BRIDGE EQUIPMENTS NOTES

RADAR
Introduction to the Radar
RADAR is an acronym for RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING. It is an electronic system which
can detect and measure the range and bearing of objects. Radar operates by sending out
from antenna a series of very short radio transmission called pulses. The pulses will reflect
of most objects and return to the antenna as an echo of the original pulse.

RADAR PRINCIPLE
Radar primarily measures distance from the antenna. This done by the radar sending out a
pulse and then measuring the time taken for the echo to return from target. By me asuring
the time taken for the pulse to go out, and the echo to return it is possible to measure the
range to the object. The position of the object with its correct range and bearing is displayed
on CRT screen.

RADAR – ECHO RANGING PRINCIPLE

Echo ranging was well known before radar was invented. Ships measured their distance of
from the clips by making a loud noise and measure the time taken for return of the Echo.

the speed of sound in air was known 335.3 metre/second

distance or Range = (speed of sound * time)/2.

radar uses radio waves rather than sound waves the radio transmission causes and
electrical and magnetic vibrations which can also travel through the air light sound radio
waves travel almost a million times faster than sound. Speed of radio wave is equal to the
speed of light radio wave like sound wave is capable of being reflected of object as an echo.

Radar important facts

Radar may not show you everything you see visually. Radar may show you objects that you
cannot see visually. The Radar may even show you an echo of objects that are not there at
all (called false echoes). Range measurements on the radar screen is much more accurate
than bearing. The movement of echoes and tracks on the screen may show of different to
the movement of ships on the water.
RADIO WAVES CHARACTERISTICS

Radio waves have the same characteristics of all the other waves forms and can be
compared to an ocean wave. Wave motions consists of a succession of crests and troughs
moving outwards at equal intervals and constant speed.

POWER: The amplitude of the radio wave is a measurement of the amount of energy within
the wave and hence its power. The maximum range of the radar equipment will depend on
the peak power of the transmitted pulse quoted in KW.

For example: - 3KW =16NM, 15KW = 48 NM, 25 KW = 96 NM.

Marine radars commonly operate on two centimetric wavelength X band = 3cm, S band = 10
cm. 3 cm high definition of coastline & all GMDSS transport beacons. 10 cm long range
scanning & detecting targets beyond rain areas.

Centimetric wavelength corresponds to a particular frequency bandwidth. Bandwidth’s are

allocated by international agreements.

Bridge master’s radars

S band 3050 MHz 30 KW

X band 9375 MHz 25 KW

3cm X band 9300 – 9500 MHz

10cm S band 2900 – 3100 MHz, 1 MHz = 1,000,000 cycles/sec.

Frequency: - Then number of cycles which pass appoint in a given time (1 second). Cycles

Speed of radio wave = frequency*wavelength

TO PRODUCE A GOOD ECHO THE RADAR PULSE MUST

• Have high energy to carry over distance

• Be of a short wavelength to enable the echo to be correctly timed
• General for very short period of time – fraction of a µ second to ensure echoes of
nearby objects will be detected.

RADAR MAGNETRONS

it is a device used to produce the pulse called cavity magnetron, invented in 1940. It consists
of a cylindrical block of copper with cavities drilled into it. Size of the cavities determines the
radio frequency of the transmitted pulse. The device converts a voltage into a burst of a
radio wave with a centimetric wavelength 3 or 10 cm. the block of copper is surrounded by
a powerful magnetic field which generates the high energy in the radio wave.
Radiation Hazards
Radio frequency radiation hazard: - The radar antenna emits electromagnetic
radio frequency (RF) energy which can be harmful, particularly to the eyes.
➢ Never look directly into the antenna aperture from a close distance
while the radar is in operation or expose yourself to the transmitting
antenna at a close distance.
➢ If the antenna unit is installed at a close distance in front of the wheel
house, it may be necessary to prevent in that area to protect passengers
and crew from microwave radiation.

Safety Precautions Necessary in the Vicinity of Open

Equipment
➢ Electrical shock hazard, do not open the equipment, only qualified
personnel should work inside the equipment.
➢ Turn off the radar power switch before servicing the antenna unit.
➢ Post a warning sign near the switch indicating it should not be turned on
while the antenna unit is being serviced.
➢ Prevent the potential risk of being struck by the rotating antenna and
exposure to RF radiation hazard.
➢ Wear a safety belt and hard hat when working on the antenna unit.
➢ Do not disassemble or modify the equipment
➢ Turn off the power immediately if water leaks into the equipment or the
equipment is emitting smoke or fire.
➢ Continued use of the equipment can cause fire or electrical shock.
➢ Use the proper fuse, fuse rating is shown on the equipment use of
wrong fuse can result in damage to the equipment.
➢ Do not place liquid-filled containers on the top of the equipment.
➢ Do not operate the equipment with wet hands.
➢ No one navigational aid should be relied upon for the safety of vessel
and crew. The navigator has the responsibility to check all aids available
 to confirm position. Electronic aids are not a substitute for basic
navigational principles and common sense.

Characteristics of a Radar Set:

• Vertical Beam Width (VBW)
• Horizontal Beam Width (HBW)
• Pulse Length (PL)
• Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF / PRR)
• Wavelength (WL)

Vertical Beam Width: It is the vertical angle at the scanner between the upper
and lower edges of the radar beam. The upper & lower edges of the beam taken
to be the lines joining the half-power points above and below centre of the
beam.
• If the VBW is small too small, the targets would be missed due to rolling
& pitching. If the VBW is too large, the radar energy, sent out through the
scanner, would be spread out to a large vertical angle.
• This means a decrease in the intensity of the beam whereby the amount
of energy striking I unit area of the surface of a target would be small,
resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent decrease in the range
of first detection of each target.
• Normal VBW is +/- 10°, in commercial marine radar set VBW is between
15° & 30°. The value of VBW depends on the constructional details of the
scanner.

Horizontal Beam Width: It is the horizontal angle at the scanner contained

between the leading & trailing edges of the radar beam. The leading & trailing
edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the half points ahead &
behind the centre of the beam, in the direction of rotation of the scanner.
 • HBW causes all targets to appear larger in azimuth, by an amount equal
to half the HBW on either side. This is because echoing from a target
commences when the leading edge of the beam touches the target, and
continues until the trailing edge of the beam has left the target.
• During this time, the scanner and the trace would have rotated through
an arc equal to the angular size of the target plus HBW. A point target
thus appears as an arc sustaining an angle equal to HBW, at the centre of
the PPI.

Pulse Length: It is the time taken for a pulse to leave the scanner, the interval
between the instant the leading edge of the pulse leaves the scanner and the
instant the trailing edge leaves the scanner.
• Therefore, Pulse Length is usually expressed in micro-seconds but, the
speed the speed of radio waves being taken to be 300 metres/micro-
second, PL may also be expressed in meter, if and when required to do
so.
• PL is also referred to as Pulse Width (PW), is controlled by the
transmitter. When an echo returns from a target, it will be of the same
length as the pulse. When the leading edge of the echo enters the
receiver, the tracing spot on the screen becomes fat & bright and remains
so until the entire echo comes in. When the trailing edge has come in, the
tracing spot reduces back to its original size.
• The tracing spot, therefore, becomes a blip (known as paint - mark) for a
time interval equal to Pulse Length, during this interval, it would have
covered a distance equal to half the pulse
• Length in meters, on its steady, radial path (its scale speed is half that of
radio waves). The paint (mark) on the PPI would hence appear to have a
radial depth equal to half the Pulse Length in meters. To ensure range
accuracy, the tracing spot is synchronised with the leading edge of the
pulse.
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): It is the number of pulses sent out through
the scanner in one second. Commercial marine radar sets usually two or three
values of PRF, between 500 and 4000.
• Pulse Repetition Frequency is also referred to as Pulse Recurrence Rate
(PRR). A high value of PRF is preferred for a clear and good picture but on
longer range scales, this is not possible because a greater interval
between pulses is required, for each to go long distance and come back,
thus requiring a low PRF.
• Longer range scales therefore have a low PRF while the shorter-range
scales have a high PRF.

Wave Length (WL): After the radar energy has left the scanner, its path of travel
and energy content are influenced by two main factors: Attenuation &
Diffraction. Waves of different lengths are influenced differently, as described,
and the wave length of a radar set directly affect its performance. Commercial
marine radar set may be either of 3 cm wave length (9300-9500 MHz, X-Band)
or of 10cm wave length (2900 – 3100 MHz, S-Band).
• Generally, 3 cm wave length radar is preferred on board merchant ships.
Modern ships are fitted with two sets of radar, both of 3 cm or one 3 cm
and one 10cm wave length, with inter switching facility for the display
units so that failure of any one transceiver and / or display unit, would
not deprive the ship of the use of radar when required.

Use of Various Controls

The following basic controls are grouped together that are not mentioned in
simple block diagram: -
1) On/ Off: -This is the main power switch of the radar set and is situated
on the display unit. Any other main switch, which may be provided
externally on bulkhead etc. must always be kept on except during the
radar maintenance and repair.
2) Standby: - It is a switch that off the EHT to the transmitter and the CRT,
when desired by the observer. It may be a separate two position switch
marked ‘standby/transmit’ or it may be incorporated with the main
power switch with three positions marked ‘off/standby/on’. Then switch
is referred as main function switch.
3) Pulse length selector: - It is switch marked ‘short/long’ and gives the
detection ranges of all targets and it is especially useful when making
landfall after a long ocean passage. However, when using longer pulses
minimum detection range becomes more, all targets appears larger in
radial direction, clutter area become larger and brighter, range
discrimination become less can be experienced. In modern sets this
control is incorporated in the function switch marked ‘off/standby/short
pulse/long pulse.
4) Range selector: - The switch gives the observer the choice of range
scale. The range scales to be available are 24, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.50,
0.25 M.
5) Centre shift: - Due to change in earth’s magnetic field place to place,
external magnetic influences, vibration etc., the Centre spots shifts out
of the geometric center of PPI. Two controls are provided to bring the
spot back to the center – one nob shifting it in the X-axis, and the other
in the Y-axis. Sometimes it is necessary to shift center spot out of the
center intentionally, the reasons could be: -
• The coating at the center of the screen may be burnt and hence
objects very nearby may be missed. By purposely shifting the
center spot off to one side, targets very nearby will show up as
usual.
• The observer may want to see more in direction, without
changing the range scale, in which case he would shift the center
spot off in the opposite direction.
• When the display is off-centered, bearings taken with the
mechanical cursor would be subject to centering error. Hence
the EBL should be used. It is possible to allow for centering error
with the mechanical cursor
6) Performance monitor: - This switch is provided to check the overall
efficiency of the set
7) Scale illumination (brilliance): - The brightness of all readouts such as
range scale in use, distance between consecutive range rings, bearing
scale, digital displays of VRM, EBL, ERBL, names of various controls, etc.
are all controlled by this switch.
 8) Scanner on/off: - This starts or stops the scanner. It may be necessary to
stop the scanner, when the set is working, for maintenance, alignment
of heading marker etc. Alternatively, in some radar sets, the scanner
may be kept rotating, whilst the rest of the equipment is off to prevent
icing up of the scanner shaft in very cold weather. This is not necessary if
a low power heated circuit is provided.

Radar as Range and Bearing Measuring Instrument

Range determination: - One trace is created for every pulse transmitted. The
tracing spot leaves the centre, on its radial path, at the same instant that the
pulse leaves the scanner. The tracing spot is made to move at a scale speed equal
to half that of radio waves, so that in the time taken for radio waves to travel 2
miles, the tracing spot would have travelled a scale distance of 1 mile on the
screen.
If a large target was situated at a range of 3 miles, the pulse would travel 3 miles
to the target and the reflected echo would travel 3 miles back, a total distance
of 6 miles. During this time, the tracing spot would have travelled a scale
distance of 3 miles, from the centre of the PPI, so that when the echo causes the
tracing spot to brighten and thick, the mark so created would be at a scale
distance of 3 miles from the centre of the PPI. That is to say, since the radius of
the screen represents a definite distance, the distance of the paint (mark) from
the centre of the screen, using the same ratio, gives the range of the target /
object.

