cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July
2012
 Cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than
3,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2011, not later
than the first safety survey after 1 July 2013.
• Cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than
500 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2011, not later
than the first survey after 1 July 2014
• A BNWAS installed prior to 1 July 2011 may subsequently be
exempted from full compliance with the standards adopted
by the organization, at the discretion of the Administration.
• Emergency Call- The Officer of the Watch is able to generate
an emergency alarm / call by pushing any reset button longer
than 5 seconds. This activates without delay alert stage.2 and
alert stage.3. After an emergency alarm call has been
released, reset is possible by pushing a reset button in the
panel.