TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

ISO 9001:2015 CIP Grade1 (Outstanding)

COURSE NOTES
Naval Architecture Paper-II
Code: UG 21 T 3602 Prepared for Academic Year: 2019 – 2020
Compiled by: Capt. Manoj Kumar Hirkane Reviewed by: Capt. Govindarajan
Krishnaswamy

Table of Contents

Sr. No. Contents Page No

1 Unit 1- Principle of Design (10+5=15 Hrs) 2

2 Unit-2 Shipyard Plans and Practices (10+5=15 Hrs) 7

3 Unit 3 – Various Specialised Ships (7+3=10 Hrs) 17

4 Unit 4 – Ships Corrosion & Control (7+3=10 Hrs) 26
5 Unit 5 Surveys & Classification Societies (7+3=10 Hrs) 31

6 Unit 6 International Tonnage Regulations (7+3=10 Hrs) 35

7 Unit 7 International Load Line Regulations (7+3=10 Hrs) 39
Unit 8 Factor of Subdivision and Criterion Numeral
8 49
(7+3=10 Hrs)
9 Past Question Papers & Solutions

(1) These notes are solely for the purpose of guidance and students are to refer to text and
reference books available.

Unit 1- Principle of Design (15 Hrs)

Syllabus – Common principles governing design and construction of various types of steel ships
with respect to following: Longitudinal, transverse and vertical strength, Continuity of strength,
Strength under static and dynamic conditions and water tightness.
(Ship design & construction – Robert Taggart, Editor Chapter-1)

The economic factor is a prime importance in designing a ship. An owner requires a ship which will
give him the best possible return for his initial investment and running cost.
This means that the final design should be arrived at taking in accounts not only present economic
consideration, but also those likely to develop within the life of the ship. With the aid of computers,
it is possible to make a study of a large number of varying design, and to choose one, which is not
only technically feasible but more important is the most economically efficient.
Principles of ship design
1. Safety – all human activities involve risk. In marine industry one has to accept a certain amount of
risk to life, property and environment. An accidental hazard may take place due to one or more risk
factors occurring simultaneously causing loss of life and property. A design with absolute safety will
be costly and unaffordable. Therefore, a ship is designed to certain acceptable level of safety. This
safety level must be acceptable to owner, builder, classification society, statutory authorities,
operating personnel and society at large. The ship design must consider following for safety
a) Personal safety on board – Bulwark or railings of minimum 1.0 m height. All openings on
freeboard deck must have a sill height/coaming height and fitted with weather tight closing
devices. Scuppers and freeing port for faster drainage of green seas. Openings below the
freeboard deck fitted with non-return valves. Walkways and guard rails for crew on board. Anti-
skid flooring on open decks of passenger ships. Means to rescue people on board in case of
emergency. First aid and dispensary facility.
b) Stability and safety – Sufficient reserve buoyancy, assessment of intact and damaged stability,
monitoring of watertight closing devices on the hull below LWL.
c) Motions and safety – evaluation of stresses in probable extreme sea conditions.
d) Controllability and safety – a vessel should have good controllability to avoid any collision. Good
mooring and anchoring equipment. Emergency facilities and redundancy in equipment.
e) Fire safety – division of accommodation into zones, approved bulkheads, approved material
inside cabins, firefighting arrangements, and escape provisions.
f) Machinery safety – redundancy of critical/important equipment.
g) Rule based design and risk based design.

2. Sustainability – one has to consider technologies and their effect on environment

a) Air pollution due to exhaust gases
b) Energy efficiency design index
c) LNG as a fuel
d) Alternative energy sources
e) Ocean pollution – due to oil, garbage, sewage, ballast water, paints.

3. Efficiency – Powering and resistance, propulsive efficiency, hull efficiency, optimization of

powering.
4. Nature of service requirements – routes, ports, type of cargo,
5. Dimensional requirements – L, B, Draft/Depth restrictions
6. Manpower requirements – as per type of ship, size of ship, national/international requirements.
7. Deadweight displacement ratio and Volume requirements -
8. Seakeeping and maneuverability – minimize amount of water shipped on deck by making a well
flared forward section. The heavily flared forward section will increase pitching. A bulbous bow may
help in reducing pitching. Stabilizers, bilge keels will minimize rolling. Deep draft reduces slamming.
Bottom needs to be extra strengthened to prevent effects of slamming. The ship should have a good
turning ability. She should be able to keep a straight line course.
 9. Strength – Longitudinal strength, transverse strength, torsional strength, fatigue. The hull girder
strength is greater than the load strength of static and dynamic forces.
10. Stability and trim – a ship should be stable in all conditions of loading, trim shall not be excessive.
Stable at small and large angles. Minimum free surface effect, guarded against grain shifting. Ship
can survive after damage.
11. General arrangement -
12. Corrosion factor – in deciding the measures/systems to be used to control corrosion.
13. Economic factor – investment cost and return

The detail steps will depend upon the type of ship. The owner has to say what is needed so the
starting point is a set of requirements.
1. Requirements – requirements will define the functions of the ship and the operational capabilities
it should possess, such as speed, carrying capacity, machinery, accommodation, etc.
2. Design Phases – The characteristics of the ship gradually evolve as decisions are made on how best
to meet the requirements. The machinery must provide enough power and speed. The hull must be
able to withstand a reasonable amount of damage. The electric, hydraulic and air conditioning must
be adequate. To meet these the design process will have four stages. Concept, Preliminary,
contract and detail design.

Concept design or feasibility design:

It translates the mission requirements into naval architectural and engineering
characteristics. It embodies technical feasibility studies to determine such fundamental
elements of the proposed ship as length, beam, depth, draft, fullness, power, speed, cargo
cubic and deadweight. It includes preliminary lightship weight estimate usually derived
from curves, tables or experience. Alternative designs are analysed to determine the most
economical design solution. This design then used to obtain approximate costs.

Preliminary Design:
Preliminary design further refines the major ship characteristics affecting cost and
performance. Certain controlling factors such as length, beam, horsepower, and deadweight would
not be expected to change upon completion of this phase. Its completion provides a precise
definition of a vessel that will meet the mission requirements; this provides the basis for
development of contract plans and specifications.

Information provided by the preliminary design

When the preliminary design is selected, the following information is available: -
(a)DIMENSIONS:
The dimensions are based on cargo carrying capacity of the vessel. For passenger vessel, the
dimensions are based on the height and length of the superstructure containing the
accommodation.
If the maximum length is not specified, then the length should be minimum keeping in mind the
required speed and the form of the vessel. This is because an increase in length produces higher
longitudinal bending stress, where require additional strengthening and therefore a greater
displacement for a same amount of cargo carried.
Breadth should be such, so as to provide adequate transverse stability.
The depth is based on the maximum draft plus statutory freeboard but at the same time an increase
in depth will result in a reduction on the longitudinal bending stress, which provides an increase in
strength or even allow a reduction in the scantling. Therefore, an increased depth is preferred to
an increased length. Draft is controlled with respect to, but if it can be increased, then it will be to
its advantage.
Many vessels are required to make passages through various canals, and this will be limitations on
dimensions. For example, Suez Canal has draft restrictions. Some canal have limitations over height
above the waterline, because of overhead bridges. Some canals may have restrictions over length
and beam.
(b)DISPLACEMENT OF VESSELS:
It consists of the light weight plus deadweight. Lightweight is the weight of vessel, when built.
Deadweight is the weight of cargo, fuel, stores, freshwater, ballast, crew & passenger & their
Baggage.
It is important to keep the light displacement as small as possible, at the same time maintaining
adequate strength of the vessel. Also, since “weight of the cargo” of the total deadweight, is the
earning capacity, the other items should be kept minimum as long as it fulfils all other
requirements.
(c)STATICAL STABIITY AND STRENGTH
When determining dimensions of the vessel, the statically stability curve should be sufficient in all
possible conditions of loading. The beam and depth are the main influences. The statutory
freeboard and shear are important along with distribution of weight in order to arrange layout of
the vessel.
(d)PROPULSION:
The propulsion performed should ensure that the vessel attain the required speed. The form of the
hull should be such that it offers minimum resistance. This will help to ensure that the main engine
with minimum power with economically light machinery is installed with a loss of specified cargo
capacity.
Service speed is the average speed at sea with normal service power and loaded under an average
weather condition. A trail speed is the average speed obtained using the maximum power over a
measured course in a calm weather with a clean hull and specified loaded condition.
A hull form similar to that of a known performance vessel could be used. Tank test of model may
also be used. These provide the designer with the range of speed and corresponding power for
their respective hull form, which could include a change in hull form. Information may also be
obtained from accumulated speed records and Hull test which may be used to prepare the Hull
form. The owner could also specify the type and make of the main propulsion machinery
installation with which his shore and floating personnel are familiar.
(e)GENERAL ARRANGEMENT:
The plan is made in the presence of the owner, with respect to the standard of accommodation,
which is appropriate to the company.
The plan should also take into account, the efficient working of vessel, keeping in mind the
compliances with regulation at various ports on the trade routes.
(f)REQUIREMENTS OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY/ OWNER:
All vessels are built to the requirement of the classification society like IRS (Indian Register of
Shipping), LRS (Lloyd’s Register of shipping), ABS(American Bureau of Shipping) etc. Based on the
standard of classification specified, the structural scantlings will be taken into account by
shipbuilder. The owner can specify the thickness and material requirement in excess of that
required.
The classification society, which must be compliable by the owner, may also ask for any special
structural features with respect to owner’s trade route.
g) CARGO HANDLING
If the ship is going to operate between well-defined ports where cargo handling facilities does not
exist, then the ship has to be provided with cargo gears.
h) Manning/Complement
a significant factor in deciding the size of the ship and general arrangement is the complement of
the ship. This is decided by type of the ship, machinery, automation, policy of maintenance and
national /international requirements.
i)Aesthetics
This applies to both external as well as internal look of the ship. Other actions include removing
clutter, accessible cabling, ducting and piping for easy maintenance.

Contract (Full) Design:

The contract design stage yields a set of plans and specifications which form an integral part of the
ship building contract document. It refines the preliminary design. This stage describes more
precisely such features as hull form based on faired set of lines, powering based on model testing,
seakeeping and manoeuvring characteristics, the effect of propeller/s on hull form, structural
details, use of different types of steel, spacing and type of frames. Estimates of weight and centre
of gravity taking into account the location and weight of each major item in the ship. The final
general arrangement is also developed during this stage. This fixes the overall volumes and areas
of cargo, machinery, stores, fuel oil, fresh water, living and utility spaces and their interrelationship.
The accompanying specifications delineate quality standard of hull and outfit and the anticipated
performance for each item of machinery and equipment. They describe the test and trials that shall
be performed.

Typical plans developed during Contract Design:

Outboard profile, inboard profile, GA Plan, Lines plan, Midship Section, steel scantling plan,
arrangement of machinery, power and lighting system plan, fire control diagram, ventilation and
air conditioning, pumping and piping system, electric load plan, capacity plan, curves of form
floodable length curves, preliminary trim & stability booklet, Preliminary damaged stability booklet.

Typical sections specifications decided in Contract Design:

Structural hull, houses & bulkheads, doors, manholes, hatches, hull fittings, insulation posts, masts,
booms, davits, air conditioning, heating, ventilation, fire detection and extinguishing, navigating
equipment, lifesaving equipment, furniture, plumbing fixtures, cargo stowage and handling, main
and auxiliary machinery, turbines, main propulsion, shafting, bearings, propeller, distilling plant,
FO system, LO system, Sea water system, fresh water system, compressed air system, tanks,
ladders, gratings, floor plates, platforms, walkways, workshops, generators, incinerator, OWS,
switchboards, radio equipment, communication system, batteries, test and trials , and general and
critical spares.

Detail (Build) Design:

It is carried out by the builder’s own design staff, working closely with the production department.
The input is the output from the contract design and CAD system is used to develop the detailed
design. The output is the information needed by the production department to build the ship and
order equipment and material. It includes details of the tests to be carried out as fabrication
proceeds. Tests will include water tightness, operations, stability, sea trials. A mass documentation
is prepared to define the ship for the users and maintainers.

A METHODICAL DESIGN APPROACH – 1. Using a Type Ship, 2. Without a Type Ship

Using a Type Ship is the traditional, evolutionary, process. Having selected a suitable ship of the
right type with required performance abilities, the designer will note the following:
Experience with the type ship indicating how the design might be improved. Specific difference like
better LSA and so on. Changes in regulations to be met on new ship. These changes will be
incorporated into the old design to create a new design. All characteristics can be assessed and a
new design develops in detail.

Without a Type Ship the designer must:

Estimate overall size. An estimate of displacement, principal dimensions and form parameters.
Obtain estimate of power needed to get a speed. Assess the size of crew and accommodation.
Develop the general ship configuration reflecting how the ship is to operate and so on.

Functions, Capabilities and Attributes – It is a good discipline to regard the ship as

-being able to carry out a number of basic functions.
- has a number of capabilities to achieve the functions and
- has a number of attributes which underpin the capabilities.

Functions
Float – at a reasonable draft with adequate freeboard, be stable and able to withstand a degree of
damage. Seaworthy and able to take loads imposed on it in service.
Move –Able to move in controlled fashion at intended speed and manoeuvre satisfactorily.
Trade – Must carry correct amount of cargo in good condition and able to load and unload.

Capabilities
The move function will require capability of achieving desired speed, follow a straight course,
manoeuvre in confined waters, stopping at reasonable distance. The capability for trade function
is ability to load, carry and discharge cargo in good condition within intended time.

Attributes
The designer must build in certain inherent attributes that enable the ship to carry out its functions
economically and efficiently. The ship must possess attributes such as stability, strength,
maneuverability, seaworthiness, a good internal environment, less noise and vibration, cargo
handling system, navigation system, sensors and actuators, anchoring and mooring system.

Inter-dependencies
Designer can produce diagram showing how the various elements of a design combine and interact
to give it a specific capability. For eg. to meet speed element, the ship will need
-main machinery
- uptakes and outtakes
- Fuel, cooling water, lubricating oil
- gear box
- shaft, bearings, stern tube, propeller, etc.
These major elements will entail supporting equipment /systems such as tanks, pumps, piping,
electrical supplies, etc. The dependency diagram will show how all these elements are linked and
how failure of any one element would affect the overall speed capability.

ACTION BY THE DESIGNER

Apart from meeting all the legal requirements, a designer should:
1. Consider whether any novel features of a design require special considerations.
2. Look for potentially weak spot which can be improved. Cost of improvement will be small if action taken
in the design process.
3. Use dependency diagram to establish where duplication of equipment is desirable.
4. Ensure the design intent is carried through the ship’s service life.
5. Carry out failure mode effect analysis of critical equipment and system
6. Consider probability of occurrences of damage and survivability.
Unit-2 Shipyard Plans and Practices (15 Hrs)
FromSC Capt Erol Fernandes Ch-III

Syllabus – General ideas on various plans supplied by shipyard. An outline knowledge of shipyard
practice and procedures. Preparation for launching and Sea trials.

Fig 2.1
Fig 2.2

Fig 2.3
 Fig 2.4
A ship is built for a specific purpose. The purpose being carriage of cargo or passengers, etc. the
ship must be of a particular type, size and capacity.
In the initial stages the owner has a very broad idea of what kind of ship he desires to build and this
is known as Concept Design. The Naval Architect gives further shape to owner’s ideas and a
Preliminary Design is drawn up.
1. Preliminary Design – Important points considered while drawing the preliminary design.
a. Dimensions – The main dimensions of length, breadth and depth must be considered keeping in mind
the intended use or the market for the ship.
A longer length permits a larger freeboard, but it increases the bending moments experienced by the
ship and to counter this she must have extra stiffening which will increase the lightship and cost.
A large breadth gives better transverse stability, however the angle of flooding reduces for a given draft.
Also a large breadth will be a disadvantage when passing through locks and canals. Besides large breadth
will have larger water resistance which will reduce the speed.
A greater depth increases the strength of the hull girder reducing bending moments and hence reducing
scantlings required, however there may be draft limitations in some of the ports needs to be considered.
b. Displacement – The carrying capacity or the deadweight of the ship must be maximized. The lightship
weight must be minimum so as to have maximum deadweight at any displacement. The ship must have
a proper weight to volume ratio. Some ships require large volume and some require more capacity to
carry weight.
c. Strength and Stability – The ship will have sufficient strength to withstand stresses such as shear force,
bending moments and torsional stresses in all her life. The strengthening shall take into account such as
length, breadth, depth, sheer, freeboard, load density, openings in decks, superstructures, machinery,
lifting appliances, etc. The ship must fulfill all IMO stability criteria in all service conditions.
d. Propulsion – The size of the main engine will depend on the ship’s size and service sped requirements.
The engine selected on criteria such as power, weight, type and quantity of fuel consumption, cost, hull
form and maintenance requirements.
 e. General Arrangement – layout will mainly depend on the type of ship and for a particular type of ship on
the means to achieve an efficient and safe operation of ship. It will also depend on safety regulations,
company’s policies and national and international regulations.
f. Classification Society Regulations – The plans, materials, welding electrodes, scantlings, equipment and
testing will have to be approved by classification society and a certificate of class will be issued to the
vessel. All IMO regulations will obviously have to be complied with.
g. Special features – Like Great Lake fittings, Australian hold ladders, strengthening for ice, etc.

Once these factors are decided a fuller design can be prepared which is known as a Contract Design.

2. Contract Design – This design can be circulated to various shipyards through tenders and quotations
obtained for construction of the ship.

3. Sequence of events in the construction of a ship

a. Ship Design
b. Drawing of Plans – Sheer Plan (Side view), Half Breadth Plan (Top view), Body Plan (End view)
c. Approval of Plans
d. Filling of Plans – Table of offsets and fairing, Mould loft(full scale), 1/10 scale plan, 1/100 glass negatives,
Numerical controls, CAD/CAM
e. Transfer of Plan to Plate – Traditional mould loft, Optical marking, Numerical controller, Computer
controlled flame profilers.
f. Plate preparation – Issue of plates, Grit blasting, Priming
g. Plate and Sections – Marking, Cutting, Machining, Bending & Shaping
h. Production of sub-assemblies and assemblies
i. Fabrication of units
j. Erection and welding
k. Launching
l. Trials, Tests & Certification.