Range of a target can be measured by the following methods:

1)Range Rings (RR): - A series of concentric, equidistant circles, called range
rings or calibration rings, are made to appear, centred over the PPI. Each range
represents definite value of range and hence the range of target can be visually
estimated with reasonable accuracy, even if a range ring does not exactly pass
through the paint of the target on the screen.

2)Variable Range Marker (VRM): - A circle with a variable radius is provided,

the radius being controlled by a rotary knob. The value of radius, in miles and
decimal of a mile, is indicated by a digital display. The radius of the circle is
adjusted until its circumference passes through the nearest edge of the paint
of a target on the screen and the range is read off the digital display.
Bearing Determination: The energy sent out by the scanner is made
unidirectional (it is beamed in one direction at a time). The scanner is made to
rotate clockwise, when seen from above, at a very constant speed (between 20
& 30 RPM). The trace on the screen is also made to rotate and is synchronized
with the scanner such that when the points right ahead, the trace is at the 12
O’clock position of the PPI and when the scanner points to the starboard beam,
the trace is at 3 O’clock position, and so on. Due to high PRF (500 to 4000)
compared to the RPM (20 to 30) that the angle rotated by the scanner, between
the transmission of a pulse and the arrival of the echo from a far-off target (i.e.,
the time taken for the tracing spot to go from the centre to the edge of the
screen), is negligible. So, the paint (mark) of a target would appear in such a
position on the PPI that the relative bearing of the target is the angle at the
centre measured clockwise from the 12 O’clock position of the PPI to the paint
(mark). This can be read off using a concentric circular scale fixed around the
PPI, graduated from 0° to 360° in clockwise direction, with its 0° at the 12 O’clock
position of the PPI. A stationary radial line called the heading marker, extending
from the centre of the PPI to the zero of the bearing scales, is constantly visible
for reference.

Bearing of a target can be measured by the following methods:

1)Mechanical Cursor: - A separate, circular, Perspex sheet is fitted, centre over

the PPI. It has a diametrical line etched on it called the mechanical cursor is
rotated until this line passes through the target on the screen and the reading
where it passes over the graduated scale is the relative bearing. When the
display is gyro-stabilised, the bearings indicated will be true.

2)Electronic Bearing Line (EBL): - A radial line is made to appear on the screen,
when desired. This line can be rotated about the centre of the screen by a
control knob. The angle rotated by the line, in a clockwise direction from the
heading marker, is indicated by a digital display. The line is rotated until it
passes through the blip on the screen and the relative bearing read off, from
the digital display. When the display is gyro-stabilised, the bearing will be true.

Maximum & Minimum Range of Radar

Minimum range: - The minimum detection of radar sets
depends on following factors: -
1) Pulse length: - The waveguide and scanner are used for
transmission and for reception, a unit called the TR cell
(transmission/receiver switch). This unit blocks the receiver branch of
the wave guide during transmission to prevent the transmitted energy
from short circuiting into the receiver and damaging it. Thus, TR cell
ensures that reception starts only after the transmission is over. When
transmission starts (i.e., when the leading edge of the pulse leaves the
scanner) the tracing spot leaves the center of the PPI on its radial path.
By the time transmission is over (i.e., when the trailing edge of the pulse
has left the scanner) and reception starts, the tracing spot would have
travelled a radial distance of ½ PL in meters. Hence targets closer than ½
PL in meters cannot be shown on the PPI because their echoes would
come back before receptions starts. The theoretical minimum range of
detection is therefore represented by ½ PL in meters. A PLL of 0.2µ
would therefore have theoretical minimum range 30 meters.
2) De-ionization delay: - a small delay occurs in the TR cell between
the completion of transmission and the commencement of reception.
This delay increases the minimum detection range. A delay of 0.05µ
would increase the minimum range by 7.5 meters.
3) The VBW and the height of the scanner: - The VBW and the
height of the scanner above sea level affect the minimum range as these
factors govern the distance off at which the lower edge of radar beam
would strike the sea surface. The VBW of a given scanner is fixed
whereas its height above sea level depends on the ship’s draft at that
time. The higher the scanner above sea level, the greater the minimum
range of detection of the radar set and vice versa. However, the
minimum range cannot be calculated geometrically only as it is possible
that targets closer than such calculated distance may be shown up due
to: -
• the lower edge of the radar beam is taken to be the half- power
point below the line of maximum power whereas, actually some
energy does get transmitted below this, which could cause
response from nearby targets.
 • The height of a target may be such that its top intercepts the radar
beam even though the target’s base is close than such calculated
minimum range.
4) Wavelength: - the minimum detection range of small targets is
better when using 3 cm waves than when using 10 cm waves.

Maximum range: - The maximum of a radar set depends on

the following factors: -
1) Height of scanner: - The greater the height of scanner above sea
level, the greater the detection range. However, increase minimum
detection range and also more clutter may be experienced as a its
disadvantage.
2) Power of the set: - The greater the power of transmission, the
greater the expected maximum range, this happens due to attenuation
in the atmosphere (loss of energy due to absorption, diffraction,
scattering, etc., during the pulses travel through the atmosphere). The
peak power of transmission of commercial marine radar sets, is around
25 to 60 KW. The electromagnetic power generated for transmission is
subject to attenuation within the set. The greater the length of
waveguide or the greater the number of bends in it, the greater the
attenuation within the waveguide. Water or dirt inside the waveguide,
dust or particles of salt on the reflecting surface of the scanner, etc., can
cause severe attenuation. The greater the attenuation within the set,
the less the transmitted power and consequently, the less the maximum
range.
3) Wavelength: - 10 cm waves have greater maximum range than 3 cm
waves due to less attenuation in the atmosphere and more diffraction.
4) Pulse repetition frequency: - each value of PRF has a maximum
range to which it can measure. For example, if the PRF is 2000 it means
one pulse is sent out every 1/2000 of a second i.e., 500µ. This means
 each pulse can travel 250µ to and 250µ fro (covering range of 40 miles),
before the next pulse leaves the scanner. The theoretical maximum
range of PRF 2000 is 40 miles. In practice however each PRF would be
allotted a smaller range scale than its theoretical maximum range so as
to ensure that echoes from one pulse do not get mixed up with the next
pulse. The manufacturers would have already pre set the PRF for each
range scale and the radar observer usually has no choice in this manner.
5) Pulse length: - Long pulses ensures better maximum ranges than
shorter pulses. As longer pulses have more energy than the shorter
pulses and hence have a greater ability to suffer attenuation in the
atmosphere
6) VBW & HBW: - The narrower the beam widths, the greater the
directional concentration of the transmitted energy and hence the
greater the maximum range.
7) Receiver sensitivity: - every receiver generates some unwanted
signals of its own which are called noise. The greater the amplification
factor, the more the level of noise. Receiver sensitivity is one of the very
important factors that determine the maximum detection range of a
target by the radar sets.

In addition to radar sets the following external factors

affect the maximum detection range:
8) Nature of target: - The height, horizontal size, nature of surface,
shape and material of a target and also its aspect. Greatly affect the
maximum detection range.
9) Weather effects: - Such as rain, snow, hail, fog, etc. cause
attenuation, resulting in a decrease range.
10) Anomalous propagation: - Super-refraction causes an
increase in the maximum detection range whereas sub-refraction causes
a decrease.
 11) Sea and swell: - Rough sea and heavy swell cause rolling and
pitching whereby the scanner goes well out of the vertical. Sea waves
frequently obstruct the radar pulses and echoes to and from far off
objects, thereby reducing the maximum detection range.

Range and Bearing Discrimination

Range discrimination: - It is the ability of a radar set to distinguish two
small targets on the same bearing and slightly different ranges, as two
separate targets on the PPI. The factor that governs is the PL which causes all
paint to expand radially outwards by ½ PL in diameters.
Assume the two small targets that are on same bearings and close to each
other, the paint of the nearer target would expand towards the other, on the
PPI, by ½ PL in metres. If the distance between the two targets is equal to or
less than ½ PL, their paints would merge on the PPI and show as if they were
one target. If the target are further apart then ½ PL, they would paint as two
separate target on the PPI.
As per performance standards for navigational radar (IMO), two small similar
objects on the same bearing, separated by 40metres in range, should be
separately indicated when using a range scale of 1.5 M when they lie between
50% and 100% of the range scale is use. In actual practise range discrimination
will be more than PL in metres.
Bearing Discrimination: - It is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish
two targets, on the same range and slightly different bearings, as two separate
targets on the PPI. The governing factor is the HBW of the set.
HBW caused all targets on the PPI to expand in azimuth by ½ HBW on either
side. The paints of the two targets, on the same range and slightly different
bearing would therefore expand towards each other by a total of one HBW. If
the angle so subtended at the scanner, by the closer edges of the two targets,
is equal to or less than HBW their paints would merge on the PPI and they
would appear as one big target. If the angle so subtended is more than HBW,
they would paint as two separate targets.
Bearing discrimination is, therefore usually expressed in degrees and, as per
performance standards for navigational radar (IMO), it should not exceed 2.5°

Radar horizon: - The radar horizon, due to curvature of the earth the extent
we can see is limited. This is called theoretical horizon which depends on the
height of observer. Radar horizon can be calculated by the formula.
o Range in nautical miles = 2.2√H +2.2√h.
o Where H = height of scanner in meters, h = height of object in
meters.
o Formula is for standard meteorological conditions. Temperature,
air pressure and humidity can cause the amount of refraction of a
radar wave to vary.
Types of Anomalous(non-standard) Propagation: Propagation is the changing
of the distance of the radar horizon, due to changes in atmospheric conditions.
1) Sub-refraction
2) Super-refraction
3) Ducting
Here lobe represents the boundaries inside which the transmitted radar energy
is of significant power (usually 50% or more of the peak power)

Sub-refraction: If the radar rays bend less than usual, they will touch the earth’s
surface as a tangent, at some point closer than the standard radar horizon of
2.20√h. Because this decreases the detection range of surface targets, this kind
of anomalous propagation is called sub-refraction.
• Sub-refraction occurs when temperature falls at a greater rate than
assumed standard lapse rate of 0.65°C/100 m or if relative humidity
increases with height. If sub-refraction is severe, the rays, may bend
upwards, causing the radar horizon to be closer than the geometric
horizon. Sub- refraction will be found whenever a cold breeze blows over
a relative warm sea as in the following cases: -
1) In the lee side of an iceberg
2) On the leeward side of very cold land masses
3) Land breezes in coastal regions (blow during night time)
Super-refraction: If the radar rays bend more than usual, they will touch the
earth’s surface as a tangent, at some point beyond the standard radar horizon
of 2.20√h. Because this increases the detection range of surface targets, this
form of anomalous propagation is called super-refraction.
• Super-refraction can occur either if temperature falls at a slower rate
than the assumed standard lapse rate of 0.65°C/100 m or if relative
humidity falls with height.
• Super-refraction is thus experienced whenever a warm breeze blows
over a relatively cold sea as in the following cases: -
1) In areas of high pressure warm dry air is descending as a result of which
temperature may fall less than 0.65°C/100 m height causing super-
refraction, or remains constant with height, or even increase with height
(temperature inversion).
2) Sea breezes in coastal waters, are warm compared to the sea (they blow
during the day time).
3) Day-time winds blowing over land-locked seas such as Red sea,
Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf.

Ducting: - If the rays leaving the scanner are refracted downwards very sharply,
strike the sea surface, are reflected upwards, and are refracted downwards
again, strike the sea at some further point and so on continuously, they
effectively follow the curvature of the earth and carry the energy to great
distances, without much loss of energy. The echoes returning along the same
path, will be strong, though coming from very great distances. As the energy is
virtually trapped within a narrow belt or duct, this form of severe super-
refraction is called ducting.
Ducting will be caused where there is a sharp decrease of relative humidity with
height, accompanied by a temperature inversion.

Effect of Precipitation and Sea on Radar Detection

When radio waves pass through the atmosphere, some of their energy is lost
due to absorption, scattering, diffraction, etc. Such loss of energy is termed
attenuation in the atmosphere. Weather phenomena such as drizzle, rain, hail,
snow, fog etc., cause varying amounts of attenuation. The attenuation due to
these weather effects causes loss of echo strength and consequent decrease in
detection ranges of targets.

1) Drizzle: - It means a small droplet of water, less than 0.5mm diameter,

which fall towards the ground. The drizzle area appears on the PPI as if
seen through ground glass and has indistinct edges – filmy areas with
soft edges. Detection ranges of targets within or beyond the drizzle area
are not much affected. Targets within the drizzle area generally show up
nearly.
2) Rain: - Drops of falling water, larger than 0.5mm diameter, is called
rain. Rainfall areas show up clearly on the PPI. Targets inside the rainfall
area may be distinguished by use of the differentiator. In heavy tropical
downpour, the rainfall area appears as bright solid block inside which
cargo cannot be distinguished, despite adjustments control.
• They may be easily mistaken for land, echoes because of their
large size, bright appearance, clearly defined edges and regularity
in painting. Detection ranges of targets beyond such a rain area
are severely reduced. If rain is falling on the observing vessel,
detection ranges in all directions will be adversely affected due to
attenuation. Tropical rain- bearing clouds have been known to
produce echoes strong enough to be mistaken for land echoes,
even though no rain was actually falling at that time.
 3) Hail: - Hail stones gives echoes on PPI, similar to rain drops. Small hail
stones give weaker echoes and larger hail stones (larger than about
6mm diameter, give stronger echoes than rainfall. The rate of
precipitation with hail usually being less than with rain.
4) Snow: - If snow falls in single crystals, as common in cold climates,
echoes from snow are not troublesome, unless snowfall is extremely
heavy. If, however, several snow crystals join together and fall as large
flakes, as in common in temperate latitudes, their echoes show up on
the PPI like rain. The rate of precipitation with snowfall usually being
much less than with rainfall, attenuation due to snowfall is generally
much less than with rain.
5) Fog: - Echoes from fog particles themselves are negligible, but
attenuation may be severe. In colder climates, dense fog will appreciably
decrease the detection ranges are not much affected, unless fog is so
thick that visibility is practically nil.
6) Sandstorms: - These are common in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, etc.
Though they greatly reduce optical visibility, no adverse effect on radar
performance has been noticed.

Factors that might cause faulty interpretation: The

following factors cause the faulty interpretation of targets on the ship’s radar
display: -
1) Indirect Echoes: Shipboard obstructions such as masts, funnels & cross
tree etc., may reflect the radar energy on to a target in some other
direction. The echo returns along the same path and paints on the
direction of the obstruction, at practically the correct range of the target.
Such echoes are called Indirect or false echoes.
• The normal direct echo of the target will also paint on its correct
range & bearing. This problem is not found modern ships, due to
corrective steps taken in the form of radar reflector.

2) Side Lobe Echoes: Due to cost and size limitation, the scanner cannot be
made to the extent of sending all the available energy in a single narrow
beam. As a result, some of the energy is radiated as weak beams at
various angles on either side of the main beam. These weak echoes are
known as side lobes
• The energy content of these is extremely small. Only very close-by
objects give strong enough response to the side lobes. The side
lobes produce a series of small echoes on either side of main echo,
all at the same range. This can be eliminated by suitable reduction
of Gain or slight application of anti-clutter. Side lobe echoes are
considerably reduced when using a slotted waveguide type of
scanner.
 3) Multiple Echoes: When two ships are passing beam to beam on parallel
courses at close range, just less than a mile, a second echo may sometime
appear on the bearing of the other ship and at double the range.
Occasionally there may be a series of such echoes, all on the same
bearing, but at equal intervals of range. The closest echo represents the
correct position of the target. The other such echoes are known as
multiple echoes and they are caused by the transmitted energy being
reflected back & forth between the hull of two ships and painting on each
successive return to the scanner. Multiple echoes occur on the beam
bearing, i.e., when ships are parallel to each other.

4) Second Trace Echoes: Echoes sent back from targets just outside the
range scale in use are not registered on the PPI because, by the time they
arrive, the spot has returned to the centre of the screen and is awaiting
transmission of the next pulse. If, however, the target is sufficiently far
away and super-refraction is present, a strong echo may arrive after the
next trace has started. It will then be painted on the PPI on its correct
bearing, but at a wrong range. Such an echo is called a second trace echo
because the echo of the first pulse paints on the second trace.
For the formation of second trace echoes, the following points are important:
• PRF
• Presence of radar conspicuous target at the appropriate range
depending on the PRF in use.
• The presence of super-refraction.

Range & bearing accuracy

Range accuracy
As per performance standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), the error in the
range of an object, obtained by using the range rings or the variable range
marker, should not exceed 1% of the maximum range of the scale in use, or 30
m, whichever is greater. It depends on: -
• Correct synchronisation between the transmission of the pulse and the
commencement of the trace.
• Uniformity and rectilinearity of the time base, Uniformity of the time
base means that the speed of the tracing spot must be very steady.
Rectilinearity means that each trace created should be a very perfect
line. The speed of the spot, on the scale of the PPI, must be clearly half
that of radio waves. Defects in uniformity and rectilinearity of the time
base must be set right by the technician.
• The scale of size of the tracing spot the inaccuracy caused by this would
be half the scale size of the spot. For example, using a 30cm display on
the 3 M range scale. A tracing spot diameter of 0.5 mm would represent
a distance of 18.5 m. hence the range inaccuracy caused by the scale size
of the spot, in this case, would be 9.25 m. On the same display using the
12 M range scale, the scale size of the 0.5 mm spot would be 74 m and
the range error caused by it would be 37 m and on the 48 M range scale,
the error would be 148m.
• Heigh of scanner When observing small targets very close by, the radar
measures the range from the scanner to the target whereas the correct
range should be the distance along the surface of the earth.

Bearing accuracy
As per performance standards for Navigational Radar (IMO) the radar
bearing of an object, whose echo appears on the edge of the display, should
be capable of being measured with an accuracy equal to, or better than ±1°.
The factors which govern bearing accuracy are: -
• Correct alignment between the heading marker and the scanner.
• Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing
scale.
• Gyro error if any, when the display is gyro-stabilised.
• Type of bearing marker used.
• Rectilinearity of the trace.
• Beam-width distortion
• Scale size of the spot
Error in Range & Bearing
Error in Bearing: - Bearing obtained by the radar are subject to error
caused by various factor: -
Error in Ranges: -
Setting Up and Maintaining Displays of Radar and
ARPA:
Setting up of radar
1) Ensure that the scanner is clear
2) Turn all controls counter clockwise or off position
3) Turn mains power on
4) Turn on scanner if it has a separate switch
5) Post safety notices
6) Wait for the stipulated 3- minute warm up period
7) Align heading markers (i.e. input heading)
8) Switch to transmit
9) Turn up brilliance
➢ On CRT radars till the trace is just seen
➢ On Raster scan radars for your viewing
10) Turn up gain
➢ On CRT radar till a light speckling is seen
➢ On Raster scan it needs to be at a stage below the light speckling
11) Tune radar, utilising one of the following methods
➢ Auto-tune
➢ Manual-tune using the indicator
➢ Till maximum extent of sea clutter is seen
➢ A small target on the edge of a chosen range scale appears at its
best
➢ if nothing else is available the performance monitor can be used
12) Apply sea and rain clutter as is necessary
13) Check VRM against range rings for accuracy
14) Turn on the EBL
15) Re-tune the radar, and then once every watch
16) Input appropriate speed
17) Commence using the radar as required

Setting up of ARPA
➢ Set up primary radar controls
 ➢ Input heading
➢ Input speed (log, manual, GPS, echo ref)
➢ Select presentation (North up, course up)
➢ Select motion (relative, true M, true F)
➢ Select vector and vector length (relative or true)
➢ Ensure trails are turned on
➢ Input collision threat limits
➢ Acquire targets

Function and adjustment of controls

Transmitter controls: - The transmitter sends out short powerful
bursts of electro-magnetic energy, called pulses, through the scanner at a
specific number of times per second, called the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
or Pulse Recurrence Rate (PRR). These pulses travel at the speed of light 300
meters per micro-second or 6.713 micro-seconds per nautical mile and when
they strike any object / target in their path, they are reflected back to the
scanner as echoes.
Scanner - The antenna is usually curved so it focuses the waves into a precise,
narrow beam, but radar antennas also typically rotate so they can detect
movements over a large area. The radio waves travel outward from the antenna
at the speed of light (186,000 miles or 300,000 km per second) and keep going
until they hit an object. Then some of them bounce back toward the antenna in
a beam of reflected radio waves also traveling at the speed of light.

Receiver: - The receiver processes each echo and causes it to show up visually
as a bright spot, on the screen of the display unit. The function of the receiver
is to take the weak echoes from the antenna system, amplify them sufficiently,
detect the pulse envelope, amplify the pulses, and feed them to the indicator.
The receivers used in radars are capable of accepting weak echoes and
increasing their amplitudes by a factor of 20 or 30 million.

Display Unit: - The display unit has a circular screen representing on a scale,
an actual area around the ship and Is called the plan position indicator (PPI)
because it gives a bird eye view of the position of the targets. The distance
represented by the radius of the screen is called the range scale and this can be
varied, by a switch as desired by the observer.
different types of display
➢ Conventional CRT display
➢ Raster scan display
 Performance monitor It is switch provided to check the overall
efficiency of the set. When this switch is put on, a plume or a sun
pattern appears on the screen. While on the 1.5 range scale, or other
small scale specified by the manufacturer, the length of the plume (or
the radius of the sun pattern) is measured with gain set normal and both
anti-clutter and differentiator controls set at minimum. The present
length of the plume expressed as a percentage of the maximum length
in the past gives the present relative efficiency of the set.

IMO Marine Radar Standards:

Marine Radar Performance Specifications
The performance standards should apply to all ship borne radar installations,
used in any configuration, mandated by the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as
amended, independent of the:
➢ Type of ship
➢ Frequency band in use
➢ Type of display
The radar system range and bearing accuracy requirements should be: Range –
within 30 m or 1% of the range scale in use, whichever is greater Bearing –
within 1°.
Range and bearing discrimination should be measured in calm conditions, on a
range scale of 1.5 NM or less and at between 50% and 100% of the range scale
selected.
Range: - The radar system should be capable of displaying two points targets
on the same bearing, separately by 40 m in range, as two distinct objects.
Bearing: - The radar system should be capable of displaying two points targets
at the same range separately by 2.5° in bearing, as two distinct points.
The target detection performance of the equipment should not be
substantially impaired when own ship is rolling or pitching up-to +/- 10°.
Radar performance optimization and tuning: - means should be available to
ensure that the radar system is operating at the best performance. Where
applicable to the radar technology, manual tuning should be provided and
additionally, automatic tuning may be provided.
• An indication should be provided, in the absence of targets, to ensure
that the system is operating at the optimum performance.
• Means should be available (automatically or by manual operation) and
while the equipment is operational, to determine a significant drop in
system performance relative to a calibrated standard established at the
time of installation.
Radar availability: - the radar equipment should be fully operational (RUN
status) within 4 minutes after switch ON from cold. A STANDBY condition
should be provided, in which there is no operational radar transmission. The
radar should be fully operational within 5 sec from the standby condition.
Display range scales: - range scales of 0.25,0.5,0.75,1.5,3,6,12, and 24 NM
should be provided. Additional range scales are permitted outside the
mandatory set. Low metric range scales may be offered in addition to the
mandatory set.
• The range scale selected should be permanently indicated.
Fixed range rings: - an appropriate number of equally spaced range rings
should be provided for the range scale selected. When displayed, the range
ring scale should be indicated.
• The system accuracy of fixed range rings should be within 1% of the
maximum range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is the greater distance.
Variable range marker: - at least two variables range markers should be
provided. Each active VRM should have a numerical readout and have a
resolution compatible with the range scale in use.

• The VRM should enable the user to measure the range of an object
within the operational display area with a maximum system error of 1%
of the range scale in use or 30 m, whichever is greater distance.