4. Ship Building Practice

a. Prefabrication – The introduction of welding gave rise to the process of prefabricating sections instead
of starting from the keel and riveting parts together from the bottom upwards. With prefabrication, the
parts of the ship assembled into large sections or blocks in the shop, not on the building ways or the
erection dock. Plates and sections are cut, machined and sent to different bays for sub-assembly. Curved
shell plates, frames, etc. are held in position by clamps or placed on jigs and tack welded into position.
The size of the sub-assembly is determined according to the shipyard resources. Plate length for
machining or welding, block weight and dimensions, ability for pipe-fitting, etc. are some of the
considerations that determines sub-assembly size.
As much machinery and piping as possible for each sub section are fitted in place during shop assembly.
With CAD/CAM every small fitting can be listed, assembled and lifted with the prefabricated unit.
The sub sections are then moved to the building ways or the erection dock. The C.G. is calculated and
lugs fitted for lifting so that the sub-assembly can be lowered into position and welded to the main body.
This technique is developed by each shipyard through proper design, quality control and experience.
Erection sequence is done considering the shipyard resources, but in general starts from aft to forward
and bottom to top.
DB Tanks – Transverse bulkheads – side shell with frames – wing tanks – deck units with girder – mast
houses – Accommodation modules – deck fittings – wiring – Final painting.
Prefabrication has developed into an advanced shipbuilding technique over a period of years and is
extensively used today.
Advantages of prefabrication –
1. Assembly and prefabrication can be carried out in sheltered conditions on the shop floor.
 2. Facilities like tools, jacks, cranes, electrodes, gases for cutting, electric power and compressed air are
easily available.
3. Vertical and overhead are kept to a minimum by the ability to turn units over resulting in time saving and
better results.
4. Work in inaccessible, uncomfortable and dangerous positions are reduced.
5. Proper planning can reduce labour, time and material and the shipbuilding sequence can be controlled.
6. Jobs can be contracted out to specialist while the shipyard retains the overall responsibility of assembly.
b. Lines Plan – The form of the ship can be determined by passing a set of parallel planes through the hull at regular
intervals and measuring the outline of these planes. The plan that defines the outline of the ship by use of such
planes is known as the Lines Plan.
When the planes are vertical and parallel to centerline, a Sheer Plan is obtained which is a side view of the ship.
When the planes are horizontal and parallel to the waterline the form obtained is a Half-Breadth Plan which is a
bird’s eye view of the ship.
When the planes are vertical and perpendicular to the centerline, a Body Plan is obtained which is an end view
of the ship.
The scale of lines plan may vary from 1:50 for small ships to 1:200 for large ships.
The Sheer Plan and Half-Breadth Plan are often overlapped.

c. Sheer Plan – For the sheer plan the ship is divided into convenient equally spaced ordinates called design stations.
At the fore and aft ends where the change of shape is greater, half ordinates are used for greater accuracy. The
plan is divided vertically by equidistant horizontal lines called water lines. The fore and aft outline of the ship forms
bow and buttock lines. These depict the contour of the stem and stern. It is conventional to draw the starboard
view. The information like sheer of the deck, position of side stringers, location of transverse frames, arrangement
of superstructure, etc. can be found from this plan.
d. Half-Breadth Plan – The half breadth plan is drawn for half of the ship only. It is conventional to draw the port
side. This plan is usually superimposed on the sheer plan. Waterlines appear curved while bow and buttock lines
are straight. It shows the shape of the waterplane at different waterlines, shape of decks, position of transverse
bulkheads, etc.
e. Body Plan – The body plan shows the transverse sections at designed stations which appear as curved shapes. The
portside is used to depict the forward part of the ship and the starboard side the aft part. Waterlines appear as
straight lines. The body plan shows the shape of frames, transverse bulkheads, floors, knees, margin plates,
position of girders, longitudinal, decks, panting beams, stringers, tank top, etc.
This plan is used to obtain values for various parameters needed for the calculation of ship’s particulars such as;
1. Block co-efficient, prismatic co-efficient, waterplane area co-efficient
2. Displacement at various drafts
3. Transverse and longitudinal centres of buoyancy
4. TPC, BM, BML, MCTC, CF, etc.
5. Cross curves of stability
6. Wetted surface areas
7. Resistance calculations
8. Flooding calculations
9. Strength calculations,
10. Hold capacities and tank capacities
11. Approximate tonnage
12. Launching calculations.
f. Lofting and fairing – The actual construction of any type of ship is complicated by the various curves of the hull,
the compound angles formed by the joints between the various structural members, and the necessity of
producing hull that is absolutely symmetrical and fair (having regular curves and surfaces that are smooth).
Because of these requirements, it is almost impossible to build any form of ship directly from small scale plans,
as is done in the case of other kind of structures. Instead the ship builder, before beginning work, must resort
to the practice of lofting or laying down, the lines of the ship.
After the lines plans are approved, the gaps between the design stations need to be filled in so as to get a full
scale picture of the ship. Since the plans only depict dimensions or profiles at design stations, the interval
between the stations needs to be filled out and faired so as to obtain the smooth curve between two stations.
From the lines plan a table of offsets is drawn up. This table of offsets is actual numerical values of dimensions
obtained from the lines plan. It is a list of half breadths, lengths at various waterlines and at various distances
from the centerline, heights of decks, the deck stringers, tanktop, etc. The measurements are taken at each of
the design stations. The table is then sent to loftsmen for fairing.
Lofting consists essentially of preparing in full size an exact skeleton plan of the hull to be built. Computers and
dedicated programs for shipbuilding are used wherein the table of offsets is fed in and the full scale plan is
drawn with fairing done automatically. This plan is saved in a wire frame model and can be rotated and viewed
from any angle, and dimensions of any individual section can be obtained from this.
g. Transfer of plan to plate – After fairing, the full scale plan of the ship structure used to be laid down on the flat
floor of a special room or building known as the mould loft. From this plan the builder determines the
dimensions and forms of the frames and plates which will make up the ship structure. Paper or wooden patterns
called templates, of the pieces of the hull are then constructed from this plan and are used in the building shops
to cut and form the plates and frames to the required configuration.
Due to the inconvenience of laying it down full size by specially skilled draftsmen using improved drawing
techniques and precision equipment such as beam compasses, magnifying verniers, microscopes and magnifying
glasses. The paper used has great stability of temperature and humidity, clear transparency and no smudging of
ink.
The lines are drawn accurately with a uniform thickness outside, so that the cut plate is of exact dimensions.
Templates are taken from this plan and photographed with high precision reproduction equipment resulting in
transparencies one-hundredth of full size. These negatives are scheduled in a circular magazine for the plate
cutting program.
The original one-tenth plan or the one-hundredth transparencies may then be input directly into photo electric
automatic gas cutting machines (flame profilers) which read the data and cut the plate accordingly.

h. Drawing Office or Optical Detailing or Design Office – The one-hundredth size negatives are projected from a
projection tower onto a plate. The negative and plate distance is correctly adjusted and the image is focused so
that the magnification is exactly 100 times. The outline is then marked off using cord and chalk or hammer,
punch and paint. The traditional method was gradually replaced by Drawing Office or Optical Detailing or Design
Office.
The advantages of optical marking are many:
1. A full size mould loft became redundant
2. Drawings could be made under ideal conditions and in advance
3. Use of material for making template is eliminated
4. Time saved and faster progress in shipbuilding
5. More centralized control of production
6. Ships of similar design can be constructed in any shipyard.
7. The methods is extenable to computerization.

i. Use of Computers - The handling of complex mathematical calculations became easier using computers.
Computers made the ship calculation and mathematical fairing very quick and accurate. The ship’s hull form
was defined by a series of equations and using the table of offsets as inputs, a 3D mathematical representation
of the ship’s structure could be defined.
The computer generated form of the ship could be used to produce following;
1. One-tenth scale drawings for photo electric gas cutting machines
2. One-hundredth scale negatives for the projection tower and manual cutting
3. Magnetic tapes or punched tapes for numerically controlled machines
4. Floppy diskettes for computer controlled flame profilers or robots.

Other particular such as displacement, stability, subdivision, strength, etc. could also be
 mathematically calculated. Computers are also used for research in hydrodynamics, ship motions,
structural analysis, etc.
Today CAD/CAM software programs for ship construction are available which can be run on
ordinary PCs. These programs can be design a ship according to one’s own requirements. Besides hull
design and production of plans it is also possible to calculate hydrostatics and stability, internal
structural design, strength, wind and sea resistance and power requirements. Several add-on modules
are available with the basic design software. E.g. a pipeline module would enable pipelines to be laid
out in the ship design taking into account supporting plating, stiffeners, support pads, expansion joints,
U-bolts and fasteners, etc. This information would be included in dwt calculations, plate cutting and
prefabrication, material requirements and so on. Classification societies have developed software
which takes into account classification society regulations.
For bending the plate, it calculates the amount of heat required at every point and uses
computer controlled induction heating to bend the plate to required curvature.

j. Numerical Controls – These machines are operated and controlled by the insertion of numerical data. Numerical
data is a sequence of numbers which describe the profile of the part to be produced. This numerical data may
be contained in a variety of ways on magnetic tapes, punch tapes or punch cards. The data contains instructions
to the flame profiler which cuts the plate according to the data fed into it. This numerical data is prepared by
the computer from the mathematical hull form. Other machines such as hydraulic frame benders and welding
machines may also be controlled by numerical data. A large number of steel pieces which make up the ship can
be identified with the unique number according to various criteria such as type of material, thickness of plate,
location on ship, etc. It is thus possible to cut, dispatch and track the movement of various parts of the ship from
the stockyard to the fitting berth. Once the work is scheduled for the day, the various parts required can be
adjusted within the plate in the most economical manner so as to have the minimum wastage. This is known as
Nesting.
A more advanced version of Numerical Controlled machines are computer controlled machines or robots. These
machines can be made to perform a large number of repetitive and risky jobs with a higher output and lower
cost. They can be used for grit blasting, painting, cutting, welding, bending or shaping.

Progress of a plate from stockyard to ship

a. Steel Stockyard – Plates and sections stored in open in the stockyard where they may be affected by
mill scale and rust. The plates have an identification code according to the unit for which they have to
be used. Plates are handled by Electric Overhead Travelling (EOT) Cranes or gantries. They pick up the
plates and put them on rollers or conveyors. Prior to being marked, the plate may go through the plate
straightening, shot blasting and painting process.
b. Plate straightening
c. Blasting and painting
d. Edge preparation
e. Cutting, Drilling, Bending, shaping
Sub-assembly halls/bays
5. Testing
6. Launching of a ship – The ship may be assembled on the building ways or in a dock. In the latter
case, when the hull is completed, the dock is flooded and the ship is floated out. Docks are used in
the assembly of very large ships. Most other ships are assembled on the building ways. The ways
are on ground above the edge of the water and slant towards the water. When the ways are at the
right angles to edge of the water, the ship is end launched. When the water is narrow, the ways may
be parallel to it in that case the ship is side launched. The ways consist of two sets of heavy timbers-
the fixed ways which extend on either side of the ship from the point of building to below the high
water mark and the movable ways, which slid on the fixed ways and support the weight of the ship
by means of an elaborate wooden cradle. The fixed and movable ways are firmly fastened together
so that the ship will not move on the ways until the moment of launching arrives.
 When the ship is ready for launching, the cradle is set in position, the keel blocks used during
building are removed, and the surfaces of both the fixed and movable ways are heavily lubricated.
At that time the spikes or other fastenings holding the ways are released and the ship slides down
into the water of its own weight. The construction of ways and the launching of ships, particularly
large ones are precise and delicate operations.

7. Sea trials – Prior to handing over the vessel to the owner extensive trials of the vessel will be carried
out at sea to ensure that she complies with speed, power, consumptions and other specifications
and that there are no adverse loads, vibrations, etc. of the hull, superstructure and main engine.
The trials are carried out in shelter water often used for this purpose, the requirements being
minimum of wind and current, adequate depth of water, sea room, no traffic and the presence of
measured mile markers. These are two sets of leading lights are beacons exactly one mile apart. The
ship is brought on to the course generally perpendicular to the direction of the markers with the
engines on full ahead. The time of passing the leading lights in line is carefully observed by telescope
and noted by stopwatch. Two independent observations are done from the forward and aft part of
the vessel and the time averaged. An up and down run on reciprocal courses is carried out to nullify
the effect of any current, if present.

Unit 3 – Various Specialised Ships (10 Hrs)

Syllabus – Types of ships. General ideas on strength and construction, Mid-ship sections of
specialized carriers- Passenger ships, LASH, Ro-Ro, refrigerated cargo carrier, Liquified Gas Carrier
(LNG & LPG), (chemical tankers.
1. Types of Ships
2. Strength, Construction and Mid ship sections of
a. Passenger ship
b. LASH
c. Ro-Ro
d. Refrigerated Cargo Ship
e. Liquefied Gas Carrier (LNG & LPG)
f. Chemical Tanker

Passenger ship – Ship Construction by Capt Cornel Valentine D’Mello

1. Large amounts of superstructure is an interesting feature. Several tiers of decks are fitted with large
open lounges, ballrooms, swimming pools and promenade areas.
2. Any ship more than 12 pass is considered a pass ship as per SOLAS convention. In construction of the
ship SOLAS requirements predominate in relation to subdivision, intact stability, damaged stability and
structural fire protection. Rules take into account global and local stress consideration of these ships,
particularly in respect to the large superstructures fitted.
3. The superstructures are constructed of aluminium alloys, which reduce the weight and improve
stability.
4. Stabilizers and bow thrusters are provided.
5. Flooding detection system for watertight spaces below the bulkhead deck.
6. Main engine must have reserve power to maintain schedule. Other machinery must hav stand by
provisions.
7. Fig Page No.96– Midship section (CS by Capt D’mello)

LASH ( Lighter Aboard Ship) – (NA & SC by AS Tambwekar

1. Dumb barges (lighters) loaded with cargo are bodily lifted and placed aboard the ship. Stern of the ship
is shaped to bring a floating lighter in position. It is lifted by a gantry crane and placed aboard as
required. Accommodation is nearer to the forward end. This type of ship is suitable for trade between
ports connected with Inland Waters.

2. LASH barges are loaded at inland river and shallow ports. Then, the barges are towed to ocean port's fleeting
areas to meet the LASH mother vessel. On arrival, the mother vessel crane lifts the LASH barges onto the
ships. LASH cargo does not require transshipment as the movement from the origin to destination takes place
with a single bill of lading.
3. An important technical problem raised by the invention of the new transport system was the shape of the
lighters. Several other designs, differentiated mainly by the shape of the lighters and the loading mechanism,
were proposed, but the LASH system found the largest range of applications. In this approach, the lighters
were individually lifted onto the carrier ship by a large crane located at the stern of the ship. The crane could
move the entire length of the ship and stack the lighters atop each other in the ship's body and on the deck.
The cranes had a load-carrying capacity of more than 500 Mp. Loading or unloading a lighter took on average
fifteen minutes. LASH ships were constructed in Europe, Japan the USA with almost uniform parameters.
4. OHP of Lash sketches from internet.

5. Lash
Fig 3.1

Fig. 3.2
 Fig. 3.3
RO-RO Cargo Ship
1. Carry vehicles or vehicles loaded with cargo.
2. Vehicle decks without obstructions. Decks are supported by pillars.
3. Limited transverse bulkhead. Web frames and web beams provide transverse strength to hull girder.
Longitudinal framing in bottom and upper.
4. Risk of loss of stability due to FSC.
5. Bilge pumping or draining arrangement fitted for each deck.
6. Detection and monitoring system for flooding, is fitted in spaces below the bulkhead deck.
7. Watertight door fitted behind the forward ramp for safety.
8. Fixed firefighting system provided for vehicle decks.
9. Fig of RO-RO Midship section SC by SSC Page 94, SC by D’Mello Page 94

Special features of Ro-Ro ships- (SC by Capt Errol Fernandes Page 274 )
a. Internal bulkheads impede the movement of vehicles. The transverse watertight run up to
freeboard deck because of operational restrictions and even then they have large openings,
protected by sliding watertight doors.
b. Stability is poor because of high G. Chances of large FSE and loss of GM.
c. The ship is generally B60 or B100 with a low freeboard because of large effective length of
superstructure. This facilitates entry of water if bow or stern doors are leaking.
d. Fire integrity is difficult. This is overcome by horizontal zoning and provision of firefighting
equipment.
e. Rolling causes excessive stresses. Also problem of synchronized rolling.
f. Difficult cargo securing.
g. Ship has large windage area.

Bow and stern door and ramps

a. Ships have several decks connected by ramps and elevators.
b. All opening to lower decks from freeboard deck are closed by weathertight covers.
c. Ramp may serve as hatch cover when horizontal.
 d. Bow and stern doors are above freeboard deck and are closed weathertight. Doors are used as
ramps, distortion of ramps takes place.
e. Stern ramps are angled for the ship to berth along a wharf.

Strength
a. Longitudinal, transverse and vehicle deck strength must be sufficient.
b. SF and BM are more in ballast condition.
c. Side doors to be carefully designed to provide longitudinal strength.
d. Transverse strength must be enough to withstand torsional stresses and effects of rolling. Torsional
boxes are used.
e. To avoid obstruction on deck pillars are only placed at centre line. Transvers Strength is provided by
web frames, transverses and beams. Combined system of framing is used with transverse frames
and webs providing transverse strength and longitudinal supporting decks and tank top and
providing longitudinal strength.

Stability
a. The GM of the vessel is small. A good GM will result in easy motions. Cargo securing will affect by
violent rolling. Stabiliser fins are provided on RoRo ferries.
b. The stability gets reduced in case of flooding.
c. Stability requirements in the damaged condition are very high.
d. Vessel has to meet severe wind rolling criterion for the intact stability of passenger and cargo ships.

Chemical Tanker (SC by Capt SSChaudhary Page 81-83)

1. Transports chemicals in bulk.
2. Cargo tanks made of stainless steel or coated with phenolic epoxy or zinc paint.
3. Tank heating system to maintain viscosity of certain cargo.
4. Modern ships have separate pumps and piping for each tank.
5. Tank cleaning after discharge is important.
6. Type1 ship –products with very severe environmental and safety hazards which require max
preventive measures to preclude an escape of cargo.
7. Type2 ship –products with appreciably severe environmental and safety hazards which require
significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of cargo.
8. Type3 ship – products with sufficiently severe environmental and safety hazards which require a
moderate degree of containment.
9. Lining of cargo tanks can be used to categorize chemical tankers.
10. Corrugated bulkheads used for better tank cleaning.
11. Longitudinals and other strength members are provided outside the tanks.
12. Sketches of midship sections.

Liquified Gas Carriers ( SC by Capt Errol Fernandes Page 266 to 271)

 Fig 3.5
a. Gasses are liquefied by pressure, refrigeration or by a combination of both for transportation.
b. Some cargoes are liquefied by pressuring. Temperature of Cargoes which have critical temp below
ambient temp is brought down below critical temperature by refrigeration and then pressurized.
c. The BP of LNG is -163◦C. The ductility of space is lost at this temperature and it becomes brittle.
Cryogenic materials used to overcome this problem. Nickel is added to steel to make it more ductile.
d. No insulation is perfect and the temperature of cargo does go up due to conduction of heat to the
tanks. Tank pressure increases and safety valve lift to release the pressure resulting in cargo loss
and pollution. It can happen if no reliquefaction system on board. Other ships the boil off is
pressurized, cooled , reliquefied and recirculated to the tank
e.

Refrigerated Cargo Ships

a. General cargo ships with large refrigerated spaces. All cargo refrigerated then it is called refrigerated
ship or Reefer.
b. Used for transport of perishable cargo which require temperature controlled spaces.
c. Fitted with large refrigerators. A lot of space is taken by the insulation.
d. Ships are fast and hulls painted white to reflect the sun heat.
e. Strengthening is done similar to general cargo ships . Explain in detail?
 Fig. 3.6

Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers

Q4. (a) Categorise different types of Chemical Tankers and Sketch location of their Cargo Tanks,
as per IBC Code. (5)
Answer 4a) Types of Chemical Tankers

Chemical cargoes can be very dangerous, most of them being flammable and/or toxic, some of
them extremely so. The IBC Code defines three ship types (ST) of chemical tankers: ST1, ST2, and
ST3.

– ST1 is a chemical tanker intended to transport most dangerous products, which require maximum
preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo. Accordingly, a type 1 ship should survive
the most severe standard of damage stability and its cargo tanks should be located at the maximum
prescribed distance onboard from the shell plating.

– ST2 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring significant preventive

measures.

– ST3 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring moderate degree of

containment to increase survival capability in a damaged condition.
The IBC Code lists, in its fourteen chapters, the requirements that must be satisfied by a ship prior
to it being certified as a chemical tanker regardless of the specific cargoes it is intended to carry.
Within each chapter the designer is given an option of the level of compliance required. If
compliance with the more onerous requirements is chosen, the ship will be more sophisticated and
will therefore be able to carry the more hazardous cargoes.