Electronic bearing lines: - at least two electronic bearing lines should be

provided to measure the bearing of any point object within the operational
display area, with a maximum system error of 1° at the periphery of the
display.
Display mode of the radar picture: - a true motion display mode should be
provided. The automatic reset of own ship may be initiated by its position on
the display, or time related, or both. Where the reset is selected to occur at
least on every scan or equivalent, this should be equivalent to true motion
with a fixed origin.
Scan: The scan should be clockwise, continuous and automatic through 360° of
azimuth. The scan rate should be not less than 12 revolutions per minute. The
equipment should operate satisfactorily in relative wind speed of up to 100 knots.

Azimuth Stabilization:
• Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilized in azimuth by
a transmitting compass. The equipment should be provided with a compass
input to enable it to be stabilized in azimuth. The accuracy of alignment with the
compass transmission should be within 0.5° with a compass rotation rate of 2
revolution per minute.
• The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the un-stabilized mode when the
compass control in inoperative.

Performance Check: Means should be available, while the equipment is used

operationally, to determine readily a significant drop in performance relative to a
calibration standard established at the time of installation, and the equipment is
correctly tuned in the absence of targets.

Anti-clutter Devices: Suitable means should be provided for the suppression of

unwanted echoes from sea clutter, rain, and other forms of precipitation, clouds and
sandstorms. It should be possible to adjust manually and continually the anti
clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls should be inoperative in the fully anti-clockwise
positions. In addition, automatic anti clutter controls may be provided, however, they
must be capable of being switched off.
Heading Indicator:
• The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on the display with a
maximum error not greater than ±1°. The thickness of the displayed heading
line should not be greater than 0.5°.
• Provision should be made to switch off the heading marker by a device which
can not be left in the “heading marker in the off “ position.

Limitations of the radar S-band

• It supports lower throughput
• It has narrow band spectrum
• Antenna sizes are larger
 • Power requirement is more with respect to X-band

Limitation of X-band.
• It has more attenuation due to rain.
• It supports very limited clear measurements.
• It doesn’t have long range bird detection capability.

More points about limitation of X&S bands

• Detection Range
• Propagation Effects
(i) Interference Effect
(ii) Diffraction Effect
• Back Scatter
• 4-Attenuation
• Polarization

Backscattering (or backscatter): It is the reflection of waves, particles, or signals

back to the direction they came from. Backscattering is defined also as the
phenomenon that occurs when radiation or particles are scattered at angles to the
original direction of motion of greater than 90°. Backscatter is mainly caused by
strobes or the internal flash lighting up particles in the water in between the lens and
the subject. It can also be caused by lighting up open water directly behind a
subject. Backscatter is easier to see against a dark background.

Attenuation: Attenuation is the weakening of a radar beam as it moves downstream

due to some of the energy being lost to scattering and absorption. The further
a radar beam moves downstream the more dust, hydrometeors, etc. the radar beam
will have to pass through. Because of attenuation, storms close to the radar are better
sampled than storms far from the radar site. Beam spreading and attenuation both
combine to produce a much poorer sampling of storms far from the radar. Attenuation
is higher when the radar beam has the flow through a large number of hydrometeors.
Storms and precipitation close to the radar degrade the radar energy before it reaches
storms further from the radar. Smaller wavelength radar beams attenuate more rapidly
than long wavelength radar. Because of this, most television station radars (C-band)
have a shorter range of high clarity compared to the WSR-88D radar (S-band).

Polarization: It uses an antenna that is designed to transmit and receive EM waves

of a specific polarization. Antennas come in many forms, including horns, waveguides,
dipoles and patches. In each case, the electric and mechanical properties of the
antenna are such that the transmitted wave is almost purely polarized with a specific
design polarization. In a simple radar system, the same antenna is often configured
so that it is matched to the same polarization on reception (when an EM wave is
incident upon it) .
• Signals with components in two orthogonal or basis polarizations are needed
to create a wave with an arbitrary polarization. The two most common basis
polarizations are horizontal linear or H, and vertical linear or V. Circular
polarizations are also in use for some applications, e.g. weather radars. Their
basis components are denoted by R for Right Hand Circular and L for Left Hand
Circular.

Note: watch you tube videos (steering mariners) for radar plotting

Radar plotting: -Radar plotting is an art of obtaining all the required information
from two or more observations of each target on a radar screen. To estimate the degree of
risk of collision with another vessel, to forecast her closets point of approach. It involves the
construction of a triangle of relative velocities.

Plotting is divided into two

• Relative Plotting
• True Plotting
Instruments Required for Radar Plotting:
1. Plotting Sheet 4. Drawing Compass (half-moon)
2. Parallel Ruler & Divider 5. 6inch or 12inch Scale
3. Pencil &Eraser 6. Calculator
Procedure for Plotting: The interval between two observations of a radar plot is called
the plotting interval. This depends on the range scale in use, the speed of own
ship, the
speeds of targets, but most often the intervals used are 6 or 12 minutes.
The following letters are used to denote various points on the plotting sheet.
C- Centre of the plotting sheet, representing the origin of the display.
O- Relative position of target at the beginning of the plotting interval.
A- Relative position of target at the end of the plotting interval
OA- The relative movement of the target across the radar screen. This line
produced is called the line of approach.
 N- The closets point of approach (CPA).
CN- CN is perpendicular to OA, CPA range.
WO- Own ship’s course and speed (distance) during the
plotting interval.
WA- Target’s true course and speed during the plotting interval.

What to find out from the Radar Plotting:

• Range of the target
• Bearing of the target
• True course of the target
• Speed of the target
• Closets Point of Approach (CPA)
• Time of CPA
• Aspect of the vessel

How to Make The Report Of a Target to The Master: A target should be reported to
the Master on detection in stages.
1. By Radar:
Stage–I at 0800 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (020x12m)
Stage–II At 0806 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (019x10.5m)
drawing fwd. / aft and range increasing / decreasing.
Stage –III At 0812 hrs, Bearing & Range of the target (017x9m)
Course of the target-273°, speed-12.5kts, CPA-1.9m
drawing fwd. / aft, range decreasing / increasing,
CPA time 0847 hrs. Aspect of the target Red- 76° (Port)
2.By Visual:
Stage –I At 0800 hrs, target on 2/3/4 point on port / stbd side
Stage –II At 0806 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / aft
Stage –III At 0812 hrs, target on 1/2/3 point on port /stbd side
drawing forward / aft, range increasing / decreasing
crossing from port to stbd or stbd to port
note:- solve examples from book
 GYRO COMPASS
It is manmade equipment which is used to find True North by using electrically
powered fast spinning wheel and friction forces in order to use the rotation of
the earth and works on principal of gyroscopic inertia (gyroscope is simply a
spinning wheel). A free spinning gyroscope is influenced by the earth’s rotation
and its location on the earth and needs to be stabilized terrestrially.
GYROSCOPE PROPERTIES: - It consist of three axis of freedom
a) Freedom to spin about the axis of rotation.
b) Freedom to tilt in the vertical plane, about horizontal axis (torque axis).
c) Freedom to drift in the horizontal, plane about the vertical axis
(precession axis).
Requirements for gyroscope to act as a gyro compass: -
a) Spin axis must be horizontal: - Careful construction ensures that unit is
always balanced with the spin axis horizontal. Weights are been
attached to balance purpose.
b) Make it point to geographic north (various methods such as
identification of Polaris for north seeking, and use of precession
property.)
Method to gyro seek north: - 1) Bottom heavy method (use of oil) ,2)
Top heavy method (use of mercury liquid)
c) Compensate for drift and tilt

Importance: it is used to feed data in Steering, Autopilot system, ARPA feeds,

Electronic chart plotters, SATCOM Dishes.
Modern gyro compasses made use of electromagnetic sensors and torsion
wires. It is done to increase efficiency an act fast. Even modern gyro compasses
come with the fiber optic gyro compasses. Reducing time of operational from 4
hours to 30 minutes (fiber optic gyro scope)
 Features of fiber Optic Gyro compass: - no moving parts, very short settling
time, compact and low weight design, high dynamic accuracy, less
maintenance required, meets all IMO recommendations, drives maximum of
12 analog repeaters.
PROPERTIES OF FREEE GYROSCOPE
a) Rigidity of a space (Gyroscopic inertia): - A freely spinning gyroscope will
maintain its axis of spin in the same direction with respect to space
irrespective of how its base is turned or moved. It resists any attempt to
change its direction of spin (conservation of angular momentum). This is
called gyroscopic inertia or rigidity in space.
when the free gyroscope made to spin on its axis it is continuously
pointing to a fixed direction as the same direction as it was started.
Assuming it is directed to a distance imaginary point in the space as
referred to Cairo compass it is called gyro star.
b) Precession: - It is the movement of the spin axis when a force is applied to the
gyroscope. When a couple is applied about its horizontal axis the spin axis will
turn at right angles to the applied force in the direction of the spin axis of
wheel. Similarly, couple applied about the vertical axis will make the spin axis
turn about the horizontal axis in the direction of the spin axis of the wheel.
This property is called precession. This property is found only in spinning
bodies.
Both above mentioned properties can be explained with the help of Newton’s
first law of motion.
RELATION BETWEEN APPLIED FORCE AND PRECESSION
P = T / (S*I)
Where P =precession, T = torque in Nm, S= speed in radian/sec, I = moment of
inertia in kgm^2

TERMS AND DEFINITION

a). Tilt: - It is the angle by which the spin axis of gyro has apparently moved
up and down from the vertical plane. It is maximum at the equator and zero
at the pole. It is function of latitude.
b). Tilting: - It is the apparent motion of gyro axel on the vertical plane. It may
be upward and downward depending on factors which is causing it.
Rate of tilting/hour = 15* sin(azimuth)*cos(latitude°) /hour
Example Tilt at the pole = 15*sin45°cos90°=0°/hour
Tilt at the equator =15*sin45°cos0°=10.60°/hour
c) Drift: - It is the angle by which gyro axel has drifted and moved away from
the original direction in the horizontal plane. Its maximum value is at the
poles and minimum i.e. zero at the equator. It is the function of latitude.

d) Drifting: - It is the apparent motion of gyro axel on the horizontal plane.

Rate of drifting/hour=15*sin(Lat°)/hour
example Drift at poles = 15*sin90°=15°/hour
Drift at the equator 15*sin0°=0°/hour

GYRO IS ONLY AT THE REST IN THE FOLLOWING CONDITION AND

POSITION ON THE EARTH
On the equator with an Azimuth along the meridian (due north or 000°).
Here drift and tilt value be equal to zero respectively.
OPERATIONAL ERRORS OF A GYROCOMPASS
1) Latitude error (damping error or setting error)
2) Course, Latitude & speed error (steaming error)
3) Ballistic deflection
4) Ballistic tilt
5) Rolling error
6) Inter Cardinal Rolling Error
7) Residual errors: - errors remaining after all manual &. automatic
corrections have been applied. Gyro errors must be taken frequently.
Errors should never be more than 2°

ROLLING ERROR: - Gyro compass fitted on ship also senses the

accelerations present within the vessel at the time of rolling and pitching.
The errors resulting due to that are known as rolling errors. Gimbals &
special Control Weight Designs minimize the error. In heavy weather
conditions monitor the Gyro heading carefully.
 SPEED AND LATITUDE ERROR: - It is caused by force generated by a
combination of earth’s rotation and ships movement. If the course is
northerly the error is westerly and if the course is southerly the error is
easterly .These errors are corrected by adjustment of latitude and speed
corrector located on the gyroscope body.

BALLISTIC: - This error occurs whenever the ship’s speed and course is
rapidly changed. If a vessel is going on N course and then change it course
by 90 degrees there will be a surge of mercury from S part to N part (as
governed by Newton’s first law of motion).