Tank capacity limitation:

ST 1 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 1,250 m3 in any one tank

ST 2 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 3,000 m3 in any one tank

ST 3 : There is no filling restriction for chemicals assigned to Ship Type 3 Cargo Tank

Tank location:

Cargo tanks shall be located at the following distances inboard – MEAN OF DOUBLE BOTTOM
HEIGHT TO THE BASE LINE OR MOULDED LINE (ABOVE THE BOTTOM PLATE).

ST 1 : from the side shell plating, not less than the transverse extent of damage (B/5 or
11.5mwhichever is less), and from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not
less than the vertical extent of damage (B/15 or 6 m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760
mm from the shell plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising
from tank washing.

ST 2 : from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not less than the vertical
extent of damage ( B/15 or 6m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760 mmfrom the shell
plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising from tank washing.

ST 3 : no requirement
Q.4 (b) Classify & Explain different types of Gas Carriers as per IGC Code. (5)

Answer 4b) Types of Gas carriers as per IGC Code

Ships should be designed to one of the following standards:
1. A type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
maximum preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
2. A type 2G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
significant preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
3. A type 2PG ship is a gas carrier of 150 m in length or less intended to transport products indicated
in Chapter 19 which require significant preventive measures to preclude escape of such cargo, and
where the products are carried in independent type C tanks designed for a MARVS of at least 7 bar
gauge and a cargo containment system design temperature of -55° c or above. Note that a ship of this
description but over 150 m in length is to be considered a type 2G ship.
4. A type 3G ship is a gas carrier intended to carry products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
moderate preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
Thus a type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended for the transportation of products considered to present
the greatest overall hazard and types 2G/2PG and type 3G for products of progressively lesser
hazards. Accordingly, a type 1G ship should survive the most severe standard of damage and its cargo
tanks should be located at the maximum prescribed distance inboard from the shell plating.
Gas Carrier Cargo Tank Location as per IGC Code
Cargo tanks should be located at the following distances inboard :
1. Type 1G ships: from the side shell plating not less than the transverse extent of damage specified
from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centreline not less than the vertical extent of
damage specified and nowhere less than 760 ㎜ from the shell plating.
2. Types 2G/2PG and 3G ships: from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centre-line not
less than the vertical extent of damage specified and nowhere less than 760 Ô from the shell plating.

For the purpose of tank location, the vertical extent of bottom damage should be measured to the
inner bottom when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the bottom of the
cargo tanks. The transverse extent of side damage should be measured to the longitudinal bulkhead
when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the side of the cargo tanks (see
figure 2.1). For internal insulation tanks the extent of damage should be measured to the supporting
tank plating.
Except for type 1G ships, suction wells installed in cargo tanks may protrude into the vertical extent of
bottom damage specified that such wells are as small as practicable and the protrusion below the
inner bottom plating does not exceed 25% of the depth of the double bottom or 350 ㎜ , whichever is
less. Where there is no double bottom, the protrusion below the upper limit of bottom damage
should not exceed 350 ㎜. Suction wells installed in accordance with this paragraph may be ignored in
determining the compartments affected by damage.

Fully Refrigerated LPG Carrier - Prismatic Tank – Independedt Type a Tank -

Sketch and describe an independent prismatic tank Type A used on fully
refrigerated LPG ships.
Fully refrigerated ships carry LPG at temperatures between -550C and -0.50C.
The tanks are made from carbon-manganese steel and are insulated.
An independent prismatic tank has double bottom tanks, together with topside
or complete side ballast tanks. Prismatic free standing tanks are the most
common, being supported on wooden chocks and keyed to the hull to permit
expansion and contraction. This type of tank usually has an internal centerline
bulkhead to improve stability and reduce sloshing. A secondary barrier is
normally provided to protect against leakage by the use of special steels for
the tank tops, and the hull sheerstrake and upper ballast tanks. The hold is
usually inerted. The tanks are not built to withstand pressure much more than
atmospheric pressure. Relief valves are set to lift at pressure of 1.2 bar which
is slightly more than atmospheric pressure.

Unit 4 – Ships Corrosion & Control (10 Hrs)

Corrosion is a natural process, which converts refined metal to their more stable oxide. It is the
gradual destruction of materials by chemical reaction with their environment.
1. Corrosion Triangle
Corrosion is an electro-chemical reaction between the metal and the environment.
Metal, water and Air (Oxygen) are the three sides of the corrosion triangles.
 The marine atmosphere contains water to a large extent (In vapour form) and sea water has oxygen
dissolved in it. Thus corrosion takes place on ship above water as well as underwater areas. We
apply paint on the metal to prevent air and water coming in contact with metal.
2. Erosion
Erosion corrosion is a degradation of material surface due to mechanical action, often by
impinging liquid, abrasion by a slurry, particles suspended in fast flowing liquid or gas,
bubbles or droplets, cavitation, etc.
Erosion also results in destruction of a metal but, unlike corrosion, it is a purely mechanical means.
Abrasion removes protective coatings and exposes the metal surface to the atmosphere resulting
in corrosion.
Some of the examples of erosion are; crude oil passing through pipelines,
Use of bulldozers in the cargo hold.

3. The Corrosion Reaction – The process of corrosion involves a flow of electrons. Hence it is called an
electro-chemical reaction. Whenever a metal is placed in an electrolyte, a reaction takes place,
metal tends to come back to its stable state. i.e. the outermost orbit will tend to give off or receive
electrons so as to become saturated. To react or to corrode, a metal must give off electrons, forming
an ion. This ion combines with other positively charged ions in the corrosion process. The greater
the tendency of a metal to give off electrons, the greater its reactivity. The more electrons are
released, the greater will be the difference in charge or the electrode potential. The more negative
potential means the metal has a greater tendency to release electrons and get corroded. The more
noble metals are mostly inert and more positive.
4. The Galvanic Cell – Consider two electrically connected metals, copper and zinc placed in an
electrolyte copper sulphate. The metals are electrodes. Electrons flow from one metal to the other.
The one which loses electrons is called the anode and the one which gains electrons is called the
cathode. This combination of electrodes, electrolyte flow of electron is called a galvanic cell.
Zinc ions are discharged from the anode into the solution. Thus the anode gets corroded. The
electrons travel from the zinc anode to the copper cathode. Thus the cathode becomes negatively
charged. The zinc ions which are discharged into the solution, displace copper from the solution and
these positively charged copper ions are attracted to the negatively charged cathode where they
get deposited. Thus the zinc anode gets corroded and the copper cathode gets protected.
5. Factors Affecting Corrosion –
Humidity – The rate of corrosion increases with humidity. At less than 65% humidity, corrosion
hardly takes place.
Availability of Oxygen – In open spaces oxygen is available in abundance and therefore more
corrosion. In enclosed spaces, corrosion proceeds only as long as the oxygen is available. In inerted
tanks corrosion is very much reduced. The more corrosion takes place at the water surface rather
than at great depths and is visible between the light and load waterline on the shipside.
Temperature – Higher the air temperature, the greater the rate of corrosion in the atmosphere. In
water however, as the temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen decreases, so the two counteract
each other.
Velocity of ship – The more the velocity of water along the steel surface, the more plentiful the
oxygen supply, resulting in greater corrosion. Corrosion is more at the inlets and outlets on the
shipside because of differing temperatures, along the waterline and at the stern region because of
increased oxygen supply due to turbulence.
Nature of the metal - More the reactivity of metal, the more will be the possibility of the metal
getting corroded.
Concentration of electrolyte - Rate of corrosion increases with concentration of electrolyte.

6. Types of Corrosion

1. Uniform Corrosion - This type of corrosion develops as pit of very small diameter, in the order of a
micrometer, and results in a uniform and continuous decrease in thickness over
the entire surface area of the metal. Here the rate of corrosion is uniform over the entire exposed
metal. In natural environment, oxygen is the primary cause of uniform corrosion of steels and other
metals and alloys.

How to prevent uniform corrosion? Uniform corrosion or general corrosion can be

prevented through a number of methods:

• Use thicker materials for corrosion allowance

• Use paints or metallic coatings such as plating, galvanizing or anodizing
• Cathodic protection (Sacrificial Anode or Impressed Current -ICCP) and Anodic
Protection
2. Galvanic Corrosion – Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical
contacts with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte or when the same metal is
exposed to electrolytes with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal
(Anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (Cathode) corrodes at a slower
rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of metal(s) to use
is readily determined by the galvanic series. For example, Zinc is often used as sacrificial anode for
steel structures.

Bimetallic Corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion)

Bimetallic corrosion occurs when two metals are in direct contact with each other or indirectly in
contact through an electrolyte.

Electric currents flow usually between two dissimilar metals which causes the more anodic of the
two metals to corrode, the noble or cathodic metal being unaffected.

The current flows as a potential difference exists either between the two pieces of metal or between
the different parts of the same metal, and an electrolyte such as moisture is present at the contact
point.

The severity of bimetallic corrosion is dependent on the metals involved, their relative surface areas
and the conductivity of the electrolyte present. Generally, the level of bimetallic corrosion will
normally be greater in an immersed than an atmospheric environment.

Areas most susceptible to bimetallic corrosion: -

1. Welded areas
2. inlets and outlets to the tanks and on the ship side
3. Valves composed of different metals
4.Aluminium superstructure on steel decks
5. Propeller areas.
Prevention of bimetallic(galvanic) corrosion are: -
1. Use of an insulating material between the dissimilar metals such that they are not in direct
electrical contact. This effectively breaks the electrical circuit so the current can’t flow.
2. Preventing the electrolyte from bridging across the two metals.
3. Crevice Corrosion - Crevice Corrosion refers to the localized attack on a metal surface at, or
immediately adjacent to, the gap or crevice between two joining surfaces. The gap or crevice can
be formed between two metals or a metal and non-metallic material.

It is another destructive form of localized corrosion. It usually occurs in the areas under deposits
where free access to the surrounding environment is restricted. Crevice corrosion is caused on
contact of metals with metals or metals with nonmetals, for example, gaskets, couplings, and joints.
It may occur also at washers, under barnacles, under applied protective films, and at pockets formed
by threaded joints.

4. Pitting Corrosion -This localised form of corrosion is characterized by the formation of irregularly
shaped cavities on the surface of the metal. Their diameter and depth depend on several
parameters related to the metal, the medium and service conditions.

Pitting corrosion can be assessed using three criteria; the density, i.e. the number of pits per unit
area, the rate of deepening and the probability of pitting.
5. Dealloying/ dezincification – It is the removal of one solid element from alloy by corrosion process.
Dealloying is also called dezincification/ selective leaching or parting.

6. Intergranular Corrosion - The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated
by grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack along the grain boundaries, or
immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of the grains remain largely unaffected.
This form of corrosion is usually associated with chemical segregation effects (impurities have a
tendency to be enriched at grain boundaries) or specific phases precipitated on the grain
boundaries.
Exfoliation corrosion is a further form of intergranular corrosion associated with high strength
aluminum alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise worked heavily, with a microstructure
of elongated, flattened grains, are particularly prone to this damage.

7. Erosion corrosion - It is a degradation of material surface due to mechanical action, often by

impinging liquid, abrasion by a slurry, particles suspended in fast flowing liquid or gas, bubbles or
droplets, cavitation, etc. Erosion also results in destruction of a metal but, unlike corrosion, it is a
purely mechanical means. Abrasion removes protective coatings and exposes the metal surface to
 the atmosphere resulting in corrosion. Some of the examples of erosion are; crude oil passing
through pipelines, Use of bulldozers in the cargo hold.

Cavitation (Erosion corrosion) is formed when the operational pressure is dropped below the vapor
pressure of the fluid, causing the formation of gas bubbles that collapse at an increased velocity on
the surface of the material.
In a liquid, where there is turbulence due to rotation, vibration, etc., vacuum cavities are formed by
the generating force, e.g. in a propeller region, pumps, etc. These vacuum forces act on metal
momentarily and collapse with astounding force. This causes the paint and metal to break and
erode, and open the way for electro-chemical corrosion to take place.

Fretting (Erosion corrosion) is corrosion damage at the asperities of contact surfaces. This damage
is induced under load and in the presence of repeated relative surface motion, as induced for
example by vibration. The amount of damage increases as the normal force between the surfaces
is increased

Impingement corrosion (Erosion corrosion) is generally associated with the local impingement of a
high velocity, flowing fluid against a solid surface. The localized turbulence removes the protective
coating and exposes the metal as the anode, results in formation of anodic and cathodic areas. If
the anodic area at the impingement site is large as compared to cathodic area, the corrosion will
be light. However, if the cathodic area is large as compared to anodic area, then the corrosion will
be severe. This form of attack occurs at inlets/outlets at the shipside and at water level at bow.

8. Stress Corrosion - When a metal is subjected to stresses, such as bending, cold work or heat
treatment, the alignment of the grains in the metal are disturbed. Thus anodic areas are set up
which corrode and lead to failure.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can
lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metal alloys subjected to a tensile stress,
especially at elevated temperature.
 Stress corrosion

9. Corrosion by bacteria – Some of double hull tankers showed excessive corrosion

at the bottom of the cargo tanks. Black slimes were found, along with a Hydrogen
Sulphide smell. These indicated presence of Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB’s).
These bacteria have threshold of activity above 35 deg Celsius. In single hull
tankers the sea water generally cooled the steel and hence no corrosion problem.
Corrosion is normally seen as localized pits, filled with a black ferrous product.

Corrosion Cell in a drop of water:

Corrosion Control methods -
For preventing corrosion, the metal is to be isolated from air and water. There are three methods
of corrosion protection used on ships.
1. Excluding the corrosive environment
2. Inhibitors
3. Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection -
In cathodic protection the metal to be protected is forcefully made cathode. This is done by two
methods, cathodic protection by sacrificial anodes and impressed current systems.

1. The Sacrificial Anode System

Sacrificial Anodes are highly active metals that are used to prevent a less active material surface
from corroding. The anode is connected to the metal to be protected (cathode). The sacrificial
anode will be consumed in place of the metal it is protecting, which is why it is referred to as a
"sacrificial" anode.

Metals or alloys that have more anodic potential than steel when immersed in sea water are fitted
to the ship's hull. These anodes supply the cathodic protection current to the hull. But will be
consumed in doing so and therefore require replacement for the protection to be maintained.

Zinc anodes have been used for many years in way of bronze propellers and other immersed fittings.

Sacrificial anodes may be fitted within the hull, and are often fitted in ballast tanks. However,
magnesium anodes are not fitted in the cargo tanks of oil carriers owing to the ‘spark hazard’. Should
any part of the anode fall and strike the tank structure it may lead to explosion and fire hazard.

The weight of anode required to protect a given area of the ship's hull is given by
W = (I x A x H) / (1000K)
where, W = weight of the anode in kilogram,
I = current in milliamps / sq.m
A = Area to be protected in sq.m
H = duration of protection in hours
K = constant of the material, for Zinc K= 760 aH/kg@ 90% efficiency
2. Impressed Current System
An electric current is impressed on the metal to be protected opposite to the corrosion current.
An alternating current is fed from the ship’s mains to a rectifier which converts it into a direct current
before supplying it to the anodes. The anodes are made of a relatively noble metal such as lead or
silver. Any corrosion cells which may be formed on the anode get cancelled and corrosion of the
anode is controlled.

The anodes are cast in a fiberglass bodies and fitted in recessed boxes on the ship’s hull. The cables
are led through special ducts conforming to stringent construction regulations. Maintaining the
exact current is important as a low current will provide inadequate protection, while a higher
current will damage the paintwork and cause blistering.
The system must be switched off when alongside jetty.

Fig 4.1
 Painting -
• Purpose
• Surface Preparation
• Surface Preparation Standards
• Descaling Compounds
• Safety Precautions
• Surfaces not to be painted
• Composition of Paints
• Primer
• Undercoat

Purpose -
• Protecting metal from corrosion
• Ensuring vessel remains in good condition
• Reduction in drydocking cost
• Improving ship's appearance

On ships the steel can be protected from corrosion by coating it with paint, which isolates the steel from
environment. However most paints are porous and together with poor application procedure the metal
can't be protected for too long. The surfaces are repainted before corrosion sets in. Corrosion is
controlled by routine maintenance program of spot rust removal, priming and coating with paint. The
life a paint depends on how well it adheres to the steel surface and hence surface preparation becomes
very important.

Surface preparation for painting -

• Remove salt contamination by Freshwater wash

• Remove dirt, grease, oil
• Steel preparation

Surface preparation standards - The Swedish standards are more commonly used as compared to Steel
Structures Painting Council (SSPC) standard

SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning

Solvent cleaning is a method for removing all visible oil, grease, soil, drawing and cutting compounds,
and other soluble contaminants from steel surfaces. It is intended that solvent cleaning be used prior to
the application of paint, and in conjunction with surface preparation methods specified for the removal
of rust, mill scale, or paint.

SSPC-SP 2 St 2, Hand Tool Cleaning

Non Power Hand tool cleaning removes all loose mill scale, loose rust, loose paint, and other loose
detrimental foreign matter.

SSPC-SP 3 St 3, Power Tool Cleaning

12. Painting
a. Types of paints – alkyd, bituminous, Chlorinated rubber, Vinyl, Epoxy, Polyurethane paints
b. Paint thickness -
c. Paint defects -
 d. Painting the Ship- The paint used must be appropriate for the degree of protection required at
the particular area. The principal areas requiring different forms of treatment are the
underwater plating, boot topping region, the topsides, the weather decks and superstructure.
Preparation and priming – the surface preparation must be good. The steel plates are first shot blasted to
remove all traces of rusting and mill scale. The usual requirement is Swedish Standard Sa2.5. For over 12
months protection of stored plates, high zinc primer is applied. But it causes problems during welding
process. Low zinc primers are used which emit less fumes during cutting & welding.
Underwater areas – The underwater and boot topping plating region will have paint types with anti-
corrosive and anti-fouling properties.
The boot topping region is, more likely to suffer damage due to mechanical abrasion (erosion) and the
action of waves. A good primer is applied first, then the particular type of paint and a final coat of anti-
fouling paint.
Topsides and superstructures are usually adequately coated with primer, an undercoat and a finishing paint.
Since appearance is of more importance paints good colour and gloss retaining properties such as alkyd
resins and enamels.
Weather decks require exceptionally good resistance to wear and abrasion and some non-slip properties.
The paint should also be resistant to oil, chemicals and cargo carried by the ship.
Tanks - Ballast, cargo and fresh water tanks require special coatings. A lot of structural failures on tankers
and bulk carriers have been attributed to tank coating failure and subsequent corrosion. The splash zone or
ullage space of tank is most severely attacked due to the constant aeration of the liquid. Such conditions are
a particular problem in ballast tanks, which are alternatively filled and emptied. Ballast tank coatings are
generally applied in two applications to provide a more uniform film thickness. A typical coating standard
for ballast tanks might require surface to be pretreated to Sa 2.5, a primer of 15 microns followed by one or
two coats of paint of 200 microns dry film thickness.
Drinking water tanks are coated with non-taint coatings.

11. Antifouling - condition for merchant ship is a key factor in deciding the fuel efficiency of the ship. The
application of protective coating of anti-fouling paints results in a smooth hull devoid of any marine
fouling, which decreases the frictional resistance caused by the water flow. The anti-fouling paints
decrease the load on the engine and increase fuel efficiency.
With time, marine fouling and sea condition roughens the hull surface of the ship. As the frictional
resistance caused by the water flow over the hull increases, the engine has to consume more fuel to
overcome this resistance which adds on to the normal fuel consumption of the ship.

What does Anti-fouling convention require?

That ships shall not apply or re-apply Organotin compounds which act as biocides and that ships either:
1. Shall not bear such compounds on their hulls or external parts or surfaces; or
2. Shall bear a coating that forms a barrier to such compounds leaching from the underlying non-
compliant anti-fouling systems

What is TBT and Why was it banned?

Tributyltin or TBT is a biocide which came into being in the 1970s’ because of its brilliant anti fouling
properties over ship’s hull as it prevents the growth of algae, barnacles and other marine organisms.
However, TBT was phased out of use from 1st Jan 2008 by IMO due to following reasons:
TBT’s harmful effects causes disruption of endocrine system of marine shell fish which leads to the
development of male sex characteristics in female snails.
It also impairs the immune system of organisms and malformations of the shell of shellfish.
Since then several types of anti-fouling paints have come to the market. As the rules
of IMO regarding anti-fouling paints become stringent day after day, the paints have become more
environmental friendly with least effect on the marine environment.
 `The key elements of the convention for your ships and assets are:
Ban of application, re-application, installation and use of AFS containing organotin compounds
123acting as a biocide (TBT)
Ships must carry an International Anti-Fouling System (IAFS) Certificate as evidence of compliance
with the convention

Question & Answers

Naval Arch-2 Unit-4 Corrosion - CHLP-4.1 23.03.20

Question - What are the factors affecting corrosion?

Answer – Following are the factors affecting corrosion: -

Humidity – The rate of corrosion increases with humidity. At less than 65% humidity, corrosion
hardly takes place.

Availability of Oxygen – In open spaces oxygen is available in abundance and therefore more
corrosion takes place. In enclosed spaces, corrosion proceeds only as long as the oxygen is available.
In inerted tanks corrosion is very much reduced. The more corrosion takes place at the water surface
rather than at great depths and is visible between the light and load waterline on the shipside.

Temperature – Higher the air temperature, the greater the rate of corrosion in the atmosphere. In
water however, as the temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen decreases, so the two counteract
each other.

Velocity of ship – The more the velocity of water along the steel surface, the more plentiful the
oxygen supply, resulting in greater corrosion. Corrosion is more at the inlets and outlets on the
shipside because of differing temperatures, along the waterline and at the stern region because of
increased oxygen supply due to turbulence.

Nature of the metal - More the reactivity of metal, the more will be the possibility of the metal
getting corroded.

Concentration of electrolyte - Rate of corrosion increases with concentration of electrolyte.The

presence of salt (or any electrolyte) in the water accelerates the reaction because it increases the
conductivity of water, effectively increasing the concentration of ions in the water and
so increasing the rate of oxidation (corrosion) of the metal.

Naval Arch-2 Unit-4 Corrosion - CHLP-4.1 24.03.20

Question – What are the different types of corrosion?

Answer:-

1. Uniform Corrosion - This type of corrosion develops as pit of very small diameter, in the order of a
micrometer, and results in a uniform and continuous decrease in thickness over the entire surface
area of the metal.
 The rate of uniform corrosion can be easily determined by measuring the mass loss, or the quantity
of released hydrogen.

2. Galvanic Corrosion – Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical
contacts with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte or when the same metal is
exposed to electrolytes with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal
(Anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (Cathode) corrodes at a slower
rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of metal(s) to use
is readily determined by the galvanic series. For example, Zinc is often used as sacrificial anode for
steel structures.
Bimetallic Corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion)
Bimetallic corrosion occurs when two metals are in direct contact with each other or indirectly in
contact through an electrolyte.
Electric currents flow usually between two dissimilar metals which causes the more anodic of the
two metals to corrode, the noble or cathodic metal being unaffected.
The current flows as a potential difference exists either between the two pieces of metal or between
the different parts of the same metal, and an electrolyte such as moisture is present at the contact
point.
The severity of bimetallic corrosion is dependent on the metals involved, their relative surface areas
and the conductivity of the electrolyte present. Generally, the level of bimetallic corrosion will
normally be greater in an immersed than an atmospheric environment.

3. Crevice Corrosion - Crevice Corrosion refers to the localized attack on a metal surface at, or
immediately adjacent to, the gap or crevice between two joining surfaces. The gap or crevice can
be formed between two metals or a metal and non-metallic material.
It is another destructive form of localized corrosion. It usually occurs in the areas under deposits
where free access to the surrounding environment is restricted. Crevice corrosion is caused on
contact of metals with metals or metals with nonmetals, for example, gaskets, couplings, and joints.
It may occur also at washers, under barnacles, at sand grains, under applied protective films, and at
pockets formed by threaded joints.

4. Pitting Corrosion - This localised form of corrosion is characterized by the formation of irregularly
shaped cavities on the surface of the metal. Their diameter and depth depend on several
parameters related to the metal, the medium and service conditions.
Pitting corrosion can be assessed using three criteria; the density, i.e. the number of pits per unit
area, the rate of deepening and the probability of pitting.

5. Dealloying/ dezincification – It is the removal of one solid element from alloy by corrosion process.
Dealloying is also called dezincification/ selective leaching or parting.

6. Intergranular Corrosion - The microstructure of metals and alloys is made up of grains, separated
by grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion is localized attack along the grain boundaries, or
immediately adjacent to grain boundaries, while the bulk of the grains remain largely unaffected.
This form of corrosion is usually associated with chemical segregation effects (impurities have a
tendency to be enriched at grain boundaries) or specific phases precipitated on the grain
boundaries.
Exfoliation corrosion is a further form of intergranular corrosion associated with high strength
aluminum alloys. Alloys that have been extruded or otherwise worked heavily, with a microstructure
of elongated, flattened grains, are particularly prone to this damage.

7. Erosion corrosion - It is a degradation of material surface due to mechanical action, often by

impinging liquid, abrasion by a slurry, particles suspended in fast flowing liquid or gas, bubbles or
 droplets, cavitation, etc.Erosion also results in destruction of a metal but, unlike corrosion, it is a
purely mechanical means. Abrasion removes protective coatings and exposes the metal surface to
the atmosphere resulting in corrosion.Some of the examples of erosion are; crude oil passing
through pipelines,Use of bulldozers in the cargo hold.
Cavitation (Erosion corrosion) is formed when the operational pressure is dropped below the vapor
pressure of the fluid, causing the formation of gas bubbles that collapse at an increased velocity on
the surface of the material.
In a liquid, where there is turbulence due to rotation, vibration, etc., vacuum cavities are formed by
the generating force, e.g. in a propeller region, pumps. These vacuum forces act on metal
momentarily and collapse with astounding force. This causes the paint and metal to break and
erode, and open the way for electro-chemical corrosion to take place.
Fretting (Erosion corrosion) is corrosion damage at the asperities of contact surfaces. This damage
is induced under load and in the presence of repeated relative surface motion, as induced for
example by vibration. The amount of damage increases as the normal force between the surfaces
is increased
Impingement corrosion(Erosion corrosion) is generally associated with the local impingement of a
high velocity, flowing fluid against a solid surface. The localized turbulence removes the protective
coating and exposes the metal as the anode, results in formation of anodic and cathodic areas. If
the anodic area at the impingement site is large as compared to cathodic area, the corrosion will
be light. However, if the cathodic area is large as compared to anodic area, then the corrosion will
be severe. This form of attack occurs at inlets/outlets at the shipside and at water level at bow.

8. Stress Corrosion - When a metal is subjected to stresses, such as bending, cold work or heat
treatment, the alignment of the grains in the metal are disturbed. Thus anodic areas are set up
which corrode and lead to failure.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can
lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metal alloys subjected to a tensile stress,
especially at elevated temperature.

Q.3 Describe the Corrosion Control methods used on ships.

Answer:
For preventing corrosion the metal is to be isolated from air and water. There are three methods of
corrosion protection used on ships.
1. Excluding the corrosive environment
2. Inhibitors
3. Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection -
In cathodic protection the metal to be protected is forcefully made cathode. This is done by two
methods, cathodic protection by sacrificial anodes and impressed current systems.

1. The Sacrificial Anode System

Sacrificial Anodes are highly active metals that are used to prevent a less active material surface
from corroding. The anode is connected to the metal to be protected (cathode). The sacrificial
anode will be consumed in place of the metal it is protecting, which is why it is referred to as a
"sacrificial" anode.
Metals or alloys that have more anodic potential than steel when immersed in sea water are fitted
to the ship's hull. These anodes supply the cathodic protection current to the hull. But will be
consumed in doing so and therefore require replacement for the protection to be maintained.
Zinc anodes have been used for many years in way of bronze propellers and other immersed fittings.
Sacrificial anodes may be fitted within the hull, and are often fitted in ballast tanks. However,
magnesium anodes are not fitted in the cargo tanks of oil carriers owing to the ‘spark hazard’. Should
any part of the anode fall and strike the tank structure it may lead to explosion and fire hazard.
The weight of anode required to protect a given area of the ship's hull is given by
W = (I x A x H) / (1000K)
where, W = weight of the anode in kilogram,
I = current in milliamps / sq.m
A = Area to be protected in sq.m
H = duration of protection in hours
K = constant of the material, for Zinc K= 760 aH/kg@ 90% efficiency

2. Impressed Current System

An electric current is impressed on the metal to be protected opposite to the corrosion current.
An alternating current is fed from the ship’s mains to a rectifier which converts it into a direct current
before supplying it to the anodes. The anodes are made of a relatively noble metal such as lead or
silver. Any corrosion cells which may be formed on the anode get cancelled and corrosion of the
anode is controlled.

The anodes are cast in a fiberglass bodies and fitted in recessed boxes on the ship’s hull. The cables
are led through special ducts conforming to stringent construction regulations. Maintaining the
exact current is important as a low current will provide inadequate protection, while a higher
current will damage the paintwork and cause blistering.
The system must be switched off when alongside jetty.
Unit 5 Surveys & Classification Societies (10 Hrs)
Syllabus - An outline knowledge of the role and functions of Classification Societies, Various
classification societies and IACS, Surveys for assignments & retention of class.

Several certificates are necessary for a ship to trade. In order to obtain these certificates vessel
must comply with applicable regulations. This requirement makes it necessary for a ship to go
through several surveys.

Once the ship is built it will go through an initial survey. It is the most extensive survey. The ship
will be issued with a certificate usually for five years subjected to ship passing periodical surveys
(annual surveys and intermediate surveys). Before expiry a renewal survey subsequent to which
the certificate is renewed for further five years.

The certificates the ship has to carry are prescribed by IMO and other organisations. IMO surveys
are carried by Flag State Administration (Govt of the country) where the ship is registered and the
certificates issued are STATUTORY or TRADING certificates. In India it is done by DG Shipping.

The FSA can authorize the job of survey and certification to Classification Societies as they are the
most competent bodies. The scope of surveys and certification which has been given to the class
must not be confused with the survey carried out by class on its own behalf for issuing the
certificate of class. Since June 1996 this has become statutory certificate. The duration of
Certificate of Class is 5 years.

Role of Classification Societies

1. They are independent, non-profit making organization.
2. They are group of professional experts, technologically competent.
3. Cargo owners, insurers wanted reliability of ships from some independent source. Class fulfils this
purpose.
4. It is mandatory that the ships are classed with a recognized classification society.
5. IACS endeavours to maintain high standards among its members.

Functions of Class
1. Publish rules and regulations for construction and classification.
2. Publish a register of all ships classed with them.
3. Supervise ship construction.
4. Recommend and verify the repairs.
5. Conduct Class surveys.
6. Conduct IMO surveys on behalf of FSA.
7. Research into ship design, strength of material, etc.
8. Provide valuable input to IMO.
9. Carry out bunker analysis, etc.

International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) -

Over 90% of the world’s merchant shipping tonnage is classified by the 12 member societies of the IACS.
Dedicated to safe ships and clean seas, IACS makes a unique contribution to maritime safety and regulation
through technical support, compliance verification and research and development. IACS was formed in 1968
to promote high standards in safety, pollution prevention and to liaison closely with the shipping industry
and organisations.
IACS members class a huge number of ships and most international administrations use the IACS members
rules and regulations as the basis of their fleet’s license to operate including compliance with mandatory
requirements.

The members carry out surveys each year and otherwise as well as playing an active part in the workings of
the IMO. It has a voice in the development of international conventions and also in providing technical
support to member states of the IMO. This extent of the reach of the IACS eliminates substandard ships and
increases the sophistication of ship design and operations.

IACS members -
1. ABS American Bureau of Shipping (USA)
2. BV Bureau Veritas (France)
3. CCS China Classification society
4. CRS Croatian Register of shipping
5. DNV GL Det Norske Verita and Germanischer Lloyd
6. IRS Indian Register of shipping
7. KRS Korean Register of Shipping (South Korea)
8. LR Lloyd's Register (UK)
9. PRS Polish Register of Shipping (Poland)
10. RINA Registro Italiano Navale (Italy)
11. RS Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (Russia).
12. Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (Class NK)

Assignment of Class -
Certificate of Class is assigned to a vessel upon a survey, which is held in order to verify whether it
is eligible to be classed on the basis of the Class Rules.
This may be achieved through:
• the completion of new building, during which a survey has been performed
• a survey when the vessel changes class between recognised classification societies
• a specific admission to Class Survey, in cases where a ship is classed with non-recognised societies or
not classed at all.

Classification Society Surveys for Certificate of Class-

• Initial Survey for issue of certificate
• Annual Surveys at the anniversary date (+ 3 months)
• Intermediate Survey at halfway date (+ 6 months)
• Bottom survey in dry dock / under water survey
• Tail shaft survey in dry dock
• Auxiliary boiler survey
• Special Surveys at every 5 years
• Alternatively CHS and CMS
• Enhanced Survey Program
Issue of Certificate of Class -
1 . Vessel is surveyed by the class during construction.
• The class reviews, approves the plans and documentation submitted as required by the rules.
• Proceeds, if required with the appraisal of the design of materials and equipment used in
constructions of the vessel and the inspection at works.
• Class carries out surveys or obtain appropriate evidence to satisfy itself that the scantlings and the
construction meet the rule requirements in relation to the reviewed drawings.
• Class attend tests and trials provided for in the rules.
• Assigns the character of classification.
2. Vessel classed with a recognised classification society -
• In this case, vessel will be admitted to the class upon satisfactory surveys and verification of
documents.
3. Vessel not classed with a recognised classification society -
• In this case the class of the vessel will be assigned upon a preliminary review/ approval of the
documentation and subsequent satisfactory completion of the surveys.

Certificates issued by Class - Class Certificate

Class designation
• It is the character of classification i.e. a sequence of abbreviations indicating the extent of
compliance with the applicable rules.

Memoranda
• Any information deemed noteworthy for convenience of class as well as defects or deficiency
which do not affect the class or the maintenance of the class, are to be indicated as memoranda.
Memoranda are not to be regarded as condition of class.

Condition of Class
• A defect or deficiency affecting the Class, and which has to be dealt with within a limited period
of time is indicated as condition of Class recommendation. A condition of Class recommendation
is pending until it is settled. where it is not settled by its limit date, the condition of Class
recommendation is overdue.

Change of ownership -
In the case of change of ownership, the vessel retains its current class, provided that;
• Class is informed of the change in due time and able to carry out any survey deemed appropriate,
and
• The new owner expressively requests to keep the current class, involving acceptance of class
general terms and condition of Rules

Suspension and withdrawal of the Class -

The Class may be discontinued either temporarily or permanently. In the former case it is referred
to as "suspension" of Class, in the latter case as "withdrawal" of Class.
Suspension of Class -
• when a vessel is not operated in compliance with rule requirements, such as in cases of services
or conditions not covered by the service notations, or trade outside the navigation restrictions
• when a vessel proceeds with more draft then that assigned, or has the draft marks placed on the
sides in position higher then assigned or in cases of vessels where draft marks or not assigned
• when the owner fails to inform the Class in order to submit the vessel for a survey after defects
or damage affecting the class have been detected
• when repairs, alterations or conversion affecting the Class or carried out without requesting the
attendance of Surveyor or not to the satisfaction of surveyor.
• Surveys have not been completed by its limit date.

Withdrawal of Class -
• at the request of the owner
• when the causes that are given rise to suspension currently in effect have not been removed within
6 months after due notification of suspension to the owner.
• when the vessel is reported as constructive total loss
• when the vessel is lost
• when the vessel is scrapped

Lay-up and recommissioning of laidup vessels -

• Upon expiry of the Class, a survey substituting the Class renewal survey will have to be performed.
An entry on the class renewal will be made in the Class Certificate, with the notation Laidup and
indicated in the register.

Tests
• As for as practicable the machinery including electrical installation as well as special equipment and
installations Classed will be subject to operational trials at the manufacturers premises.
• When the machinery, electrical installation or special equipment installations are of novel design or
not yet sufficiently proved their efficiency and reliability under actual service conditions on board,
Class will require performance of trials under specified severe conditions.

Trials on board
• Upon completion of the vessel, all hull, machinery including electrical installations as well as special
equipment installations Classed will be subjected to operational trials in the presence of surveyor
prior to and during the navigation trials. This will include, e.g.:
• tightness, operational and load test of tanks, anchoring equipment, hatches and hatch covers, side
doors, ramps, etc.
• operational and load tests of machinery, installations and equipment of importance for the
operational safety of the vessel.

During a final survey checks will be made to ensure that any deficiencies found,
for instance during the navigation trials , have been eliminated.

Surveys for maintenance of Class -

For maintenance of Class, the regular periodical and non periodical surveys of
hull and machinery, including electrical installations as well as special
equipment to be performed.
The periodical surveys include -
• Class renewal survey
• Annual and intermediate survey
• bottom survey
 • propeller shaft survey
• boiler survey

Non periodical surveys -

• updating classification documentation, e.g. change of owner, flag, name, port of registry
• damage or suspected damage
• repair or replacement work
• alterations or conversions
• postponement of surveys or condition of Class recommendations.

Annual Survey -
Annual survey is done between 3 months before to 3 months after the anniversary date. It includes
a general inspection of the relevant structure and equipment of the ship to confirm that it has been
maintained in accordance to the regulations and is in satisfactory condition.
Intermediate Survey -
The intermediate survey becomes due 2.5 years after the commencement of the period of Class,
has to be carried out between 6 months before to 6 months after this date. It is an inspection of
specified items to confirm that they are in satisfactory condition. Depending on the age of the ship
the scope may range from that of an annual to that of a renewal survey.
Renewal Survey -
It is conducted to renew the certificate every 5 yars. It is the inspection of the structure, machinery
and equipment, to verify that their condition is in compliance with the requirements of the
regulations

Continuous Hull Survey (CHS) and Continuous Machinery Surveys (CMS)

Class surveys are carried out annually and five yearly (special surveys). Ships staff was required to
prepare entire ship for special survey which was very difficult, time consuming, and ship could not
do routine operation. To avoid this CHS and CMS system was developed.
The owner does not have to open up the hull and machinery and hold up the ship every year and
every 5 years for class special surveys. Instead different items are opened up and inspected on a
continuous basis during the period of 5 years. The society provides a quarterly report to the ship
of the items that are due for the survey during that quarter. The ship’s status of surveys is updated
in the society’s data. The survey is divided into two parts. Hull and Machinery. While CMS are still
carried out, CHS are replaced by the Enhanced Survey Program (ESP) on bulk carriers and tankers.