VARIOUS TYPES OF GYRO – COMPASSES USED ON MERCHANT SHIPS

1) Admiralty Sperry type

2) Anschutz
3) Arma Brown compass

PROCEDURE STARTING AND STOPPING OF GYRO COMPASS AND

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OF GYRO COMPASS

Starting a gyro compass

1) Check the gyro heading and compare with magnetic compass after
observing compass error.
2) If the gyro axis is displaced by more than 20° then allow for about 6-7
hours of settling down, otherwise 4-5 hours must be allowed for settling
time (check technical manual board).
3) Disconnect or switch off all gyro repeater switches.
4) Switch on the main switch. Check for oil or liquid level if window
provided (refer to technical manual onboard)
5) Adjust latitude and speed corrector settings.
6) Switch on the alternator and wait for 10 seconds until it gains full speed.
7) Switch ‘ON’ the compass and azimuth motor switch.
8) After heading is steady, switch on the repeater’s switch after aligning the
repeater with master compass.
9) Check compass error using astronomical body, leading lights, transit
bearings etc. and compare repeater compass.
 10) If speed and position (latitude) input direct through GPS and /or
log check that same is working.
11) Check and verify compass errors at regular intervals.
Stopping of gyro compass
1) Stop repeaters
2) Stop azimuth compass motors
3) Switch off the alternators
4) Lock the rotor (Gimbals)

MAINTENANCE
❖ Each watch
1) Check repeater with a master compass to ensure that repeater is
functioning properly if power fails repeater may have to be reset.or
2) Check the compass error by azimuth.
3) Speed and latitude characters should be reset as necessary.
4) Inspect the compass to guard against any abnormal condition of
operation.
❖ Monthly
1) Check the alarm buzzer.
2) Clean and oil any part as indicated in the manufacturer’s manual.
3) General cleanliness should be checked repair and maintenance
should only be carried out by a professional.

Methods Of Determining Gyro Error

Compass error to be checked at least once a watch and recorded in compass
error book. Methods of determining gyrocompass are: -
1) By taking azimuth of sun, moon, star, or planet.
2) By comparing transit bearing of gyro with transit bearing on chart.
3) If the ship is at a known location, such as a pier or an anchorage, a gyro
error can be obtained by comparing a known bearing to an object
ashore, as measured on a chart.
4) Comparing the ship’s heading while pier side to the known heading of
the pier will give gyro error.
Advantage of gyro compass
1) It is compact in size and highly reliable.
2) It provides true north as opposed to magnetic north.
3) It is easier to fit repeaters with gyrocompass and also to provide heading
reference for other navigational equipment.
4) It is not affected by metal in ship’s hull.
5) Errors in reading are very small.
Limitations of gyro compass
1) Gyro compasses have many moving parts
2) The flywheel must spin at a constant high RPM.
3) Modern sets have many electrical components.
4) Time must be allowed for Gyro to settle.
5) It requires constant source of electrical power and is sensitive to power
fluctuations.
6) It required periodic maintenance by qualified technicians.
 The use of Radar in Navigation
General Use of Radar
To calculate range and bearing of a target and there after use the information to
determine speed, course, CPA, TCPA & Aspect.
Integration with other shipboard equipment such as ECDIS and VDR to derive
precise data when required.
• Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision avoidance.
• Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as lighthouses, buoys
and RACON.
• Differentiating between targets in high traffic density areas
• Determination of the weather, to an extent
• Use by VTS in controlling coastal traffic
• Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe navigation
• Alleviating workload on the OOW on the bridge
• Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects

Use of Radar on Board Ship: The radar is the most important bridge equipment.
There are two radars used for navigation on board ship (X-band & S-band). Radar is
a very vital component for safety at sea and near coastal. A mandatory aid to
navigation, the radar is used in identifying, tracking (with integrated ARPA) and
positioning of vessels (including one's own vessel) among other things in order to
adhere to the COLREGs so as to safely navigate a ship from one point to another.
Their uses are as given below:
• To fix the position of the ship (shore objects).
• Collision Avoidance (Anti-collision).
• Anchor Watch
• Navigation of the ship.

1)Fixing the Position of the ship by Radar: The effect of wind and current near the
coast may cause the ship to deviate from the intended course. In order to keep the
ship on the intended course on the chart, the ship’s position is to obtained frequently.
This can be done by observing the terrestrial object as given:
• Visual bearings of terrestrial objects.
• Radar ranges of terrestrial objects.
• Bearing and range of a single known object.
• Running fix of a single object.
a) Fixing the position by “Range and Bearing of One Object”

b) Fixing the ship’s position by “Three bearings of Three objects”

c) Fixing the position of the ship by “Three Ranges of Three Objects”

d) Fixing the position of the ship by “A Running Fix with the help of one
object”

Errors of Radar Fixing:

• Delay in observation of a target.
• Error in reading range and bearing.
• Error in plotting on chart.
• Error in instruments.
• Any other error in radar equipment.

Reliability of a Radar Fix:

• Efficiency of the radar set.
• Accuracy of the person involved.
• Movement of the ship (rolling & pitching)
• Plotting equipment in use (parallel ruler & divider).
• Experience of the observer and plotter
2) Collision Avoidance (Anti-collision): The radar is one of the
most used equipment/systems on board ships. It is designed
for detecting and tracking targets at a considerable distance.
Proper use of radar and radar plotting aids in both restricted
visibility and clear weather can help prevent collisions and
ensure the safety of the ship.
Proper use of radar and radar plotting aids in both restricted
visibility and clear weather can help prevent collisions and
ensure the safety of the ship. Accidents can occur if the watch
keeping officer is not fully conversant with the operation of
the equipment. For reliable interpretation, it is essential that
the radar operating controls be adjusted properly.

15 Things to Consider While Using Radar on Ships:

• CHOICE OF RANGE SCALE (frequently change range scale)
• RANGE MEASUREMENT (properly measuring range)
• BEARING MEASUREMENT (properly measuring bearing)
• GAIN CONTROL (Proper adjustment)
• REDUCING SEA CLUTTER / RAIN
• OFF CENTRE DISPLAY
• TARGET TRAILS
• PI (PARALLEL INDEX) LINES
• HEADING/SPEED/COURSE
• BRILLIANCE
• WATCH ALARM
• VECTOR MODE
• PAST POSITION
• MARK (Select a target causing concern)
• TARGET TRACKING/ AIS DATA BOX
• PRESENTATION MODES (Relative / True Motion)

The radar display provides the operator a bird’s eye view where other targets
are portrayed relative to own ship. It is an invaluable aid to navigation. Proper
use and close monitoring of the radar especially in reduced and restricted
visibility can help avoid the close quarter situation and/or collision. It is
therefore important that all radar users understand its use and have a
thorough knowledge of the equipment.
Anchor Watch: The Radar is very useful equipment for monitoring anchor
positions. For using the radar for anchor watch requires radar conspicuous
fixed objects. The presence of RACON in the vicinity makes it even easier.
Straight coast with no edges is not useful for Radar bearing.

• Apart from that, the Radar is very useful equipment for monitoring
anchor positions.
• For using the radar for anchor watch requires radar conspicuous fixed
objects.
• The presence of RACON in the vicinity makes it even easier.
• Straight coast with no edges is not useful for radar bearing.
• Another way that I see navigators make use of is with the EBL and
VRM on the radar.
• We can set the EBL and VRM on the radar and point it to the fixed
object that we want to take bearing and range from.
• If the EBL and VRM stay right there on the fixed object, the ship has
not moved and the anchor is holding.
• The good thing in this is that each time you have your eyes on the
radar screen, you can easily make out in a flash if the ship is
maintaining its position or not.
 • Ship’s speed can be a good indicator of the dragging anchor.
• A ship at anchor or when drifting will always head to the resultant of all
the external forces (the wind & current).
• So, when the ship is dragging her anchor, she will have the negative speed
over ground (GPS speed).
• Not all seafarers use the practice of tying up a flag on the anchor chain after
anchoring.
• There are two things we can do after anchoring.
(a)-Rest the anchor chain on the bar, or (b)-Put the bar but keep it clear of
the anchor chain
• Watching the anchor chain in water is another way to know if the anchor is
dragging.
• So, If the anchor is dragging, the anchor will continue to
(a)-Go to long stay (b)-Rapidly come to up and down; and (c)-Again go to long stay

Conclusion
Dragging anchor is not something a watch keeper desires but it is something
that may not be in control of the ship staff. The anchor may sometimes drag.
Dragging anchor can lead to contact with other ship or grounding of the ship.
But all this can be avoided if the watch keeper is alert and knows about the
indications of the dragging anchor situation.
Early identification is the key to avoid accident related to the dragging anchor
situations. Anchor dragging is totally acceptable situation provided it does not
lead to an accident.
4- Navigation of the ship (Consequences of Ship Collision):
Unfortunately, the possibilities of loss of life in such cases are
very high. Secondly, the environmental impact is very negative
especially if any one of the vessels in the collision happens to
carry any chemicals or any other harmful material that could
be dangerous for marine life.
• Ship collision causes structural damage.
• The financial consequences to ship owners.
• Loss of ship.
• Penalties.
• Damage to coastal or off-shore infrastructure.
• Loss of Life.
• Loss of cargo.
• Loss of job (if become handicapped, confiscation of COC)
Many maritime accidents (Collisions) are caused:
• Due to engine breakdowns.
• Problems with electronic systems.
• Equipment failure.
• Sometimes equipment failure becomes natural phenomena
such as bad weather or heavy seas.
• Causal approach for duty.
• Lack of proper and constant maintenance equipment.
• Failure to monitor a ship’s systems in order to check out
potential problems before they occur.
• Lack of the necessary equipment, spare parts or gear
 • Breakdowns in operating procedures
• Breakdowns in communications procedures.
• Lack of proper training.
• Poor decision-making by overworked personnel.
• Inexperienced watch keepers on the bridge & navigational errors.

Use of Passive Trails (history): - It shows the record / history of the targets being
plotted on the radar display with the help of radar in the following way
• To ascertain the past position of the target.
• To know the intention of the target.
• To ascertain the speed of the target.
• It indicates the status of the target (moving / stationary).
• It shows the presence of the moving target.
Indication of the trails depends up on the setting of true and relative motion on the
PPI.

Active Aids of ARPA:

1- Tracking of targets
2- Ground Stabilisation
3- Course up presentation
4- Trail Manoeuvres
5-Map Drawing
6- Vectors
7- Guard Zones
8- Manual Acquisition
9- Automatic Acquisition
10- CPA / TCPA Alarms

Alarms of ARPA:
• CPA / TCPA alarm
• Intruder Alarm
• Poor / Lost target alarm
• Time for action alarm
• Change of course alarm
• Wrong action alarm
• Equipment Malfunction alarm
• Memory full alarm

Radar Transponder Beacon (RACON): It is a radar transponder beacon its name is

derived from radar beacon. As the ship’s pulse from the scanner arrives at the
RACON, it amplifies and return the pulse to the scanner as a strong signal of the same
frequency and creates a short bright line on the PPI. The closer/inner edge is to be
taken as the position of the beacon.
• The RACON is adjusted in such a way that it will not respond unless the ship’s
pulse that arrives is above a given signal strength, because of this the effective
range of a RACON is 30 miles approx. Each RACON is so designed as to
appear as different morse letter for identification purposes.
• A RACON is useful in identifying light vessels or buoys in poor visibility,
especially in areas of traffic density and crowded anchorages.
Search and Rescue Transponder (SART): It enables search and rescue units to
locate ships or survivor craft when in distress. It is a portable device to be taken to
the life-boat and life-raft when abandoning the ship.
• When interrogated by radar waves of the X-band (3cm or 9 Ghz) a SART gets
triggered into transmitting a series of 12 pulses of 400 MW. These signals
appear as a distinctive line of 12 blips on the PPI of X-band radar, signals
extend outwards from the position of the SART, along the line of bearing, for
distance of 8 nm on the PPI. The gap between successive blips is 0.6 nm. As
the SAR unit approaches the SART, the blips change to wide arcs. These
arcs eventually turn to concentric circles when the SAR unit is within about
one nm from SART.
A SART should have body of highly visible orange or yellow colour and should be
capable of the following:

Features Of SART:
1- Manual activation and de-activation.
2- Frequency range from 9.2 GHz to 9.5 GHz.
3- Response of 12 blips when interrogated by ship’s radar.
4- Power out-put 400mW.
5- Strong to withstand damage when dropped in the water from 20 m height.
6- Fully water tight up to depth of 10 m for 5 minutes.
7- Not to be affected by the sea water or oil.
8- Should work between temperature of -20° to +55°.
9- Duration of working for 96 hrs in standby mode.
10-Duration of working 8 hrs when continuously interrogated.

AIS overlay on Radar / ARPA: an overlay is a procedure that estimates the

attributes of one or more features by superimposing them over other features, and
figuring out the extent to which they overlap.
• The use of overlays is to estimate the attributes of features in a map layer
based on data in another map layer.

Radar overlay: It is the best means of verifying cartographic data and the output of
navigation sensors. The radar and AIS overlay feature of an ECDIS not only
duplicates the radar itself, but can also be used to verify the entire navigational
system. All the navigators should be familiar with the fundamental principles for
using ECDIS as a part of an integrated shipboard navigational system and be able to
react promptly to system malfunctions and/or failures. to combine different types of
navigational information. For example: -

AIS (Automatic Identification System) with radar images, ECS (Electronic Chart
System) became the first full-featured integrator of this kind – a computer system
combining information from a pre-defined set of external sensors on one screen with
an electronic chart as the backdrop. Whereas early ECS could only display GPS
locations on an electronic chart, today’s ECDIS can integrate course data from gyro,
satellite and magnet compasses as well as data from echo sounders, wind sensors,
AIS, ARPA and other sources. The added data provide vital support for navigational
tasks. Radar overlay (a raw radar image overlaid on an electronic chart) is the best
means of verifying cartographic data and the output of navigation sensors.
The radar overlay feature of an ECDIS not only duplicates the radar itself, as some
navigators know, but can also be used to verify the entire navigational system.

Parallel Indexing Technique: Parallel index technique is an art of manoeuvring a

ship to a desired position, or along a desired track, in such a manner that the entire
manoeuvre is carried out while using the PPI only. The chart is consulted before
hand and a little pre-computation may be done, but no fixes are on the chart
because continuous monitoring is done on the PPI with the help of the parallel index.

Allowances for current and wind are made, as & when necessary, during the
manoeuvre, by inspection of the ship’s progress on the PPI.

Use of Parallel Indexing:

• To check the direction of the ship’s heading.
• To obtain the bearing of a target.
• To obtain bearing between two targets.
• To obtain approximate distance between two targets.
• To obtain the CPA range.

Types of Parallel Indexing Techniques:

• To steer a course to pass a given distance of a point.
• To alter course off a navigational mark or point of land
• To anchor with no navigational mark right ahead.

Wheel Over Point: When the wheel is turned the ship takes some time to respond
and this primarily due to the inertia of the ship. Hence the wheel should be turned
over at a point earlier than the point from which the ship is required to turn. This point
at which the wheel is to be turned over is known as wheel over point.
• The distance between the wheel over point and the ship commencing its turn
is denoted by ‘ F ‘ and depend upon the following :
1- Ship’s length 2- Ship’ beam 3- Ship’s displacement
4- Ship’s speed 5- Ship’s trim 6- Type of ship

Wheel Over Position: For a safe turn, it is necessary for a vessel to determine
her wheel-over position or point. Wheel-over point is a point where the rudder is
put over while considering the distance to the new course and the ship's turning
characteristics.
Point from where to commence the altering of course before reaching altering
position. The distance of wheel over point from the point where the turn is to become
effective is usually taken as one ship’s length but it is recommended to find it out by
some practice turns on the type of ship one is serving.
While marking the wheel over position, the following factors are to be taken in
consideration.
1- Characteristics of the vessel. 2- Visual / radar objects
3- Parallel Indexing . 4- Rate of turn.
Distance of wheel over line from the new course line
= F sin0 + R (1 –cos 0) where,
F = one ship’s length (usually),
R = Radius of the turn

TO FIND & MARK APPROX. W/O POSITION:

F = 0.1 to 0.15 NM
P = R(1-Cos Ө) = F Sin Ө
Rate of turn = (V / R) x 0.96
where V = speed of vessel
Distance to new course = Radius x Tan Ө/2
First the Master of the vessel has to decide the radius of turn required, depending on
the manoeuvring
characteristics of the vessel & available sea room.
A reference point such as an is
land, buoy, etc. can be also used to decide the radius of turn.
Wheel over point = F + Distance to new course
Distance to new course can be found by the above formula.
Once the Master has decided on the radius of turn, a tabular ready reckoner may be
prepared for various course change angles.

Safety Margins for Wheel Over Position: On executing the turn, the following
factors are to be kept in mind:
1- Due to current and wind, the ship is likely to drift port/stbd
2- Ensure that the ship remains in the arc during the turn.
3- During the turn, the ship is likely to heel over to opposite side of the turn.
4- If depth of water is less, squat effect may take place.
5- Accuracy of navigational equipment’s.
6- Possibility of main engine break down.
7- Possibility of steering failure.
8. Additional preventive measures (look out and safe speed)
9. Position of the ship must be plotted frequently.
10-Execution of the turn should be monitored, right from the beginning to the end.
 Terrestrial Navigation System
E Loran: Enhanced Loran (E-LORAN-Long Range Navigation): To be precise, e-
Loran, as an internationally standardised positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
service, will be soon implemented over a wide range of applications, as an
independent, dissimilar, complement to Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS).
Loran is a good back up for GNSS
Capability, Independence, Interoperability,
Different mode of operations
Robustness to jamming
Can serve multiple modes including timing
Other backups exist, Loran can serve tactical purposes
Future of e Loran is uncertain
PNT users will be capable of retaining the safety, security, and economic benefits of
GNSS, even when their satellite services are disrupted or when using e-Loran in
areas where GNSS in not available.

Terrestrial navigation is a field of study that helps sea-faring people locate points at
sea and on the land. Similarly, it involves being able to identify the position of the
ship anywhere in the world. Cadets are instructed in the use of nautical charts,
compass corrections and voyage planning.
It is the method of navigation used by mariners that uses landmarks as reference
points, ship’s stability, fuel consumption and ship’s speed along with tides and
currents. This is the opposite of celestial navigation, which plots positions in relation
to the stars, planets, Sun and Moon.

BASIC PRINCIPLES: some basic principles of terrestrial navigation include:

With the perceived vulnerability of GNSS systems, and their own propagation and
reception limitations, renewed interest in LORAN applications and development has
appeared. Enhanced LORAN, also known as eLORAN or E-LORAN, comprises
advancement in receiver design and transmission characteristics, which increase the
accuracy and usefulness of traditional LORAN. With reported accuracy as good as
±8 meters, the system becomes competitive with unenhanced GPS. eLORAN also
includes additional pulses, which can transmit auxiliary data such as DGPS
corrections. These enhancements in LORAN make it a possible substitute for
scenarios where GPS is unavailable or degraded.

Principle of E- Loran: e-Loran signals travel over the surface of the earth (i.e., they
are ground waves), they are subject to small propagation delays that depend on the
electrical conductivity of the ground. To achieve the high level of accuracy required
for aviation approaches, harbour entrance and approach manoeuvre, and to recover
precise time, these propagation delays must be measured and the corrections must
be applied. User and System Monitor Receivers will store and employ these Signal
Propagation Corrections to maximize the accuracy and also provide integrity for the
solutions they deliver.
E-Loran is an independent dissimilar complement to global Navigation satellite
system (GNSS). It allows GNSS users to retain the safety, security and economic
benefits of GNSS, even when their satellite services are disrupted.
The principal difference between E-Loran and traditional Loan-c is the addition of a
data channel on the transmitted signal. This conveys application specific corrections,
warnings and Integrity in-formations to the user receivers.
E-Loran is also capable of providing the exceedingly precise time and frequency
reference needed by the tele-communication system that carry voice and internet-
communications.
Errors Of E-Loran
The major error sources in maritime eLoran are the
1-Residues of atmospheric noise,
2-Transmitter related noise,
3-Cross Rate Interference (CRI).
While the impact of the first two factors is well understood and can be modelled
(Safar et al. 2010), the issue of CRI has not been sufficiently described so far.

Important Features Of E-Loran

1- Transmitting station broadcasts using corrections data via a data channel.
2- Monitoring site receives the signal and applies the correction to provide integrity.
3- Monitoring site receives the signal and generates the correction.
4- Control station validates and stores the corrections from the monitor site.
5- The control station forwards the correction to the appropriate transmitting station.
6- The transmitting station validates the incoming corrections and formats them for
broadcast.

ELoran is capable of providing this level of service by

Meeting the accuracy, availability, integrity, and continuity performance requirements
for:
1-Aviation on-precision instrument approaches
2-Maritime harbor entrance and approach maneuvers
3-Land-mobile vehicle navigation
4-Location-based services
5-Precise time and frequency users

Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)

-The Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) is a safety measure for

strengthening ship's security and subduing acts of piracy and/or terrorism
against shipping.
2-It is the part of the ISPS code and is a system that contributes to IMO efforts to
 strengthen the maritime security and suppress the acts of terrorism and piracy
against shipping. In case of an attempted attack of piracy or terrorism, the ship’s
security alert system beacon can be activated and appropriate law enforcement or
military forces can be sent for action.
3-The basic idea is that in case of an attempted piracy effort, terrorist act, or any
other incident which can be defined as a threat to the ship under the maritime
security, the ship's SSAS beacon would be activated, responding to which an
appropriate law-enforcement or military forces would be dispatched for rescue.

On activation of Ship’s Security Alert System

1-The RCCs or SAR centers are notified directly.National authorities dispatch
appropriate forces to deal with the terrorist or pirates.
2-The Company Security Officer is alerted at the same time, as the above authorities
are alerted on activation of ship security alert system.
3-When the maritime security staff comprehends probable danger from pirates or
terrorists, a Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) alert is triggered.
4-The beacon transmits a specific security alert, with important details about the ship
 and its location, to the administration and to the owner, or appointed professional
SSAS management and monitoring services.
5-Once receiving the signal, the administration will notify the nearest national
authorities of the area which will dispatch appropriate military or law-enforcement
forces to deal with the terrorist or pirate menace.

Legislation on Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)

1-According to the international requirements regarding the security of ships and of
port facilities, following ships must be provided with an SSAS:
2-All cargo ships which are constructed on or after 1st July 2004
3-All passenger ships and high-speed craft intended to carry passengers which are
constructed before 1 July 2004 not later than at the first survey of their radio
installation after 1st July 2004
4-Oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers and cargo high-speed
craft of 500 GT and above constructed before 1 July 2004 not later than at the first
survey of their radio installation after 1 July 2004
5-Other cargo ships of 500 GT and above constructed before 1 July 2004 and mobile
offshore drilling units not later than at the first survey of their radio installation after
1 July 2006.
Activation Of SSAS:
When the Ship Security Alert System is Activated, following details will be sent to the
administration:
1-Name of ship
2-IMO number allotted to the ship
3-The Call Sign of the ship
4-The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) position of
the ship in latitude and longitude
5-Maritime Mobile Service Identity
6-Date and time of the alert according to the GNSS position
(as per the current time the ship is sailing)
Testing Procedure For SSAS
The standard procedure for testing of Ship Security Alert System is as follows:
An E-mail is sent to the DG shipping and to the Company Security Officer with the
following information at least three hours in advance when requesting for a test:
1-Name of the vessel and its present position.
2-Intended date and time (UTC) and IST of the test.
3-Acknowledgement is sent by CSO DG Shipping Representative to the ship.

When to Use The Ship’s Security Alert System:

When the maritime security staff or ship’s staff comprehend probable danger from
terrorists or pirates, the SSAS alert is triggered. There are two triggering points, one
in the wheel house (bridge) and other at a suitable place known only to few
concerned / responsible persons.
The SSAS alerts are to be sent by the security staff necessary at a routine priority
from the ship to it’s administration directly or other proper recipient, designated by
the administration, to check the operational status of the SSAS.
These routine priority SSAS alerts might be chosen by the designated person and
administration to have other informed about these routine priority checking of SSAS.