Enhanced Survey Programme (ESP)

The history of the types of ships such as bulk carriers and tankers is filled with accidents and
disasters, both of small-scale and gruesome types. Many of these accidents were a result of faulty
machinery or lack of safe handling practices which forced the maritime authorities to introduce a
particular survey type know as ESP or Enhanced Survey Programme. The rules apply regardless of
size, to self-propelled oil tankers, product carriers and dry bulk cargo vessels (but not container
ships, forest product carriers, general cargo ships, RORO,etc)
IMO adopted a resolution A 744 (18) in 1994 SOLAS conference with guidelines on the Enhanced
survey programme for inspection and surveys of bulk carriers and tankers.

What is Enhanced Survey Programme?

Enhanced survey programme is a guideline for shipping companies and owners to prepare their
ships for special surveys to maintain the safety of the vessel while at sea or at a port. A survey
programme (a Planning document for surveying and paperwork) is to be developed by the owner
and is to be submitted to the recognised authorities such as classification societies, 6 months
before the survey.
Enhanced Survey programme is developed in such a way that it can be integrated with other
surveys which are performed at following intervals:
– Annual
– Intermediate Survey
– Dry Dock Survey
– Renewal Survey
Features of Enhanced Survey Programme –
1. Survey planning
2. Document file
3. Improved thickness measurement
4. Harmonisation between dry-dock and renewal surveys
5. Extended intermediate survey.
6. Possible annual examination of tanks/spaces
7. Phase out of CHS

For a company to comply and perform an ESP or an enhanced survey program, it needs to design
an enhanced survey programme, which must include the step by step planning to implement the
special survey. It can be said that the ESP is conducted to check the watertight integrity of the ship
by inspecting the following areas of the ship:
1. Close-up survey of the structures such as Shell, frames, bulkheads etc.
2. Thickness measurement of hull
3. Inspecting and Testing of Cargo Tanks
4. Inspecting and Testing of Ballast Tanks
5. Inspection and Testing of Hatch Covers and Coamings
6. Inspecting and Testing fuel tanks, side and double bottom Tanks

Planning of survey-
A specific survey program is worked out in advance and submitted to class for approval.
Areas/spaces to be prepared for survey by cleaning, descaling and rigging means of access by
stages, movable platforms, rafts, etc. The planning of the survey is done by two methods:
1. Mandatory minimum survey program – Take into account mandatory minimum requirements for
Overall Examination, Close-up Survey and Thickness measurements prescribed by class.
2. Survey based on Survey Planning Document – This document identifies critical structural areas with
high risk based on ship’s structural features, operational features and damage/repair history. It
stipulates location, extent and means of close-up examination. Because of this, the low risk areas
examinations is reduced.

The survey planning document contains:

a. Ship’s particulars
b. Plans of tanks, cathodic protection, condition of coating
c. Corrosion risk nominated tanks
d. Design risk nominated structures
e. Spaces nominated for close-up examinations
f. Areas nominated for thickness measurement

Acceptable corrosion allowance for areas

Risk nomination is an assessment and evaluation of the risk of deterioration of the structures. It
Considers following:
a. Design features such as use of high tensile steel
b. Local stress concentrations
c. History of corrosion, buckling, cracking, repairs carried out on same or sister ships
d. Information on condition of the paint and cathodic protection.

Document file is to provide complete information about structural condition of the ship. It includes
a. Survey Report File – Hull survey reports, hull summary, thickness measurement report, survey
planning document.
 b. Supporting Documentation – Plans of tanks/holds, cargo/ballast history, repair history, inspection
reports of ships staff, reports on leakages from bulkheads/pipelines, condition of coatings/
corrosion prevention system, etc.

Corrosion and coating – substantial corrosion is an extent of corrosion where the wastage is in
excess of 75% of allowable corrosion margins but within acceptable limits.
a- Dimension when new
b- Acceptable minimum thickness
c- Acceptable maximum margin
d- Substantial corrosion.

b bb d d
a

Coating condition is defined as :

GOOD – minor spot rusting
FAIR – local breakdown of coating at edges of stiffeners and weld connections and/or light rusting
over 20% area.
POOR – coating breakdown in general over 20% or more area or hard scale over 10% areas.

What to check in ESP?

• Ship’s structural damage or deformation
• Corrosion
• Condition of Hull
• Pitting
• Condition of Coating
• Watertight Integrity of ship

After the survey, following reports are made by the inspector, whose copies are to be kept and
maintained onboard as part of necessary documentation:

1. Reports of structural surveys

2. Condition evaluation report
3. Thickness measurement reports

Overall examination - examination intended to report on the overall condition of the hull
structure and determine the extent of additional close-up examinations.

Close-up examination - examination where the details of structural components are within the
close visual inspection range of the surveyor, i.e. normally within reach of hand

Surveys conducted by Class on behalf of Flag State Administration

Statutory Certificates -
Cargo ship safety construction Certificate,
International Tonnage Certificate,
International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate,
International Load line Certificate,
Cargo Ship safety Certificate, etc.

Statutory surveys and inspections for statutory certificates -

A number of conventions require an initial survey before the vessel is put in service and receive its
first certificate and this certificate is renewed after 1, 2 or 5 years interval depending upon the
certificate and type of ship. These certificates are maintained by annual, intermediate and renewal
surveys. The HSSC implemented by many administration brings all SOLAS ( except for passenger
ship), MARPOL and Load Line Convention surveys into a five year cycle.

Initial Statutory Survey -

It is an inspection of the design and construction of the relevant structure, machinery and
equipment of the ship to verify that it complies with the regulations of that convention.

Annual Statutory Survey -

a renewal statutory survey is an inspection of the structure, machinery and equipment, to verify
that the condition is in compliance with the regulations of that convention.
Intermediate Statutory Survey -
It is an inspection of the specified items relevant to that certificate to confirm that they are in
satisfactory condition. Depending on the certificate and age of the ship, the scope may range from
that of an annual survey to that of a renewal survey.

Periodical Statutory Renewal survey -

Periodical surveys generally take the place of renewal surveys for those certificates which were
previously renewed after one or two years. however in case of load line survey where the HSSC is
not implemented, renewal survey may be referred as periodical survey.

Harmonised System of Surveys and Certification (HSSC)

The items to be surveyed under various surveys often overlapped. The same items were being
surveyed again and again for different surveys. This use to put a lot of pressure on ships staff as
well as surveyors. To avoid this, IMO introduced the Harmonised System of Surveys and
Certification (HSSC). As per this all certificates issued on the same date and all subsequent surveys
fall due on the same date. Classification societies also carrying out their surveys on the same date
and issuing certificates.

The statutory ship’s certificates viz, Passenger Ship Safety Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety
Construction Certificate, Cargo Ship Radiotelegraphy/Radiotelephony Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety
Equipment Certificate, Load line Certificate, Int Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate, Cert for fitness
of carriage of Chemicals / Gas were earlier issued on different dates with different validity.

The HSSC came into force on 3rd Feb 2000. The features of HSSC are as follows:
1. All certificates will be issued on one date only.
2. One-year standard interval between surveys.
3. All cargo ship certificates are designed for 5 years validity. Annual surveys + 3 months of anniversary
date and intermediate survey + 6 months of half-way date, together with 2nd or 3rd annual survey.
4. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate has not been changed.
5. First survey is always the Initial survey. Date of completion of all surveys will be the certificate issue
date.
6. Renewal survey can be done upto 3 months prior to expiry date, without loss of validity.
7. Renewal survey which had validity of less than 5 yrs is now replaced by annual/intermediate surveys
and is called a Periodical Survey.
8. A 3 months extension is possible to enable a ship to complete its voyage. New certificate will start
from date of expiry of old certificate.
9. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate, Safety Equipment Certificate and Safety
Radiotelegraphy/Radiotelephony Certificates are replaced by one certificate called the Cargo Ship
Safety Certificate.

Q. What is the difference between statutory and mandatory certificate?

If we sail a ship without a statutory certificate (the one required by law), we are breaking the
law. And like any other form of breaking law, it can be charged under criminal law.
If we sail the ship without a mandatory certificate, we are not breaking the law. But as these
certificates are mandatory, we may not be allowed to enter into the port limit of a country. Or
we may not be allowed to start the cargo operation.

Statutory and mandatory certificates together are called trading certificates. That is the
certificates required for a ship to trade freely.

Now when we talk about statute or law, which laws are applicable to a ship ?

A ship need to follow the laws of the flag state whose flag it is flying. That is the laws of the
country where the ship is registered.

An international convention is not a law. It becomes law only when a country adopts the
convention by ratification or accession. That is when a country incorporate the convention
into its local law.

Let us take an example of certificate required as per SOLAS convention. I am sailing on a ship
whose flag has not ratified SOLAS convention.

is it statutory (required by law) to have the SOLAS certificates (safety equipments, safety
construction etc) on board my ship ?

No, these will not be statutory certificates. But these certificates would become mandatory if
the ship need to go to a country that has ratified SOLAS convention.

In this case SOLAS certificates will be mandatory but not statutory.

 But with more that 99% of the world tonnage retified the SOLAS convention, we can safely say
that certificates required as per SOLAS convention are statutory certificates.

Question & Answers

CHLP-5.1 (L-1 31.03.2020)
Q.1 What are the Roles and Functions of Classification Societies?

Several certificates are necessary for a ship to trade. In order to obtain these certificates vessel
must comply with applicable regulations. This requirement makes it necessary for a ship to go
through several surveys.

Once the ship is built it will go through an initial survey. It is the most extensive survey. The ship
will be issued with a certificate usually for five years subjected to ship passing periodical surveys
(annual surveys and intermediate surveys). Before expiry a renewal survey subsequent to which
the certificate is renewed for further five years.

The certificates the ship has to carry are prescribed by IMO and other organisations. IMO surveys
are carried by Flag State Administration (Govt of the country) where the ship is registered and the
certificates issued are STATUTORY or TRADING certificates. In India it is done by DG Shipping.

The FSA can authorize the job of survey and certification to Classification Societies as they are the
most competent bodies. The scope of surveys and certification which has been given to the class
must not be confused with the survey carried out by class on its own behalf for issuing the
certificate of class. Since June 1996 this has become statutory certificate.

Role of Classification Societies

6. They are independent, non-profit making organization.
7. They are group of professional experts, technologically competent.
8. Cargo owners, insurers wanted reliability of ships from some independent source. Class fulfils this
purpose.
9. It is mandatory that the ships are classed with a recognized classification society.
10. IACS endeavours to maintain high standards among its members.

Functions of Class
10. Publish rules and regulations for construction and classification.
11. Publish a register of all ships classed with them.
12. Supervise ship construction.
13. Recommend and verify the repairs.
14. Conduct Class surveys.
15. Conduct IMO surveys on behalf of FSA.
16. Research into ship design, strength of material, etc.
17. Provide valuable input to IMO.
18. Carry out bunker analysis, etc.

Q.2 Write short note about International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) -
Over 90% of the world’s merchant shipping tonnage is classified by the 12 member societies of the IACS.
Dedicated to safe ships and clean seas, IACS makes a unique contribution to maritime safety and regulation
through technical support, compliance verification and research and development. IACS was formed in 1968
to promote high standards in safety, pollution prevention and to liaison closely with the shipping industry
and organisations.
IACS members class a huge number of ships and most international administrations use the IACS members
rules and regulations as the basis of their fleet’s license to operate including compliance with mandatory
requirements.
The members carry out surveys each year and otherwise as well as playing an active part in the workings of
the IMO. It has a voice in the development of international conventions and also in providing technical
support to member states of the IMO. This extent of the reach of the IACS eliminates substandard ships and
increases the sophistication of ship design and operations.

IACS members -
1. ABS American Bureau of Shipping (USA)
2. BV Bureau Veritas (France)
3. CCS China Classification society
4. CRS Croatian Register of shipping
5. DNV GL Det Norske Verita and Germanischer Lloyd
6. IRS Indian Register of shipping
7. KRS Korean Register of Shipping (South Korea)
8. LR Lloyd's Register (UK)
9. PRS Polish Register of Shipping (Poland)
10. RINA Registro Italiano Navale (Italy)
11. RS Russian Maritime Register of Shipping (Russia).
12. Class NK Nippon Kaiji Kyokai

Q.3 How the certificate of class is assigned and maintained.

Assignment of Class -
Certificate of Class is assigned to a vessel upon a survey, which is held in order to verify whether it
is eligible to be classed on the basis of the Class Rules.
This may be achieved through:
• the completion of new building, during which a survey has been performed
• a survey when the vessel changes class between recognised classification societies
• a specific admission to Class Survey, in cases where a ship is classed with non-recognised societies or
not classed at all.

Classification Society Surveys for maintaining the Certificate of Class-

• Initial Survey for issue of certificate
• Annual Surveys at the anniversary date (+ 3 months)
• Intermediate Survey at halfway date (+ 6 months)
• Special Surveys at every 5 years
• Alternatively Continuous Hull survey (CHS) and Continuous Machinery Survey (CMS)
• Enhanced Survey Program (ESP)
Unit 6 International Tonnage Regulations (10 Hrs)
Syllabus - An outline knowledge of tonnage regulations; calculation of Gross Tonnage and Net
Tonnage.

Indian Form of Tonnage Measurement –

APPENDIX V

PARTICULARS OF UNIFORM TONNAGE CALCULATIONS

ANNEX TO INTERNATIONAL TONNAGE CERTIFICATE (1969)
INDIA TONNAGE CERTIFICATE (1986)

GROSS TONNAGE

_________________________________________________________________________________________

ITEM NAME OF
SPACE LOACTION LENGTH MOULDED VOLUME ENCLOSED
SPACE
_________________________________________________________________________________________

1. UNDER LECK

2. ROOP

3. BRIDGE

4. FOREC ASTLE

5. ROUND HOUSES

6. HATCHES ETC.

7. _________________

8. _________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

TOTAL VOLUME V =

_________________________________________________________________________________________

NET TONNAGE

_________________________________________________________________________________________

1. HOLD - 1

2. HOLD - 2

3. TW__DK - 1

4. TW__DK - 2

5. CARGO_TANKS
6. HATCHES ETC.

7. _________________

8. _________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

TOTAL VOLUME VC =

__________________________________________________

Under the IMO International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (1969), which initially
entered into force on 18th July 1982 for new ships and which fully entered into force on 18th July
1994 for all ships except warships, ships of less than 24 metres in length and ships solely navigating:
the Great Lakes of North America and River St. Lawrence; the Caspian Sea; the Plate, Parana and
Uruguay Rivers, the following definitions apply:

'Gross Tonnage' means the measure of the overall size of a ship.

'Net Tonnage' means the measure of the useful capacity of a ship.

The 'Gross Tonnage' and 'Net Tonnage' figures as determined from the above formulae are to be
those quoted on the ship's International Tonnage Certificate (1969).

It should be noted that the word 'tons' is no longer to be applied since the gross and net tonnages
are dimensionless, i.e. there are no physical units of tonnage. Hence the tonnage will be expressed
as, e.g. the ship has 'Gross Tonnage of 12,345' without the addition of any units. Also the word
Register is to be omitted, hence the correct terminology is now 'Gross Tonnage (GT)' and 'Net
Tonnage (NT)'.

'Panama Canal Tonnage' as of 1st October 1994 is comparable to the tonnage as determined by
the IMO International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (1969). The tonnages stated
on the Panama Canal Tonnage Certificate are therefore identical to those quoted on the
International Tonnage Certificate (1969).

'Suez Canal Tonnage' is different from all other tonnage remaining based on the old Moorsom
System of tonnage measurement, i.e. with gross and net tons being equivalent to 100 cubic feet or
2.83 cubic metres. There is apparently no immediate intention to change the basis of measurement
under the Suez Canal Authority rules. The tonnages stated on the Suez Canal Special Tonnage
Certificate are therefore different from those quoted on the International Tonnage Certificate
(1969).

The applications of Tonnage Measurement are many and varied and are used in the assessment of
the following:-

International Tonnage Regulations

Q.1 What are the uses of Gross and Net Tonnage?

The uses of Tonnage Measurement are many and varied and are used in the assessment of the
following:

• Harbour Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net Tonnage.

• Pilotage Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net Tonnage.
• Light Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
• Canal Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
• Miscellaneous Fees - e.g. Agency, Towage, Dry Docking, P&I, Registration and Statutory Surveys.
• Criterion for the application of IMO Conventions, e.g. SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW.
• Basis for the formulation of shipping statistics.

Q.2 Give a broad overview of International Tonnage Convention 1969.

International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969 (London, 23 June 1969) came
in force on 18th July 1982.
Some important terms used:
"international voyage" means a sea voyage from a country to which the present Convention
applies to a port outside such country, or conversely. For this purpose, every territory for the
international relations of which a Contracting Government is responsible or for which the United
Nations are the administering authority is regarded as a separate country;
"gross tonnage" means the measure of the overall size of a ship determined in accordance with
the provisions of the present Convention;
"net tonnage" means the measure of the useful capacity of a ship determined in accordance with
the provisions of the present Convention;
"new ship" means a ship the keel of which is laid, or which is at a similar stage of construction, on
or after the date of coming into force of the present Convention;
"existing ship" means a ship which is not a new ship;
"length" means 96 per cent of the total length on a waterline at 85 per cent of the least moulded
depth measured from the top of the keel, or the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis
of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater.

Application:
The present Convention shall apply to:
• new ships;
• existing ships which undergo alterations or modifications which the Administration deems to be a
substantial variation in their existing gross tonnage;
• existing ships if the owner so requests; and
• all existing ships, twelve years after the date on which the Convention comes into force,

The present Convention shall not apply to:

• ships of war; and
• ships of less than 24 metres (79 feet) in length.

Nothing herein shall apply to ships solely navigating:

• the Great Lakes of North America and the River St. Lawrence as far east as a rhumb line drawn from
Cap des Rosiers to West Point, Anticosti Island, and, on the north side of Anticosti Island, the
meridian of longitude 63W;
• the Caspian Sea; or
 • (c) the Plate, Parana and Uruguay Rivers as far east as a rhumb line drawn between Punta Rasa
(Cabo San Antonio), Argentina, and Punta del Este, Uruguay.

(a) Length means

either 1) 96 percent of the length from the fore side of the stem to the aftermost side of the
stern on a waterline at 85 percent of the least molded depth measured from the top of the flat
plate keel;
Or
2) the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis of the rudder stock on that waterline,
whichever is greater.

Q.3 How the tonnage is determined and certificate issued?

Determination of tonnages The determination of gross and net tonnages shall be carried out by
the Administration which may, however, entrust such determination either to persons or
organizations recognized by it. In every case the Administration concerned shall accept full
responsibility for the determination of gross and net tonnages.
Issue of certificate-
An International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall be issued to every ship, the gross and net
tonnages of which have been determined in accordance with the present Convention.
Such certificate shall be issued by the Administration or by any person or organization duly
authorized by it. In every case, the Administration shall assume full responsibility for the certificate.
Issue of certificate by another government
• A Contracting Government may, at the request of another Contracting Government, determine the
gross and net tonnages of a ship and issue or authorize the issue of an International Tonnage Certificate
(1969)
• A copy of the certificate and a copy of the calculations of the tonnages shall be transmitted as early as
possible to the requesting Government.
• A certificate so issued shall contain a statement to the effect that it has been issued at the request of
the Government of the State whose flag the ship is or will be flying and it shall have the same validity
and receive the same recognition.