Advantages of SSAS:
1-Fully for the purpose of Maritime Security.
2-Use of the Inmarsat C, Mini –C and Satellite Services.
3-Up-gradation over older GMDSS version.
4-Global Coverage.
5-Suitable for tracking.
6-Daily reports at routine priority, if required
7-Also Web based Tracking.
8-Confirms to IMO standards and SOLAS Ch XI-2/6 compliance
9-Installation & testing by the professionals.
10-Very effective in time of emergency, without alerting the attackers.

Limitations Of Ship Security Alert System:

1-The SSAS setup on a ship is still considered as an additional financial burden on
ships and ship owner try to stick to the regulation by providing only two ship
security alert system switches on a ship. It is possible that during the attack, these
two locations are not accessible and if the number of the switch is increased, it will
add to the safety of the ship and its crew
2-The regulation does not make it mandatory to have an independent source of
power to the ship’s SSAS. In case of failure of main power or fault in the
emergency backup power, the SSAS will not work
3-As discussed earlier, the switches are provided in two locations which includes
bridge as one location. It is important for the Master to ensure the ship’s crew
knows the location of the switches. The familiarization of the locations in every drill
is still not practiced in many ships which may lead to confusion in case of a real
emergency
4-There are many agencies/ third party who are dedicated to monitoring the SSAS
alert from the ship. To save the cost, many owners do not opt for such agencies
and prefer to keep this service in-house (Company security officer). It is naïve to
think that CSO will never miss a call or a message or the phone dedicated to the
alert will never run out the battery.

Duties & responsibilities Of Company Security Officer:

1-Make contact with the vessel about the alert signal to make sure the alert is
legitimate and not a faulty alert
2-Once the alert is confirmed legitimate, the administration should alert the situation
to the nearest coastal authority and security agency.
3-If the alert is generated due to fault in the SSAS equipment, ensure to inform the
same to coastal and security authorities.
Duties & responsibilities Of Ship Security Officer:
1-Help company security officer (CSO) in his duties.
2-Take into account various security measures related to handling of cargo, engine
room operations, ship’s store etc.
3-Coordinate with ship board personnel and port authorities to carry out all ship
operations with utmost security.
4-Ensure that the ship security equipment is properly operated, tested, calibrated,
and maintained.
Induced Magnetism in Ship and Magnetic Compass
Correction.
 Various Other Navigation-Aids

GPS/DGPS
Global Positioning System (G.P.S): It is satellite-based navigation system consists
of 24 orbiting satellites in a 6 different orbits / paths. This system is more accurate
than any other existing system with world-wide coverage in all weather conditions.
 • It gives position in latitude & longitude with the help of satellite.
• The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Nav-star GPS is a satellite-
based radio navigation system. It is a global navigation satellite system that
provides geo location and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or
near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively
weak GPS signals.
• GPS provides the fastest and most accurate method for mariners to navigate,
measure speed, and determine location. This enables increased levels of
safety and efficiency for mariners worldwide.

GPS Working Principle: The GPS signal consists of pseudo random code,
ephemeris and almanac data. The pseudo random code identifies the satellite
because each satellite is having a unique code. Ephemeris data is constantly
transmitted by each satellite and contains important in-formation such as status of
the satellite, current date & time.
• The almanac data tells the GPS receiver where each satellite should be at
any time through-out the day. Each satellite transmits almanac data showing
the orbital in-formation for that satellite and for every other satellite in the
system.
• The user’s GPS receiver reads the message and saves the ephemeris and
almanac data for fixing the position.

Each satellite transmits two codes:

• P-code - Precision code (US Military)
• C/A code – Coarse Acquisition Code, all civilian GPS users.

Segments of G.P.S: This system consists of three segments:

• Control segment.
• Space segment.
• User segment.

1) The Control Segment: This part consists of worldwide land-based stations

located at Atlantic Area, Pacific Area, Diego Suarez and Indian Ocean. It has
one master control station and upload station located at Colorado Springs
USA. The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data from these
satellites to pass the in-formations to master control station after receiving the
 data from the monitoring stations. The stations constantly monitor the orbits of
the satellites and use very precise radar to check altitude, position and speed.
The master control station does the necessary computation to predict the
future path and position of all the satellite.

2) Space Segment: It consists of 24 operational satellites evenly placed in 6

different orbits. All the satellites have a propulsion system to maintain their
orbital path and can be remotely controlled. The angle between each of the 6
orbital planes and the equatorial plane is 55°. The satellites are launched at a
height of 20000 kms above the earth’s surface. The orbital speed of each
satellite is 3.9 km/sec and it takes 12 hrs to complete one orbit. These
satellites are so placed in the orbit that a receiver anywhere on the surface of
the earth can receive signal from minimum 4 satellites with an elevation of
more than 9.5°.

3) User segment: It consists of a receiving antenna receiver with built in

computer and display unit on board ships and other places who use the GPS
facilities. The receiver locks onto one satellite and from this satellite it obtains
the almanac of all the other satellites and there by selects the four most
suitable satellites for position fixing. The fix obtained is displayed on the
display unit along with other in-formations, such as course and speed made
good.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems: One of the first GNSS systems is the well-
known American based Global Positioning System (GPS). Since GPS is not the only
available network, the term GNSS is used to describe all the combined navigation
networks globally. This term includes Russia’s GLONASS, China’s BeiDou-2 and the
European Galileo. As of October 2018, the United States' Global Positioning System
(GPS) and Russia's GLONASS are fully operational GNSSs, with China's Bei Dou-
2Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the European Union's Galileo
scheduled to be fully operational by 2020. India, France and Japan are in the
process of developing regional navigation and augmentation systems as well.
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System: IRNSS is an independent regional
navigation satellite system designed to provide position information in the Indian
region and 1500 km around the Indian mainland. Simply put, the Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is similar to the GPS (global positioning
system) of the US, Glonass of Russia and Galileo of Europe as well as China’s
Beidou. It consists of a constellation of seven satellites.

Features: It is a constellation of total 7 satellite launched in space and a ground

facility on land to receive signals from space satellites. 3 of its satellite Located in
Geostationary orbit and 4 are inclined to geosynchronous orbit. However full NAVIC
system has 9 satellite, 2 on ground in standby mode.
It covers whole India and region surrounding it up to 1500 km.
It provides accuracy up to 20m as claimed by ISRO.
Its apogee (farthest point) is 20,657km and Perigee is 284 km

The satellite weighs average 1330 kg approx. and each have solar panels to
generate 1400wt. A master control facility is set up on land to receive signals from
these satellites.

Areas of coverage:
1.Primary Service Area: To provide accurate position information service to users in
India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its
primary service area.
2.Extended Service Area: It lies between primary service area and area enclosed
by the rectangle from Latitude 30°South to 50°North, Longitude 30° East to 130°
East.

Services Provided By IRNSS: IRNSS would provide two types of services, namely
Standard Positioning Services available to all users and Restricted Services
provided to authorised users. (Encrypted

Differential GPS: DGPS (Differential GPS) is essentially a system to provide

positional corrections to GPS signals. DGPS uses a fixed, known position to adjust
real time GPS signals to eliminate pseudo range errors. An important point to note is
that DGPS corrections improve the accuracy of position data only. Global Positioning
Systems are enhancements to the Global Positioning System which provide
improved location accuracy, in the range of operations of each system, from the 15-
meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 1-3 cm in case of the best implementations.
Each DGPS uses a network of fixed ground-based reference stations to broadcast
the difference between the positions indicated by the GPS satellite system and
known fixed positions. These stations broadcast the difference between the
measured satellite pseudo ranges and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges,
and receiver stations may correct their pseudo ranges by the same amount.

• It is used to enhance the accuracy of a normal GPS.

• In the DGPS system, a DGPS Reference station is situated at a fixed location and it
downloads the GPS data from the satellites.
• A computer at the fixed location calculates the pseudo-range from the GPS
satellites and then compares it with the known ranges for that precise
geographic location.
• It then computes a range error figure which is then broadcast over the MF
band to all mobile stations to improve positional accuracy.
• Corrections may be given in one of the following styles:
1. The position correction in terms of Lat, long, altitude (x, y, z) or,
2. The correction to be applied to pseudo-ranges of each satellite.
• Specially equipped GPS receivers receive the error information and apply
necessary corrections to their own fixes.
• These corrections are valid only within a specified area about the DGPS
ground station.
• On-board receivers may be programmed to auto track DGPS stations, receive
the corrections from them and apply the same to their own fixes.
• DGPS removes common mode errors i.e. errors that are common to both
reference and remote receivers (not multipath and receiver noise). Errors are
more common when receivers are close by.
• In very restricted waters, multipath errors in DGPS can be significant. Hence
it is important to use other means for position fixing such as Radar. The users
GPS receiver always applies the newest corrections received and depending
on the user-to-reference receiver separation and the age of the correction
applied, DGPS can give accuracy of up-to about 1-10 m based on C/A Code
using standard positioning system.
• For maritime use, DGPS monitor stations have been established around the
coast of some 28 countries

Difference between DGPS and GPS:

DGPS: Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to
the GPS (Global Position System). DGPS rely on two stations with accuracy of
10cm.
GPS system based on the satellite technology of 24 satellites and can have the
nominal accuracy of 15 meter.
Different types of DGPS
1-SBAS – Correction messages are sent from Geostationary Satellites, for example,
EGNOS or WASS.
2-RTCMv2 – Correction messages are sent from a static base station, giving 40 – 80
cm accuracy.
3-RTK – Correction messages are sent from a static base station signal giving <2cm
accuracy on RTK enabled units.

World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84): The World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS84) is a datum featuring coordinates that change with time. It is a global
datum, which means that coordinates change over time for objects which are fixed in
the ground. This is because the tectonic plates on which New Zealand sits are
constantly moving, albeit reasonably slowly. In New Zealand this movement is about
5cm per year. This continuous ground movement means that even in the absence of
earthquakes and other localized land movements, WGS84 coordinates are
constantly changing. These are often referred to as dynamic or kinematic
coordinates. Therefore, it is important that coordinates in terms of WGS84 have a
time associated with them, especially where the best levels of accuracy are required.
Currently, WGS 84 uses the Earth Gravitational Model 2008. This geodetic defines
the nominal sea level surface by means of a spherical harmonic’s series of degree
360 (which provides about 100 km latitudinal resolution near the Equator).
Limitations of GPS:
• Inaccuracy, GPS devices rely upon receiving signals from at least four
satellites.
• Lack of Local Knowledge. Local knowledge counts for a lot when
traveling (Location of the receiver).
• Driving Distraction, programming navigation was the
most distracting activity for drivers
• Signal or Battery Failure.
• Reliance on US Department of Defence.
• Privacy Issues.
• Commercial Exploitation.

Alarms Of GPS:
1- Cross track alarm
2- Arrival Alarm
3- Anchor watch alarm
4- Track Side safety margin alarm
5- Man over board alarm
6- Satellite error alarm
7- Power failure alarm

Swinging Circle : Swinging Circle is a ship term used when the vessel is at anchor.
This is the theoretical radius in which the vessel is expected to swing when
at anchor. The radius of the swinging circle is generally calculated as (Number of
Shackles x 27.5 m + Length of the Ship in meters). After anchoring, the officer of
watch (OOW) should ensure that the vessel remains within the Swinging Circle and
that no other vessel anchors within the vessel’s swinging circle plus some safety
distance as decided by the Master. As is evident, the swinging circle is not fixed and
depends on the number of shackles paid out.
Length of cable + Length of Ship
Swinging Circle Radius : = ---------------------------------------------
1853.2

Errors of GPS: As GPS signals travel down to the Earth from space, the layers of
the atmosphere refract and slightly delays the signals, particularly within the
ionosphere. This delay interferes with the range solutions from the GPS receiver on
the ground to the satellite, resulting in positional errors of several meters.
• Satellite clock error: GPS position calculations, as discussed above, depend
on measuring signal transmission time from satellite to receiver; this, in turn,
depends on knowing the time on both ends.
• Upper atmosphere (ionosphere) error: As GPS signals pass through the
upper atmosphere (the ionosphere 50-1000km above the surface), signals are
delayed and deflected. The ionosphere density varies; thus, signals are
delayed more in some places than others.
• Receiver clock error: GPS receivers are equipped with quartz crystal clocks
that are less stable than the atomic clocks used in NAVSTAR satellites.
Receiver clock error can be eliminated, however, by comparing times of
arrival of signals from two satellites (whose transmission times are known
exactly).
• Satellite orbit error: GPS receivers calculate coordinates relative to the
known locations of satellites in space, a complex task that involves knowing
the shapes of satellite orbits as well as their velocities, neither of which is
constant.
• Lower atmosphere error: The three lower layers of atmosphere
(troposphere, tropopause, and stratosphere) extend from the Earth’s surface
to an altitude of about 50 km. The lower atmosphere delays GPS signals,
adding slightly to the calculated distances between satellites and receivers.
Signals from satellites close to the horizon are delayed the most, since they
pass through the most atmosphere.
• Multipath error: Ideally, GPS signals travel from satellites through the
atmosphere directly to GPS receivers. In reality, GPS receivers must
discriminate between signals received directly from satellites and other
signals that have been reflected from surrounding objects, such as buildings,
trees, and even the ground. Antennas are designed to minimize interference
from signals reflected from below, but signals reflected from above are more
difficult to eliminate.