Cancellation of certificate Subject to any exceptions provided in the Regulations, an International

Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall cease to be valid and shall be cancelled by the Administration if
alterations have taken place in the arrangement, construction, capacity, use of spaces, total
number of passengers the ship is permitted to carry as indicated in the ship's passenger
certificate, assigned load line or permitted draught of the ship, such as would necessitate an
increase in gross tonnage or net tonnage.
A certificate issued to a ship by an Administration shall cease to be valid upon transfer of such a
ship to the flag of another State, upon transfer of a ship to the flag of another State the Government
of which is a Contracting Government, the International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall remain in
force for a period not exceeding three months, or until the Administration issues another
International Tonnage Certificate (1969) to replace it, whichever is the earlier.
Definitions
• The tonnage of a ship shall consist of gross tonnage and net tonnage.
• The gross tonnage and the net tonnage shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of these
Regulations.

Q.4 Definition of terms

Upper Deck
The upper deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea, which has permanent means
of weathertight closing of all openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all openings in the sides
of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing. In a ship having a stepped upper deck,
the lowest line of the exposed deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper part of the deck
is taken as the upper deck.

Definitions
• The tonnage of a ship shall consist of gross tonnage and net tonnage.
• The gross tonnage and the net tonnage shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of these
Regulations.

Definition of terms
Upper Deck
The upper deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea, which has permanent means
of weathertight closing of all openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all openings in the sides
of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing. In a ship having a stepped upper deck,
the lowest line of the exposed deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper part of the deck
is taken as the upper deck.
Moulded Depth
The moulded depth is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of
the upper deck at side. In wood and composite ships, the distance is measured from the lower edge
of the keel rabbet. Where the form at the lower part of the midship section is of a hollow character,
or where thick garboards are fitted, the distance is measured from the point where the line of the
flat of the bottom continued inwards cuts the side of the keel. (b) In ships having rounded
gunwales, the moulded depth shall be measured to the point of intersection of the moulded lines
of the deck and side shell plating, the lines extending as though the gunwales were of angular
design. (c) Where the upper deck is stepped and the raised part of the deck extends over the point
at which the moulded depth is to be determined, the moulded depth shall be measured to a line
of reference extending from the lower part of the deck along a line parallel with the raised part.

Breadth The breadth is the maximum breadth of the ship, measured amidships to the moulded
line of the frame in a ship with a metal shell and to the outer surface of the hull in a ship with a
shell of any other material.
Enclosed spaces Enclosed spaces are all those spaces which are bounded by the ship's hull, by
fixed or portable partitions or bulkheads, by decks or coverings other than permanent or movable
awnings. No break in a deck, nor any opening in the ship's hull, in a deck or in a covering of a
space, or in the partitions or bulkheads of a space, nor the absence of a partition or bulkhead,
shall preclude a space from being included in the enclosed space.

Excluded Spaces
Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (4) of this Regulation, the spaces referred to in
subparagraphs (a) to (e) inclusive of this paragraph shall be called excluded spaces and shall not
be included in the volume of enclosed spaces, except that any such space which fulfils at least
one of the following three conditions shall be treated as an enclosed space: -
The space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing cargo or stores; - the openings are
fitted with any means of closure; - the construction provides any possibility of such openings
being closed:
(a) (i) A space within an erection opposite an end opening extending from deck to deck except for
a curtain plate of a depth not exceeding by more than 25 millimetres (one inch) the depth of the
adjoining deck beams, such opening having a breadth equal to or greater than 90 per cent of the
breadth of the deck at the line of the opening of the space. This provision shall be applied so as to
exclude from the enclosed spaces only the space between the actual end opening and a line
drawn parallel to the line or face of the opening at a distance from the opening equal to one half
of the width of the deck at the line of the opening (Figure 1 in Appendix 1).
(a) (ii) Should the width of the space because of any arrangement except by convergence of the
outside plating, become less than 90 per cent of the breadth of the deck, only the space between
the line of the opening and a parallel line drawn through the point where the athwartships width
of the space becomes equal to, or less than, 90 per cent of the breadth of the deck shall be
excluded from the volume of enclosed spaces (Figures 2, 3 and 4 in Appendix 1).
(a) (iii) Where an interval which is completely open except for bulwarks or open rails separates
any two spaces, the exclusion of one or both of which is permitted under sub-paragraphs (a)(i)
and/or (a)(ii), such exclusion shall not apply if the separation between the two spaces is less than
the least half breadth of the deck in way of the separation (Figures 5 and 6 in Appendix 1).
(b) A space under an overhead deck covering open to the sea and weather, having no other
connexion on the exposed sides with the body of the ship than the stanchions necessary for its
support. In such a space, open rails or a bulwark and curtain plate may be fitted or stanchions
fitted at the ship's side, provided that the distance between the top of the rails or the bulwark
and the curtain plate is not less than 0.75 metres (2.5 feet) or one-third of the height of the
space, whichever is the greater (Figure 7 in Appendix 1).
(c) A space in a side-to-side erection directly in way of opposite side openings not less in height
than 0.75 metres (2.5 feet) or one-third of the height of the erection, whichever is the greater. If
the opening in such an erection is provided on one side only, the space to be excluded from the
volume of enclosed spaces shall be limited inboard from the opening to a maximum of one-half of
the breadth of the deck in way of the opening (Figure 8 in Appendix 1).

(d) A space in erection immediately below an uncovered opening in the deck overhead, provided
that such an opening is exposed to the weather and the space excluded from enclosed spaces is
limited to the area of the opening (Figure 9 in Appendix 1).
(e) A recess in the boundary bulkhead of an erection which is exposed to the weather and the
opening of which extends from deck to deck without means of closing, provided that the interior
width is not greater than the width at the entrance and its extension into the erection is not
greater than twice the width of its entrance (Figure 10 in Appendix 1).

Passenger A passenger is every person other than: (a) the master and the members of the crew or
other persons employed or engaged in any capacity on board a ship on the business of that ship;
and (b) a child under one year of age.
Cargo Spaces Cargo spaces to be included in the computation of net tonnage are enclosed spaces
appropriated for the transport of cargo which is to be discharged from the ship, provided that such
spaces have been included in the computation of gross tonnage. Such cargo spaces shall be
certified by permanent marking with the letters CC (cargo compartment) to be so positioned that
they are readily visible and not to be less than 100 millimetres (4 inches) in height.
Weathertight Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not penetrate into the ship.
Gross Tonnage' means the measure of the overall size of a ship.
'Net Tonnage' means the measure of the useful capacity of a ship.

The method of determining the Gross and Net Tonnages is prescribed by formula as follows:-

Gross Tonnage (GT) = K1V

where, V = total volume of all enclosed spaces in cubic metres,

K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 V (or as tabulated in Appendix 2 of the Convention)

Net Tonnage (NT) = K2Vc(4d/3D)2 + K3(N1+N2/10)

In which formula:

a) The factor (4d/3D)2 shall not be taken as greater than unity;

b) The term K2Vc(4d/3D)2 shall not be taken as less than 0.25 GT;
c) NT shall not be taken as less than 0.30 GT,

and in which:

Vc = total volume of cargo spaces in cubic metres

K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 Vc (or as tabulated in Appendix 2 of the Convention)
K3 = 1.25 (GT + 10,000)/10,000
D = moulded depth amidships in metres
d = moulded draught amidships in metres (Summer Load Line draught)
N1 = number of passengers in cabins with not more than 8 berths
N2 = number of other passengers
N1 + N2 = total number of passengers the ship is permitted to carry as indicated in the ship's
passenger certificate; when N1 + N2 is less than 13, N1 and N2 shall be taken as zero
GT= gross tonnage of the ship as determined above

The 'Gross Tonnage' and 'Net Tonnage' figures as determined from the above formulae are to be
those quoted on the ship's International Tonnage Certificate (1969).

It should be noted that the word 'tons' is no longer to be applied since the gross and net tonnages
are dimensionless, i.e. there are no physical units of tonnage. Hence the tonnage will be expressed
as, e.g. the ship has 'Gross Tonnage of 12,345' without the addition of any units. Also the word
Register is to be omitted, hence the correct terminology is now 'Gross Tonnage (GT)' and 'Net
Tonnage (NT)'.

Change of Net Tonnage

1. When the characteristics of a ship, such as V, Vc, d, N1 or N2 are altered and where such an
alteration results in an increases in its net tonnage, then the new net tonnage shall be
 determined and applied without delay.
2. A ship to which load lines are concurrently assigned shall be given only one net tonnage as
determined in accordance with regulation 4 and that tonnage shall be tonnage applicable to
the appropriate assigned load line for the trade in which the ship is engaged.
3. When characteristics of a ship such as V, Vc, d, N1 or N2 altered or when the appropriate
assigned load line is altered due to change of trade in which the ship is engaged, and where
such an alteration results in decrease in its net tonnage a new certificate incorporating the
new net tonnage shall not be issued until 12 months have elapsed from the date on which
the current certificate was issued; provided that this requirement shall not apply:
a) If the ship is transferred to flag of another State, or
b) If the ship undergoes alterations or modifications which are deemed by the administration
to be of a major character, such as the removal of superstructure which requires an
alteration of the assigned load line, or
c) To passenger ships which are employed in the carriage of large numbers of unberthed
passengers in special trades, such, for example, as the pilgrim trade.

Unit 7 International Load Line Regulations (10 Hrs)

Syllabus – Load Line Regulations, Assignment of freeboard, Sub division Load Lines on Passenger
ships.
• All lines are 25 mm thick
• Upper edge represents position of lines
• Top of the deck line indicates where top of the fbd deck would meet outer side of shell plating
• Plimsoll mark or load line disc is below deck line. At this SLL is drawn in line with the line at the centre
of the disk. Upper edge of this is at the centre of the disc.
• Distance from SLL and deck line is called statutory summer freeboard which is calculated by applying
Load Line Rules.
• W is 1/48 of summer load draft below S
• T is 1/48 of the summer load draft below S
• F is FWA = W/(4xTPC) mm above S
• TF is 1/48 of the summer load draft above F
• WNA is for vessels not > 100m. It is 50 mm below W.
• LW is 1/36 of the summer timber load draft below LS.
• LT is 1/48 of the summer timber load draft above LS.
• LF is calculated same as F except that FWA is that of the vessel at her lumber summer load draft.
• LWNA is at the same level as WNA
• Additional load lines may be required e.g Passenger ship load lines

Application -
Convention apply to all ships engaged in international voyages whether registered in the country of a
contracting government or territory to which the present convention is extended ( UN administered
territories) or unregistered but flying the flag of a contracting government.

Exceptions - The regulations do not apply to

• ships of war,
• new ships of less than 24 m in length,
• existing ships of less than 150 tons gross,
• pleasure yachts not engaged in trade,
• fishing vessels.
• Ships solely navigate in
i) Great Lakes, River St.Lawrence,
 ii) Caspian sea, and
iii) Plate, Parana and Uruguay Rivers.

Exemptions -
• Ships engaged in International voyages of sheltered nature
• ship embodies features of a novel kind
• ship undertakes a single International voyage.
• Ship driven by rough weather or causes beyond control of Master into a zone to which lesser draft
applies
• Ship deviates or delayed is given due consideration

Force Majeure -
• a ship not subject to these rules on departure shall not become subjects to if deviates from
intended voyage due to stress of weather or any other cause of force majeure.

Submersion of load line -

• A ship departs from a port in a river or inland waters, deeper loading shall be permitted equal to
the weight of the fuel/materials she will consume till arrival to sea.

Survey, Inspection and Marking -

• Administration shall do survey, inspection and marking.
• Initial survey shall be to ensure that the arrangements, material and scantlings fully comply with
the requirements of the present convention.
• A periodical survey at intervals of 5yrs to ensure that the structure, equipment, arrangements,
material and scantlings fully comply with the req. of the present convention.
• A periodical inspection within 3months either way of each annual anniversary date of Cert. to
ensure that alterations have not been made to hull or structures which would affect the
calculations and to see maintenance of fittings and appliances for i)protection of openings,
ii) guard rails, iii) freeing ports and iv) means of access to crew quarters.
Duration of Int.Load Line Certificate – 5yrs
Duration of Int. load line exemption certificate - 5yrs
Certificate extension – maximum 5 months

Certificate cancellation -
• material alterations which may necessitate assignment of an increased freeboard,
• fittings & appliances not maintained effectively,
• certificate not endorsed for inspections,
• structural strength lowered to such an extent that the ship is unsafe.

It was in 1930, when the first International Load Line Convention took place, after which, it was
periodically amended until the latest one that happened in 2003.

The first International Convention on Load Lines, adopted in 1930, was based on the principle of
reserve buoyancy, although it was recognized then that the freeboard should also ensure
adequate stability and avoid excessive stress on the ship's hull as a result of overloading.

In the 1966 Load Lines convention, adopted by IMO, provisions are made for determining the
freeboard of ships by subdivision and damage stability calculations.
Various amendments were adopted in 1971, 1975, 1979, and 1983 but they required positive
acceptance by two-thirds of Parties and never came into force.

The 1988 Protocol, adopted in November 1988, entered into force on 3 February 2000. As well
as harmonizing the Convention's survey and certification requirement with those contained in
the SOLAS and MARPOL conventions, the 1988 Protocol revised certain regulations in the
technical Annexes to the Load Lines Convention and introduced the tacit amendment procedure,
so that amendments adopted will enter into force six months after the deemed date of
acceptance unless they are rejected by one-third of Parties. Usually, the date from adoption to
deemed acceptance is two years.

In order to make a complete comprehension about Load Lines, we must address the following
questions:-

1. What is the purpose of Load Line?

2. Why is it necessary for ships to have Load Lines?
3. What exactly is a Load Line?
4. What are the marking on a Load line?
 5. What are the different types of Load Lines?

Purpose and Necessity of Load Lines

The fundamental purpose of a Load Line is to allot a maximum legal limit upto which a ship can
be loaded by cargo. By prescribing such limits, the risk of having the vessel sailing with
inadequate freeboard and buoyancy can be limited. A vessel should be having sufficient
freeboard at all times, any exceptions made will result in insufficient stability and excessive stress
on the ship’s hull. This is where load lines play an important role, as it makes the task of detecting
whether the vessel is over-loaded and its freeboard tremendously easy and effortless.

However, since the buoyancy and immersion of the vessel largely depend on the type of water
and its density, it is not practical to define a standard freeboard limit for the ship at all times. For
this reason, the load line convention has put regulations which divides the world into different
geographical zones each having different prescribed load line.

For example, A vessel sailing in Winter on North Atlantic Ocean will have a greater freeboard than
on a voyage in Tropical Zones and Fresh waters.

Understanding Load Line Mark

As we have already defined above, Load Line is a special marking positioned amidships. All vessels
of 24 meters and more are required to have this Load line marking at the centre position of the
length of summer load water line.

There are two types of Load line markings:-

1. Standard Load Line marking – This is applicable to all types of vessels.

2. Timber Load Line Markings – This is applicable to vessels carrying timber cargo.

These marks shall be punched on the surface of the hull, making it visible even if the ship side
paint fades out. The marks shall again be painted with white or yellow colour on a dark
background / black on a light background. The complete Load line markings consist of 3 vital
parts.

1. Deck Line – It is a horizontal line measuring 300mm by 25mm. It passes through the upper
surface of the freeboard.
2. Load Line Disc – It is the 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round shaped disc. It is
intersected by a horizontal line. The upper edge of the horizontal line marks the ‘Summer
salt water line’ also known as ‘Plimsol Line’.
3. Load Lines – Load lines are horizontal lines extending forward and aft from a vertical line
placed at a distance of 540mm from the centre of the disc. They measure 230mm by
23mm. The upper surfaces of the load lines indicate the maximum depths to which the
ships maybe submerged in different seasons and circumstances.
S – Summer :- It is the basic freeboard line at the same level as the Plimsol Line. Other load lines
are marked based on this Summer freeboard line.

T – Tropical :- It is 1/48th of summer draft marked above the Summer load line.

W – Winter :- It is 1/48th of summer draft marked below the Summer load line.

WNA – Winter North Atlantic :- It is marked 50mm below the Winter load line. It applies to
voyages in North Atlantic ( above 36 degrees of latitude) during winter months.

F – Fresh Water :- It is the summer fresh water load line. The distance between S and F is the
Fresh Water Allowance (FWA).

TF – Tropical Fresh Water :- It is the fresh water load line in Tropical. It is marked above the T at
an amount equal to FWA.

Timber Load Line Markings

Ships engaged in the timber deck cargo trade are required to have a special set of Load lines
known as the Timber Load Lines. Such vessels shall comply with the Code of Safe Practices for
Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargo in construction and other requirements obtaining greater
reserve buoyancy and lesser summer freeboard.

Timber cargo vessels will have a second set of Load Lines marked similar to the standard load
lines positioned 540mm abaft the centre loadline disc.

The letter marking of the timber loadline are different and are prefixed by ‘L’ meaning ‘Lumber’.

LS – Lumber Summer :- Its upper edge marks the summer salt water timber loadline. It is
situated at a specified level above the Plimsol line.

LW – Lumber Winter :- It is 1/36th of the lumber summer draft below LS.

LT – Lumber Tropical :- It is 1/48th of the lumber summer draft above LS.

LWNA – Lumber Winter North Atlantic :- It is at the same level as WNA.

LF – Lumber Fresh water :- It is situated above the LS by an amount equal FWA.

LTF – Lumber Tropical Fresh Water :- It is positioned above LT by an amount equal to FWA

Definitions of terms used in the Annexes

(1) Length
(a) The length (L) shall be taken as 96% of the total length on a waterline at 85% of the least
moulded depth measured from the top of the keel, or as the length from the fore side of the
stem to the axis of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater.
(b) For ships without a rudder stock, the length (L) is to be taken as 96% of the waterline at 85%
of the least moulded depth.
(c) Where the stem contour is concave above the waterline at 85% of the least moulded depth,
both the forward terminal of the total length and the fore-side of the stem respectively shall be
taken at the vertical projection to that waterline of the aftermost point of the stem contour
(above that waterline) (see figure 3.1).

(d) In ships designed with a rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured shall be
parallel to the designed waterline at 85% of the least moulded depth Dmin, found by drawing a
line parallel to the keel line of the vessel (including skeg) tangent to the moulded sheer line of the
freeboard deck. The least moulded depth is the vertical distance measured from the top of the
keel to the top of the freeboard deck beam at side at the point of tangency (see figure 3.2).

(2) Perpendicular . The forward and after perpendiculars shall be taken at the forward and after
ends of the
length (L). The forward perpendicular shall coincide with the foreside of the stem on the
waterline on which the length is measured.
(3) Amidships. Amidships is at the middle of the length (L).

(4) Breadth. Unless expressly provided otherwise, the breadth (B) is the maximum breadth of the
ship, measured amidships to the moulded line of the frame in a ship with a metal shell and to the
outer surface of the hull in a ship with a shell of any other material.

(5) Moulded depth

(a) The moulded depth is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the top of the
freeboard deck beam at side. In wood and composite ships the distance is measured from the
lower edge of the keel rabbet. Where the form at the lower part of the midship section is of a
hollow character, or where thick garboards are fitted, the distance is measured from the point
where the line of the flat of the bottom continued inwards cuts the side of the keel.
(b) In ships having rounded gunwales, the moulded depth shall be measured to the point of
intersection of the moulded lines of deck and sides, the
lines extending as though the gunwale were of angular design.
(c) Where the freeboard deck is stepped and the raised part of the deck extends over the point at
which the moulded depth is to be determined, the
moulded depth shall be measured to a line of reference extending from the lower part of the
deck along a line parallel with the raised part.

(6) Depth for freeboard (D)

(a) The depth for freeboard (D) is the moulded depth amidships, plus the freeboard deck
thickness at side.
(b) The depth for freeboard (D) in a ship having a rounded gunwale with a radius greater than 4%
of the breadth (B) or having topsides of unusual form is the depth for freeboard of a ship having a
midship section with vertical topsides and with the same round of beam and area of topside
section equal to that provided by the actual midship section.

(7) Block coefficient

(a) The block coefficient (Cb) is given by:
V is the volume of the moulded displacement of the ship, excluding appendages, in a ship with a
metal shell, and is the volume of displacement to the outer surface of the hull in a ship with a
shell of any other material, both taken at a moulded draught of d1; and where d1 is 85% of the
least moulded depth.
(b) When calculating the block coefficient of a multi-hull craft, the full breadth (B) as defined in
paragraph (4) is to be used and not the breadth of a single hull.

(8) Freeboard. The freeboard assigned is the distance measured vertically downwards amidships
from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the related load line.

(9) Freeboard deck

(a) The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea,
which has permanent means of closing all openings in the weather part thereof, and below which
all openings in the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing.
(b) Lower deck as a freeboard deck. At the option of the owner and subject to the approval of
the Administration, a lower deck may be designated as the freeboard deck provided it is a
complete and permanent deck continuous in a fore and aft direction at least between the
machinery space and peak bulkheads and continuous athwartships.
(i) When this lower deck is stepped the lowest line of the deck and the continuation of that line
parallel to the upper part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck.
 (ii) When a lower deck is designated as the freeboard deck, that part of the hull which extends
above the freeboard deck is treated as a superstructure so far as concerns the application of
the conditions of assignment and the calculation of freeboard. It is from this deck that the
freeboard is calculated.
(iii) When a lower deck is designated as the freeboard deck, such deck as a minimum shall
consist of suitably framed stringers at the ship sides and transversely at each watertight
bulkhead which extends to the upper deck, within cargo spaces. The width of these stringers
shall not be less than can be conveniently fitted having regard to the structure and the
operation of the ship. Any arrangement of stringers shall be such that structural requirement
can also be met.
(c) Discontinuous freeboard deck, stepped freeboard deck.
(i) Where a recess in the freeboard deck extends to the sides of the ship and is in excess of one
metre in length, the lowest line of the exposed deck and the continuation of that line parallel
to the upper part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck.

(ii) Where a recess in the freeboard deck does not extend to the sides of the ship, the upper
part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck.
(iii) Recesses not extending from side to side in a deck below the exposed deck, designated as
the freeboard deck, may be disregarded, provided all openings in the weather deck are fitted
with weathertight closing appliances.
(iv) Due regard shall be given to the drainage of exposed recesses and to free surface effects on
stability.
(v) Provisions of subparagraphs (i) through (iv) are not intended to apply to dredgers, hopper
barges or other similar types of ships with large open holds, where each case requires
individual consideration.

(10) Superstructure
(a) A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard deck, extending from side to side of
the ship or with the side plating not being inboard of the shell plating more than 4% of the
breadth (B).
(b) An enclosed superstructure is a superstructure with:
(i) enclosing bulkheads of efficient construction;(ii) access openings, if any, in these bulkheads
fitted with doors with weathertight closing arrangement.
(iii) all other openings in sides or ends of the superstructure fitted with efficient weathertight
means of closing.
A bridge or poop shall not be regarded as enclosed unless access is provided for the crew
starting from any point on the uppermost complete exposed deck or higher to reach machinery
and other working spaces inside these superstructures by alternative means which are
available at all times when bulkhead openings are closed.
(c) The height of a superstructure is the least vertical height measured at side from the top of the
superstructure deck beams to the top of the freeboard deck beams.
(d) The length of a superstructure (S) is the mean length of the part of the superstructure which
lies within the length (L).
(e) Bridge. A bridge is a superstructure which does not extend to either the forward or after
perpendicular.
(f) Poop. A poop is a superstructure which extends from the after perpendicular forward to a
point which is aft of the forward perpendicular. The poop may originate from a point aft of the aft
perpendicular.
(g) Forecastle. A forecastle is a superstructure which extends from the forward perpendicular aft
to a point which is forward of the after perpendicular. The forecastle may originate from a point
forward of the forward perpendicular.
(h) Full superstructure. A full superstructure is a superstructure which, as a minimum, extends
from the forward to the after perpendicular.
(i) Raised quarterdeck. A raised quarterdeck is a superstructure which extends forward from the
after perpendicular, generally has a height less than a normal superstructure, and has an intact
front bulkhead (sidescuttles of the non-opening type fitted with efficient deadlights and bolted
man hole covers). Where the forward bulkhead is not intact due to doors and access openings,
the superstructure is then to be considered as a poop.

(11) Superstructure deck. A superstructure deck is a deck forming the upper boundary of a
superstructure.

(12) Flush deck ship. A flush deck ship is one which has no superstructure on the freeboard deck.

(13) Weathertight. Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not penetrate into
the ship.

(14) Watertight. Watertight means capable of preventing the passage of water through the
structure in either direction with a proper margin of resistance under the pressure due to the
maximum head of water which it might have to sustain.

(15) Well. A well is any area on the deck exposed to the weather, where water may be
entrapped. Wells are considered to be deck areas bounded on two or more sides by
deck structures.

Conditions of assignment of freeboard

Regulation 4- Deck line

The deck line is a horizontal line 300 mm in length and 25 mm in breadth. It

shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, and its upper edge shall
normally pass through the point where the continuation outwards of the upper
surface of the freeboard deck intersects the outer surface of the shell ,
provided that the deck line may be placed with reference to another fixed
point on the ship on condition that the freeboard is correspondingly
corrected. The location of the reference point and the identification of the
freeboard deck shall in all cases be indicated on the International Load Line
Certificate.
Regulation 5- Load line mark

The load line mark shall consist of a ring 300 mm in outside diameter and
25 mm wide which is intersected by a horizontal line 450 mm in length and
25 mm in breadth, the upper edge of which passes through the centre of the
ring. The centre of the ring shall be placed amidships and at a distance
equal to the assigned summer freeboard measured vertically below the upper
edge of the deck line.
Regulation 6 - Lines to be used with the load line marks

Regulation 7 - Mark of assigning Authority

The mark of the Authority by whom the load lines are assigned may be
indicated alongside the load line ring above the horizontal line which
passes through the centre of the ring, or above and below it. This mark
shall consist of not more than four initials to identify the Authority's
name, each measuring approximately 115 mm in height and 75 mm in width

Regulation 8- Details of marking

Regulation 9 - Verification of marks

CHAPTER II

CONDITIONS OF ASSIGNMENT OF FREEBOARD

Reg 10 - Information to be supplied to the Master -

• to arrange for the loading and ballasting of his ship in such a way as to avoid the creation of any
unacceptable stresses in the ship’s structure.
• Stability information, and loading information also related to ship strength shall be carried on
board at all times together with evidence that the information has been approved by the
Administration.

Regulation 11 Superstructure end bulkheads

Bulkheads at exposed ends of enclosed superstructures shall be of an
acceptable level of strength.

Reg 12 - Doors ( at ends of enclosed superstructure)

• made of steel or equivalent material
• stiffened and fitted, so that the strength is same as unpierced bhd
• weathertight
• permanently attached to bhd
• can be operated from both sides
• fitted with gasket & clamping devices
• the height of the sills of access openings in bhds at end of superstructures shall be at least 380mm
( 15 inches) above the deck

Reg13 Posn of hatchways,doorways and ventilators

• Posn1 – upon exposed fbd and raised qtr decks, and upon exposed superstructure decks from FP
to ¼ length aft.
• Posn 2 – Upon exposed superstructure decks abaft a ¼ ships length from FP

Regulation 14 - Cargo and other hatchways

(1) The construction and means for securing the weathertightness of cargo and other hatchways in position 1
and 2 shall be at least equivalent to the requirements of regulation 16, unless the application of regulation 15
to such hatchways is granted by the Administration.

(2) Coamings and hatchway covers to exposed hatchways on decks above the superstructure deck shall comply
with the requirements of the Administration.

Regulation 14-1 Hatchway coamings

(1) The coamings of hatchways shall be of substantial construction in accordance with their position, and their
height above the deck shall be at least as follows:

(a) 600 mm if in position 1; and

 (b) 450 mm if in position 2.

(2) In the case of hatchways which comply with regulation 16(2) through (5), the height of these coamings may
be reduced, or the coamings omitted entirely, on condition that the Administration is satisfied that the safety
of the ship is not thereby impaired in any sea conditions.

Regulation 15 - Hatchways closed by portable covers and secured weathertight by tarpaulins and
battening devices
Hatchway covers

(1) The width of each bearing surface for hatchway covers shall be at least 65 mm.

(2) Where covers are made of wood, the finished thickness shall be at least 60 mm in association with a span of
not more than 1.5 m.

(3) Where covers are made of mild steel the strength shall be calculated and be so designed as to limit the
deflection to not more than 0.0056 times the span under these loads.

Portable beams

(4) Where portable beams for supporting hatchway covers are made of mild steel, the strength shall be
calculated with assumed loads not less than 3.5 t/m² on hatchways in position 1 and not less than 2.6 t/m² on
hatchways in position 2 and the product of the maximum stress thus calculated and the factor 1.47 shall not
exceed the minimum upper yield point strength of the material. They shall be so designed as to limit the
deflection to not more than 0.0044 times the span under these loads.

(5) The assumed loads on hatchways in position 1 may be reduced to 2 t/m² for ships 24 m in length and shall
be not less than 3.5 t/m² for ships 100 m in length. The corresponding loads on hatchways in position 2 may be
reduced to 1.5 t/m² and 2.6 t/m², respectively. In all cases, values at intermediate lengths shall be obtained by
linear interpolation.

Pontoon covers

(6) Where pontoon covers used in place of portable beams and covers are made of mild steel, the strength
shall be calculated in accordance with the requirement of regulation 16(2) to (4) and the product of the
maximum stress thus calculated and the factor 1.47 shall not exceed the minimum upper yield point strength
of the material. They shall be so designed as to limit the deflection to not more than 0.0044 times the span.
Mild steel plating forming the tops of covers shall be not less in thickness than 1% of the spacing of stiffeners or
6 mm if that be greater.

(7) The strength and stiffness of covers made of materials other than mild steel shall be equivalent to those of
mild steel to the satisfaction of the Administration.

Carriers or sockets

(8) Carriers or sockets for portable beams shall be of substantial construction, and shall provide means for the
efficient fitting and securing of the beams. Where rolling types of beams are used, the arrangements shall
ensure that the beams remain properly in position when the hatchway is closed.

Cleats

(9) They shall be at least 65 mm wide and spaced not more than 600 mm centre to centre; the cleats along
each side or end shall be not more than 150 mm from the hatch corners.

Battens and wedges

 (10) Battens and wedges shall be efficient and in good condition. Wedges shall be of tough wood or
other equivalent material. They shall have a taper of not more than 1 in 6 and shall be not less than 13
mm thick at the toes.

Tarpaulins

(11) At least two layers of tarpaulin in good condition shall be provided for each hatchway in position
1 or 2. The tarpaulins shall be waterproof and of ample strength. They shall be of a material of at least
an approved standard weight and quality.

Securing of hatchway covers

(12) For all hatchways in position 1 or 2 steel bars or other equivalent means shall be provided in order
efficiently and independently to secure each section of hatchway covers after the tarpaulins are
battened down. Hatchway covers of more than 1.5 m in length shall be secured by at least two such
securing appliances.

Reg 16 Hatchways closed by weathertight covers of steel or other equivalent material

Hatchways fitted with hatch covers of steel or equivalent material. Covers shall be weathertight fitted
with gasket and clamping devices. Means of securing for maintaining weathertightness.

Hatch cover
Ships not less than 100 m length - position 1 hatch covers shall be designed to 3.5 t/m² & Position 2
hatch covers shall be designed to 2.6 t/m².
Ships length 24 m - position 1 hatch covers shall be designed to 2 t/m² & Position 2 hatch covers shall
be designed to 1.5 t/m².
Ships length between 24m - 100 m interpolation by using table 16.2

⚫ Product of the maximum stress determined in accordance with the above loads and the
factor of 1.25 does not exceed the yield point strength of the material in tension and the
critical buckling strength in compression;
⚫ The deflection is limited to not more than 0.0056 times the span;
⚫ Steel plating forming the tops of covers is not less in thickness than 1% of the spacing of
stiffeners or 6 mm if that be greater; and
⚫ An appropriate corrosion margin is incorporated.

Securing arrangements

⚫ The means for securing and maintaining weathertightness by other means than gaskets
and clamping shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration.

Reg 17 Machinery space openings

• openings properly framed & efficiently enclosed by steel casings of ample strength,
• Access openings door sills 600mm above deck in Posn 1 and 380mm above deck in Posn 2.
• Where machinery casings are not protected by other structures, double doors shall be required for
ships assigned freeboards less than those based on table 28.2. An inner sill of 230 mm in conjunction
with the outer sill of 600 mm shall be provided.

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 • Coamings of any fiddley, funnel or machinery space ventilator in an exposed position on the
freeboard deck or superstructure deck shall be as high above the deck as is reasonable and
practicable.

Regulation 18 Miscellaneous openings in freeboard and superstructure decks

⚫ Manholes and flush scuttles (except in enclosed superstructures) shall be closed by substantial covers
capable of being made watertight. Unless secured by closely spaced bolts, the covers shall be
permanently attached.
⚫ Openings in freeboard decks other than hatchways, machinery space openings, manholes and flush
scuttles shall be protected by an enclosed superstructure, or by a deckhouse or companionway of
equivalent strength and weathertightness.
⚫ Opening in exposed superstructure deck, which gives access to a space below the freeboard deck or a
space within an enclosed superstructure shall be protected by an efficient deckhouse or companionway.
⚫ Openings on a raised quarterdeck or superstructure of less than standard height,shall be provided with
an acceptable means of closing.
⚫ Height of sills in companionways in position 1 shall be at least 600 mm and 380 mm in position 2.

Regulation 19 Ventilators

⚫ Coamings made of steel or other equivalent material,

⚫ substantially constructed and efficiently connected to the deck,
⚫ coamings height at least 900 mm above the deck in Position 1 and 760 mm in position 2. Where the
coaming of any ventilator exceeds 900 mm in height it shall be specially supported.
⚫ If coamings height in position 1 extend to more than 4.5 m, and in position 2 extend 2.3 m above the
deck, need not be fitted with closing arrangements unless specifically required by the Administration.
⚫ Except where permitted, ventilator openings shall be provided with weathertight closing appliances
of steel or other equivalent material.
⚫ In ships of not more than 100 m in length the closing appliances shall be permanently attached;
where not so provided, they shall be conveniently stowed near the ventilators to which they are to be
fitted.

Regulation 20 Air pipes

⚫ exposed parts of the pipes shall be of substantial constructed
⚫ the height from the deck to the point where water may have access shall be at least 760 mm on the
freeboard deck and 450 mm on the superstructure deck.
⚫ Where these heights may interfere with the working of the ship, a lower height may be approved.
⚫ Air pipes shall be provided with automatic closing devices.
⚫ Pressure-vacuum valves (PV valves) may be accepted on tankers.
Regulation 21 Cargo ports and other similar openings

⚫ in the sides of ships below the freeboard deck shall be fitted with doors so designed as to ensure the
same watertightness and structural integrity as the surrounding shell plating.
⚫ these opening shall open outwards.
⚫ the lower edge of openings shall not be below a line drawn parallel to the freeboard deck at side,
which is at its lowest point at least 230 mm above the upper edge of the uppermost load line.
⚫ The fitting of a second door of equivalent strength and watertightness is one acceptable
arrangement. A leakage detection device shall be provided in the compartment between the two
doors. Drainage of this compartment to the bilges, controlled by a readily accessible screw down
valve. The outer door shall open outwards.
⚫ Arrangements for bow doors and their inner doors, side doors and stern doors and their securings
shall be in compliance with the requirements of a RO or Administration.

85
Regulation 22 Scuppers, inlets and discharges

⚫ Discharges led through the shell fitted with doors

⚫ Each discharge shall have automatic non-return valve with a positive means of closing it from a
position above the freeboard deck.
⚫ Inboard end of the discharge pipe is located at least 0.01L above the Summer Load Line, the discharge
may have two automatic non-return valves without positive means of closing.
⚫ Where that vertical distance exceeds 0.02L, a single automatic non-return valve without positive
means of closing may be accepted.
⚫ Sanitary discharges and scuppers lead overboard through the shell in way of machinery spaces, a
locally operated positive closing valve at the shell, together with a non-return valve inboard, is
acceptable.

⚫ Scuppers led through the shell from enclosed superstructures used for the carriage of cargo shall be
permitted only where the edge of the freeboard deck is not immersed when the ship heels 5° either
way.

⚫ In manned machinery spaces, main and auxiliary sea inlets and discharges may be controlled locally.
The controls shall be provided with indicators.
⚫ Scuppers and discharge pipes originating at any level and penetrating the shell either more than 450
mm below the freeboard deck or less than 600 mm above the Summer Load Line shall be provided
with a non-return valve at the shell.
Regulation 22-1 Garbage chutes

⚫ Two gate valves controlled from the working deck of the chute instead of the nonreturn valve with a
positive means of closing.
⚫ The entire chute, including the cover, shall be constructed of material of substantial thickness.
Regulation 22-2 Spurling pipes and cable lockers

⚫ Spurling pipes and cable lockers shall be watertight up to the deck exposed to weather.
⚫ means of access provided, shall be closed by a substantial cover and secured by closely spaced bolts.
⚫ Spurling pipes through which anchor cables are led shall be provided with permanently attached
closing appliances to minimize water ingress.
Regulation 23 Side scuttles, windows and skylights

⚫ Side scuttles and windows, together with their glasses, deadlights and storm covers, shall be of an
approved design and substantial construction.
⚫ Deadlights shall be capable of being closed and secured watertight if fitted below the freeboard deck
and weathertight if fitted above.
⚫ If damage stability calculations indicate that the side scuttles would become immersed at any stage of
flooding, they shall be of the non-opening type.
⚫ Windows shall not be fitted below freeboard deck, on the 1st tier sides and end of superstructure and
deck houses.

Regulation 24 Freeing ports

⚫ Where bulwarks form wells on freeboard and superstructure deck, freeing ports are provided for
draining them
⚫ The minimum area for each well on each side of freeboard deck given by formulae:(superstructure
decks shall be one-half of the area given by the following formulae)
Where the length of bulwark (ℓ) in the well is 20 m or less: A =0.7+0.035 ℓ m² ;
where ℓ exceeds 20 m: A = 0.07 ℓ m². ℓ need in no case be taken as greater than 0.7L.

86
⚫ Gutter bars greater than 300 mm in height on weather decks shall be treated as bulwarks
⚫ All freeing port openings in the bulwarks shall be protected by rails or bars spaced approximately 230
mm apart
Regulation 25 Protection of the crew

⚫ Deckhouses used for accommodation of the crew shall be constructed to an acceptable level of
strength
⚫ Guard rails or bulwarks shall be fitted around all exposed decks of height at least 1 m from the deck
⚫ Guard rails on superstructure and freeboard decks shall have at least three courses. The opening
below the lowest course of the guard rails shall not exceed 230 mm. The other courses shall be not
more than 380 mm apart.
Regulation 25-1 Means for safe passage of crew

⚫ Satisfactory means for safe passage required (in the form of guard rails, lifelines, gangways or
underdeck passages, etc.) for the protection of the crew in getting to and from their quarters, the
machinery space and any other spaces used in the essential operation of the ship.