Dilution of Precision: The arrangement of satellites in the sky also affects the
accuracy of GPS positioning. The ideal arrangement (of the minimum four satellites)
is one satellite directly overhead, three others equally spaced nearer the horizon (but
above the mask angle). Imagine a vast umbrella that encompasses most of the sky,
where the satellites form the tip and the ends of the umbrella spines. GPS
coordinates calculated when satellites are clustered close together in the sky suffer
from dilution of precision (DOP), a factor that multiplies the uncertainty associated
with User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE - errors associated with satellite
and receiver clocks, the atmosphere, satellite orbits, and the environmental
conditions that lead to multipath errors).
What can affect GPS accuracy? GPS satellites broadcast their signals in space with
certain accuracy, but what you receive depends on additional factors,
including satellite geometry, signal blockage, atmospheric conditions, and receiver
design features/quality. For example, GPS-enabled smart phones are
typically accurate to within a 4.9 m (16 ft.)

Geometric/Position Dilution of Precision:

GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) or PDOP (position dilution of precision)
describes error caused by the relative position of the GPS satellites. Basically, the
more signals a GPS receiver can “see” (spread apart versus close together), the
more precise it can be. From the observer’s point of view, if the satellites are spread
apart in the sky, then the GPS receiver has a good GDOP. But if the satellites are
physically close together, then you have poor GDOP. This lowers the quality of your
GPS positioning potentially by meters.

Atmosphere Refraction:
The troposphere and ionosphere can change the speed of propagation of a GPS
signal. Due to atmospheric conditions, the atmosphere refracts the satellite signals
as they pass through on their way to the earth’s surface.
To fix this, GPS can use two separate frequencies to minimize propagation speed
error. Depending on conditions, this type of GPS error could offset the position
anywhere from 5 meters.

AIS
Automatic Identification System

• Automatic Identification System (AIS): It is an automated tracking system that

displays other vessels in the vicinity. It is a broadcast transponder system
which operates in the VHF mobile maritime band. Your own ship also shows
on the screens of other vessels in the vicinity, provided your vessel is fitted
with AIS. If AIS is not fitted or not switched on, there is no exchange of
information on ships via AIS. The AIS onboard must be switched on at all
times unless the Master deems that it must be turned off for security reasons
or anything else. The working mode of AIS is continuous and autonomous.

• It is fitted on ships for identification of ships and navigational marks. However,

it is only an aid to navigation and should not be used for collision avoidance.
Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) ashore use AIS to identify, locate and monitor
vessels. The Panama Canal uses the AIS as well to provide information about
rain along the canal as well as wind in the locks.

Types of Information’s Provided by AIS

1.Static Data
2.Dynamic Data
3.Voyage related Data
4.Safety Message

1. Static Data-This information is programmed into the system at the time of

commissioning of the ship and basically consists of the followings
• IMO Number
• Name of the ship
• Ship’s Call Sign
 • Length & Breadth of the ship
• Type of ship
• Location of A.I.S antenna

2. Dynamic Data: This information is derived by interfacing ship’s GPS and other
equipment’s with the help of sensors and mainly consists of the following in-
formations
• Ship’s Position
• Time in UTC (GMT)
• Course over ground
• Speed over ground
• Ship’s heading
• Navigational Status
• Rate of turn
• Angle of heel (optional)
• Pitch & Heel (optional)

3. Voyage Related Data:

This data is to be entered manually by the concerned officer at the beginning of the
voyage and can be amended at any time as & when required. This data can be
protected with the help of a password. The following data is to be fed
• Ship’s draft
• Nature of cargo
• Destination & ETA
• Route Plan (List of main waypoints)

4. Safety Message–Short safety messages are fixed or pre-formatted text

messages are fed into the system and are to be addressed to a specified (one or
more) or to all stations in the area. The content should be relevant to safety
information i.e. ice sighted, buoy not in position or missing etc.

Limitations of A.I.S

• Other ships, specially pleasure craft, fishing vessels, warships and some VTS
stations may not be fitted with AIS or vessels may have their AIS switched off
under certain circumstances (eg. in piracy prone areas)
• User inputs like Heading, speed, ROT, etc may be in error, missing or not
updated.
• Temporary or complete failure of other vessels EPFS may result in DR
position being transmitted.
• Poorly configured or incorrectly calibrated sensors will cause wrong
information to be transmitted, dangerously confusing the receiving vessel.
 • If no sensor is installed or the sensor fails altogether, the AIS will
automatically transmit ‘not available’ data value.

Voyage Data Recorder (VDR):

The main purpose of the Voyage Data Recorder is to record and store ship’s critical
parameters to facilitate the reconstruction of the incident for the purpose of
investigation and analysis. The use of this equipment is now being extended from
the air crafts to the ships as well, so that a more effective casualty investigation can
be carried out. A Voyage Data Recorder will make a major contribution in increasing
the operational safety at sea and efficiency in navigation.
A ship’s VDR is far superior to a black box of an aero plane as it stores a variety
of data and that too for not less than a period of 12 hours. The data records covering
the last 12 hours are continuously overwritten by the latest data.

Benefits (USE) Of Voyage Data Recorder (VDR):

• Accident Investigation
• Response Assessment
• Support in Training
• Promotion of Best Practices
• Reduction in Accidents
• Reduction in Insurance Costs
VDR Modules: Voyage Data Recorder consists of the following modules. It also may
have a replay facility.
• Data Management Module
• Audio Module
• Final Recording Unit
• Remote Alarm Module
• Replay station (Optional)
1-Data Management Module- This unit acquires and processes all the data, so that
it can be stored in the specified format. The data from various sources would be fed
to this unit, as they are interfaced with this unit.
2-Audio Module–This unit consists of an audio mixer for recording the bridge audio
collected from various micro phones placed in the wheel house, bridge wings, engine
room and other critical places. VHF audio signals will be also recorded as it is
interfaced with it.
3-Final Recording Unit-This unit is a crash survival, pressure tight, fire proof and
penetration resistant storage device to store the required data. This would be in the
form of a capsule, resistant to shock, fire & deep-sea pressure. It is to be located in a
suitable place (bridge wings or monkey island)
4-Remote Alarm Unit-Remote alarm unit is a small, connected to data management
unit and will generate audible & visible alarms to indicate any error status in the
equipment.
5-Replay Station-it is optional, used to download and replay the recorded data. It is
to visualize the information graphically and manually so that it can be displayed as
required. This can help in self-analysis and taking correct action.

S-VDR: The primary purpose of a voyage data recorder (VDR) or a simplified voyage
data recorder (S-VDR) is to maintain a store of information, in a secure and
retrievable form, concerning the position, movement, physical status, command and
control of a vessel over the period leading up to and following an incident.

A typical Voyage Data Recorder should be capable of recording the following in-
formations automatically and maintain the record for at least past 12 hrs.
• Date & Time
• Ship’s Position
• Ship’s Heading & Speed
• Bridge Audio
• VHF Communication
• Radar & ARPA data
• Main Alarms
• E/R orders & Response
• Fire Door Status
• Rudder Order & Response
• Wind Speed & Direction
• Hull Stresses & Hull Opening
• Bow Thruster’s Use

Carriage requirements for VDR

• As with all the navigational equipment carried onboard, the VDR also comes
under the purview of the SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 20 as well as Annex
10. The details of it are as follows:
• Passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002
• Ro-Ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 Passenger ships
other than Ro-Ro constructed before 1 July 2002
• Ships other than passenger ships of 3000 GT and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2002
• Cargo ships of 20000 GT and upwards constructed before 1 July 2002.
• Cargo ships of 3000 GT and up to 20000 GT constructed before 1 July 2002

General Operational Requirements

1-The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of pre-selected data items
relating
to the status and output of the ship’s equipment and command and control of the ship.
2-To permit subsequent analysis of factors surrounding an incident, the method of recording
should ensure that the various data items can be correlated in date and t ime during
playback
on suitable equipment.
3-The system should include functions to perform a performance test at any time, e.g.
annually
or following repair or maintenance work to the VDR or any signal source providing data to
the
VDR.
4-This test may be conducted using the playback equipment and should ensure that all the
required data items are being correctly recorded.

Maintenance Of VDR
1-As with all navigational equipment, checks and maintenance are important for proper
operation of any electronic systems.
2-Only qualified personnel should work inside the equipment. 3-As far as routine checks are
concerned, examine the cables for signs of damage and also check that all connections
are rigid.
4-The battery should be replaced every four years, the backup battery must be replaced with
new one by a qualified service engineer.
5-Regulation 18.8 of SOLAS Chapter V states the requirements for maintenance.
6-A certificate stating that the results of such tests were satisfactory is to be retained
onboard.

BNWAS
PURPOSE:
• To monitor bridge activity and detect operator’s disability which could
lead to marine accident.
• To monitor awareness of the OOW and automatically alert the Master
or other qualified Officer if for any reason the OOW becomes incapable
of performing his duties.

WORKING:
• BNWAS achieves its objectives by a series of indications and alarms to
alert first the OOW and, if he is not responding, then to alert the Master
or another qualified officer.
• Additionally, the BNWAS may provide the OOW with a means of calling
for immediate assistance if required.
LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION & TRACKING (LRIT)
The LRIT system provides for global identification and tracking of ships utilizing
the INMARSAT Satellite system. It is a system that requires vessels to
automatically transmit their identity, position and date/time of the position at
6-hourly intervals.
Data to Be Transmitted from The Shipborne Equipment
• Identity - The identifier used by the shipborne equipment.
• Position - The GNSS position (latitude & longitude) of the ship (based on
WGS84 datum).
• Time Stamp -The date and time associated with the GNSS position. (all
time in UTC)
When a ship is undergoing repairs, modifications or conversions in dry-dock or
in port or is laid up for a long period, the master or the Administration may
reduce the frequency of the transmission LRIT information to one transmission
every 24- hour period, or may temporarily stop the transmission of such
information.
PURPOSE OF LRIT:
• To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels
operating under their flag.
• To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels seeking
entry to a port within their territory
• To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels
operating in proximity to the State’s coastline.
ACCESS TO LRIT INFORMATION:
• Flag State: Full access to all ships under their flag.
• Coastal State: Access to enhanced LRIT information & reports. Coastal
state can poll and track ships up-to 1000nm from their coast, but not if
the vessel is in territorial waters of another State.
• Port state: Access to enhanced LRIT information & reports. Port state
can poll & track ships at any distance following a notice-of-port-call
(usually up-to 96H pre-entry), but not if the vessel is in territorial waters
of another State.
• Shipowner: Access restricted to own ships.
• Surveyors: Restricted access to verify LRIT conformance tests.
• Agents and charterers: Selective access if granted by shipowner.
• Piracy prevention task forces – access via a special format.
• SAR services – Authorized SAR services may request and receive LRIT
data for vessels within their SAR area, without any cost. However, the
 cost for communication and data transfer will be borne by Flag of the
vessel from which the data was requested.
• International Data Exchange: Full access to all data so that it can
distribute as required.