Regulation 26 Special conditions of assignment for type 'A' ships

Machinery casings
⚫ Machinery casings on type 'A' ships, shall be protected by an enclosed poop or bridge of at least
standard height or a deckhouse of equal height and equivalent strength.
⚫ Machinery casings may, however, be exposed if there are no openings giving direct access from the
freeboard deck to the machinery space.

Gangway and access

⚫ A fore and aft permanent gangway shall be fitted on type 'A' ships at the level of the superstructure
deck between the poop and the midship bridge or deckhouse where fitted.

⚫ Safe access from the gangway level shall be available between separate crew accommodations and
also between crew accommodations and the machinery space.

Hatchways

⚫ Exposed hatchways on the freeboard and forecastle decks or on the tops of expansion trunks shall be
provided with efficient watertight covers of steel or other equivalent material.

Freeing arrangements

⚫ Type 'A' ships with bulwarks shall have open rails fitted for at least half the length of the weather deck
or other equivalent freeing arrangements.
⚫ Where superstructures are connected by trunks, open rails shall be fitted for the whole length of the
exposed parts of the freeboard deck.

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CHAPTER III FREEBOARDS

Regulation 27 Types of ships

⚫ For the purposes of freeboard computation, ships shall be divided into type 'A' and type ’B’.
Type ’A’ ship:
⚫ is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk;
⚫ has a high integrity of the exposed deck with only small access openings to cargo compartments,
closed by watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent material; and
⚫ has low permeability of loaded cargo compartments.
⚫ A type 'A' ship, if over 150 m in length, shall be able to withstand the flooding of any compartment
or compartments, with an assumed permeability of 0.95, and shall remain afloat in a satisfactory
condition of equilibrium. Machinery space shall be treated as a floodable compartment, with a
permeability of 0.85

Type 'B' ships

⚫ All ships which are not type 'A' ships shall be considered as type 'B' ships.
⚫ Shall be able to withstand the flooding of any compartment or compartments, with an assumed
permeability of 0.95, and shall remain afloat in a satisfactory condition of equilibrium. If over 150
m in length, the machinery space shall be treated as a floodable compartment, but with a
permeability of 0.85.

Regulation 28 Freeboard tables

Table A & Table B

Table A
Freeboard (mm)
Length (m)
2268
170
2281
171

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Table B
Freeboard (mm)
Length (m)
2716
170
2735
171

Freeboards at intermediate lengths of ship shall be obtained by linear interpolation.

Ships above 365 m in length shall be dealt with by the Administration.

Correction to the freeboard

Regulation 29 - Correction to the freeboard ships<100m
Type B ship 24-100 having enclosed SS up to 35% L, tabulated freeboard shall be increased
by
7.5(100-L) (0.35 - E1/L)mm,
Where, E1 is the effective length of superstructure.

Regulation 30 - Correction for block coefficient

Where the block coefficient (Cb) exceeds 0.68, the tabular freeboard shall be multiplied
by the factor: (Cb + 0.68)/1.36, The Cb shall not be > 1

This freeboard is called Basic Freeboard.

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92
93
94
CHAPTER IV -SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SHIPS ASSIGNED TIMBER FREEBOARD

Regulation 41 Application of this chapter

Regulation 42 Definitions

(1) Timber deck cargo. The term "timber deck cargo" means a cargo of timber carried on an uncovered
part of a freeboard deck. The term does not include wood pulp or similar cargo*.

(2) Timber load line. A timber deck cargo may be regarded as giving a ship a certain additional
buoyancy and a greater degree of protection against the sea. For that reason, ships carrying a timber
deck cargo may be granted a reduction of freeboard. However, in order that such special

Regulation 43 Construction of the ship

Superstructure
Ships shall have a forecastle of at least standard height and a length of at least 0.07L. In addition,
if the ship is less than 100 m in length, a poop of at least standard height, or a raised quarterdeck.

Double bottom tanks

Double bottom tanks, where fitted within the midship half length of the ship, shall have
adequate watertight longitudinal subdivision.

Bulwarks
The ship shall be fitted either with permanent bulwarks at least 1 m in height or with efficient
rails of the same height and of specially strong construction.

95
Regulation 44 Stowage

General
⚫ Openings in the deck exposed to weather over which cargo is stowed shall be securely closed.
⚫ The ventilators and air pipes shall be efficiently protected.
⚫ Timber deck cargoes shall extend over at least the entire available of well or wells between
superstructures.
⚫ The timber deck cargo shall extend athwartships as close as possible
to the ship’s side.
⚫ In zone in winter, the height of the deck cargo above the deck exposed shall not exceed 1/3 of
breadth.

Uprights
◼ Adequate strength considering the breadth of the ship
◼ The strength of the uprights shall not exceed the strength of the bulwark
◼ The spacing shall be suitable for timber carried, but shall not exceed 3 m
◼ Strong angles or metal sockets or efficient means shall be provided for securing the uprights.

Lashings
⚫ Timber deck cargo shall be effectively secured throughout its length.

Stability
⚫ Stability shall be good at all stages of voyage.

Protection of crew, access to machinery spaces, etc.

◼ Guard-rails or lifelines not more than 350 mm apart vertically on each side of the cargo deck
to a height of at least 1 m above the cargo.
◼ In addition a lifeline, preferably wire rope set up taut as near as practicable to the centreline
of ship.
◼ A safe walking surface of not less than 600 mm in width shall be fitted over the cargo and
effectively secured beneath or adjacent to the lifeline.

Steering arrangements
◼ Steering arrangements shall be effectively protected from damage by cargo and, as far as
practicable, shall be accessible..

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Regulation 45 Computation for freeboard

(1) The minimum summer freeboards shall be computed in accordance with regulations 27(5), 27(6),
27(14), 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37 and 38, except that regulation 37 is modified by substituting the following
percentages for those given in regulation 37:

Reg 37 - Total Effective of Superstructures and Trunks

0 0.1 0.2L 0.3L 0.4L 0.5L 0.6L 0.7L 0.8L 0.9L 1.0L
L

Percentage of deduction
for of superstructures
0 7 14 21 31 41 52 63 75.3 87.7 100

Reg 45-Total Effective Length of Superstructure

0 0.1L 0.2L 0.3L 0.4L 0.5L 0.6L 0.7L 0.8L 0.9L 1.0L

Percentage of deduction
20 31 41 53 64 70 76 82 88 94 100
for all types of
superstructure

Subdivision load line marks

Passenger ships having spaces which are adapted for the accommodation of passengers and the carriage
of cargo alternatively may have one or more additional load line marks corresponding to the subdivision
drafts approved for the alternative conditions. These marks show C1 for the principal passenger
condition, and C2, C3, etc., for the alternative conditions; however, in no case is any subdivision load line
mark placed above the deepest load line in salt water.

Subdivision load line marks

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Passenger vessel with no allowed subdivision load Passenger vessel with one allowed Passenger vessel with two allowed subdivision
line subdivision load line lines

What is Subdivision Loadline on passenger ship and its details?

A ship intended for alternating modes of operation may, if the owners desire, have one or more
additional load lines assigned and marked to correspond with the subdivision draughts which the
Administration may approve for the alternative service configurations. Each service configuration so
approved shall comply independently of the results obtained for other modes of operation
In order that the required degree of subdivision shall be maintained, a load line corresponding to the
approved subdivision draught shall be assigned and marked on the ship’s sides.
Basic term to understand subdivision loadlines:
Subdivision load line is a waterline used in determining the subdivision of the ship.
Deepest subdivision load line is the waterline which corresponds to the greatest draught permitted
by the subdivision requirements which are applicable.
Length of the ship is the length measured between perpendiculars take at the extremities of the
deepest subdivision load line.
The subdivision load lines assigned and marked shall be recorded in the Passenger Ship Safety
Certificate, and shall be distinguished by the notation C.1 for the principal passenger condition, and
C.2, C.3, etc., for the alternative conditions.

Procedure for issue of Passenger Ship Subdivision Load lines

Plans for a new passenger vessel or a vessel to be converted to a passenger vessel shall be
submitted.
Inspections shall be made during the construction or conversion of the vessel
Upon completion of construction or conversion of a passenger vessel, a stability test must
be performed and stability information must be supplied to the Master
Special construction features of the vessel
Bilge and ballast systems, piping, inlets and discharges, ash chutes, astern power, and
auxiliary steering shall be in compliance.
When the highest subdivision load line is located on a vessel used as a passenger vessel in a
position between the highest and lowest seasonal load line marks, the seasonal load line

98
marks above the subdivision load line will be omitted and those below will be marked.
When the freeboard from the highest subdivision load line on a vessel used as a passenger
vessel is greater than the freeboard from the lowest load line, the load lines required by ILLC
shall be omitted and the disk with its horizontal line located in line with the highest
subdivision load line.
Subdivision load lines shall be aft of the vertical line. The vertical line shall be extended as
necessary to connect the lowest and highest load lines marked on the vessel.
When a vessel has spaces used for cargo and passengers alternatively so that the position
of the subdivision load line varies with the service, subdivision load lines for the principal
passenger condition shall be marked and denoted by C1 and the alternative conditions
marked and denoted by C2, C3, etc.
Position of subdivision load lines and freeboards shall be entered in Passenger Ship safety
certificate.

Multiple Load Lines

Purpose
The purpose of this guidance is to ensure a correct procedure when using multipleload lines
on Danish ships. Multiple load lines are used when, for a period of time, atanker has a need
to operate temporarily with a greater freeboard than the minimumfreeboard stipulated in
accordance with the International Convention on Load Linesof 1966. The reason for this is
often that a number of ports have special requirementsfor the maximum draught and
deadweight of ships calling at them.
Use
Multiple load lines may be used on oil tankers, chemical tankers and gas tankers.The use is
conditional upon all safety-related requirements being met for themaximum draught and
deadweight determined for the ship. A change of the ship’sdraught and deadweight is of
importance to SOLAS and MARPOL certificates.

The basis for the use of multiple load lines

The ship shall comply in full with all the relevant safety requirements for themaximum
draught and deadweight for which the ship has been assigned its minimum freeboard. The
stability book shall contain information about all the freeboards for which a Load Line
Certificate is
issued. Each set of load lines corresponding to the associated Load Line Certificate shall be
permanently marked on the ship’s side and verified by a classification
society. Only the set of load lines corresponding to the smallest of the freeboards assigneds
hall show the full line marking.
In individual cases and in agreement with the shipping company, all density linesand
seasonal load lines may be marked .
Only one set of load lines may be shown at a time; all other marks shall beeffectively
painted over.
Only the Load Line Certificate corresponding to the actual freeboard that the shiphas been
assigned shall be valid, and the information given in other certificates shallcorrespond with
this.

Procedure when establishing multiple load lines

The shipping company or construction yard shall address the ship’s classificationsociety.

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 The classification society carries out a freeboard survey and verifies the freeboardcalculatio
n and marks. A load line shall be marked on the basis of the assigned minimum freeboard.
Theload line mark and lines used in this connection shall be permanent and
especially prominent (for example, in the form of welded, cut-out plate). Load lines for
otherand smaller draughts shall also be permanently marked, but they shall be less prominent
(for example, by means of chiselling or centre-punching).
An ILLC shall be issued for each load line.
The load line to be used shall be painted in a colour that is in contrast to that of theship’s
side. The other marks shall be painted over.
The information about the maximum draught and deadweight given in the ship’sSAFCON,
SEC and IOPP certificates shall be in accordance with the load line used.
The non-relevant certificates shall be put in an envelope that is sealed by theclassification
society. The envelope shall be kept by the ship’s master on board.

Change of load line

Load lines and freeboards shall be changed in the presence of a surveyor from theship’s
classification society. In this connection, the ship’s master shall have prepared the ship so that
the actual marks have been repainted and other marks have been painted over.
The survey carried out in connection with a change of load line consists of a generalinspecti
on of the ship’s arrangements, a verification of the load line as well as thefilling in of the
relevant survey reports.
When a satisfactory survey has been completed, the ship’s Class certificate shall beendorsed
with the remark: “Survey for change of deadweight from _____ tonnes to _____ tonnes,
corresponding to a maximum draught of _____ metres”
The surveyor shall check that the International Load Line Certificate to be put inforce has
been endorsed with the same periodic load line surveys as those given inthe replaced
certificate.
The deadweight given in the ship’s ILLC, SAFCON, SEC and IOPP certificates shallcorrespond
to the ship’s draught for the load line used. If conditional certificates areissued in this
connection, they shall comply with the requirements for the form andcontent of the relevant
certificates.
The certificates that are not in use shall be put in an envelope that is sealed and kept by the
ship’s master on board.
In special cases, where it is not possible to get a surveyor from the ship’sclassification
society on board, the ship’s master may change the load line andcertificates himself after
having received an approval hereof from the classificationsociety. When doing this, the
ship’s master shall ensure that the correct load line andthe associated certificates are used,
that a written notification hereof is submitted tothe ship’s classification society and that an
official note to this effect is made in theship’s logbook. At the first subsequent call at a port,
he shall ask a class surveyor tocome on board and verify the marks and certificates in force
and to verify that theyconditions laid down have been complied with.

100
Q.1 Describe B-60 and B-100 Ships.

Type B-60 Ship

A Type B ship in which the reduction in freeboard has been increased up to 60% of the
total difference between the values for basic Type A and Type B freeboards. The ship
must meet one compartment damage stability requirements. A large number of
Panamax and Capesize bulk carriers are B-60.

A Type B-60 ship must meet the following:

• the measures provided for the protection of the crew are adequate;

• the freeing arrangements are adequate;

• Hatchway covers made of steel or equivalent material with acceptable strength

• the ship, when loaded in accordance with the requirements), shall be able to
withstand the flooding of any compartment or compartments, with an assumed
permeability of 0.95, consequent upon the damage assumptions specified, and shall
remain afloat in a satisfactory condition of equilibrium, as specified. In such a ship, if
over 150 m in length, the machinery space shall be treated as a floodable
compartment, but with a permeability of 0.85.

Type B-100 Ship

A Type B ship in which the reduction in freeboard has been increased up to the total
difference between the values for basic Type A and Type B freeboards, effectively making
the ship a Type A ship. The ship must meet two compartment damage stability
requirements. Only a small number of ships are B-100.
The reduction in tabular freeboard may be increased up to the total difference
between the values in table 28.1 and those in table 28.2 on condition that the ship
complies with the following:
• the measures provided for the protection of the crew are adequate;

• the freeing arrangements are adequate;

• Hatchway covers made of steel or equivalent material with acceptable strength

• Special conditions of assignment for type 'A' ships

• Throughout the length of the ship any one transverse bulkhead will be assumed to be
damaged, such that two adjacent fore and aft compartments shall be flooded
simultaneously, except that such damage will not apply to the boundary bulkheads of
a machinery space. In such a ship, if over 150 m in length, the machinery space shall
be treated as a floodable compartment, but with a permeability of 0.85.

101
Unit 8 Factor of Subdivision and Criterion Numeral (10 Hrs)

Syllabus – Knowledge of application of floodable length curves, Factor of subdivision,

Criterion of service numeral, Permissible length affecting hull division on passenger ships.

Factor of Subdivision and Criterion Numeral

The term sub-division means the constructional requirements for sub-division and
stability of passenger ships as given in SOLAS Chapter II-1. It is necessary to limit the
flooding of the vessel and keep the vessel stable after damage so that progressive
flooding does not occur.

A bulkhead deck is the uppermost continuous deck to which the watertight

bulkheads are carried.

A margin line is an imaginary line drawn about 76mm below the bulkhead deck.

To keep the vessel, stable and in order to maintain her watertight integrity, the
bulkhead deck and in fact the margin line should not get submerged in case of
flooding of any compartment. if the bulkhead deck gets submerged, the openings to
other compartments may go below waterline thus resulting in progressive flooding.

At any given point, the floodable length is the maximum portion of the length of the
vessel which has its centre at the point in question, which can be flooded without the
margin line getting submerged.

The floodable length at the ends of the vessel will be small because a flooding at the
end would cause more trim and thus the margin line would get submerged earlier as
compared to the midship section where the floodable length is larger. The floodable
length at any point is determined by taking into account the form, draught,
permeability of the space and other characteristics of the ship.

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Uniform average permeability of a vessel is different for machinery spaces and other spaces.
A machinery space is taken from the keel to the margin line and between the watertight
bulkheads that contain main and aux propulsion machinery, boilers and permanent bunker
spaces
UAP (for machinery space) -
P = 85 + {10 (a – c)/v}
a = volume of passenger spaces below the margin line within the limits of machinery space.
c = volume of cargo spaces, bunkers or stores situated below the margin line within the
limits of machinery space.
v = the whole volume of the machinery space below the margin line

UAP (for spaces forward and aft of machinery space) –

P = 63 + (35 a/v)
a = volume of passenger spaces below the margin line fwd or aft of the m/c space.
v = whole volume of the ship below the margin line fwd or aft of the margin line.

The factor of subdivision -

It is always <= 1, so that the ships can have sub-divisions as efficiently as possible. the factor
of sub-division varies according to:
1. the length of the ship,
2. the nature of service.
The factor of subdivision decreases in a regular manner as the length of the ship increases.
The factor of subdivision is different for cargo ships and passenger ships and is found out by
the below formulas;
A = {58.2/(L-60)} + 0.18 (for cargo ships of length >=131)
B = {30.3/(L-42)} + 0.18 (for passenger ships of length >=79)

For cargo ships of length less than 131 and passenger ships of length less than 79, the factor
of subdivision is taken as 1.

103
What is the Concept of Subdivision of a Ship:

Traditionally, a ship is divided longitudinally into a number of watertight compartments to restrict

the flooding to one or more compartments in case of damage. This prevents progressive flooding
(i.e. flooding across the entire ship’s length in case of a damage at any location). The
compartmentalization is done by means of transverse watertight bulkheads. But the interesting
question that arises here is, how many watertight bulkheads would a particular ship require? How
many compartments do we divide a ship into? These are answers that need to be answered at a very
initial phase of the design, most usually, in the concept design phase.

To understand this concept, we first need to understand the concept of “floodable” length.

For any point ‘P’ along the length of the ship, the floodable length (l) is the maximum
portion of the ship’s length with the point ‘P’ at the center that can be completely flooded
symmetrically without immersing the margin line. For our convenience, we represent the
floodable length of every point on the vertical axis. So, for the point ‘P’ we can plot the
floodable length at point ‘F’ on the vertical axis. Similarly, when the floodable lengths of all
the points on the ship are plotted, we obtain the Floodable Length Curve.

What is the use of Floodable Length Curves? The advantage of these curves come with is
that they can be plotted very inexpensively, and at a very initial stage of the design. This
makes it possible for the designers to decide on the number of watertight compartments,
and transverse bulkheads required by the ship.

How the bulkheads are positioned ?

Suppose we place two watertight bulkheads at a distance of ‘l’ and as ‘P’ as their midpoint.
We know, that since the floodable length at ‘P’ is ‘l’, by the definition of floodable length, if
104
the compartment of length ‘l’ and with ‘P’ as its mid-point is flooded, the margin line will
remain above the waterline. Hence, the compartment between the bulkheads shown in the
above figure is a safe design.

If the vertex of the triangle meets the floodable length curve, or is below the curve, the
compartment is safe (as shown for compartment AA’ in the figure below). However, if we
now increase the length of the compartment from AA’ to BB’ (as shown in blue), the vertex
of the triangle exceeds the floodable length curve. In other words, the bulkheads, if placed
at BB’, would result in submergence of the margin line if the compartment between the
bulkheads was to be completely flooded.

So, to check whether a particular compartment plan (a longitudinal distribution of watertight

bulkheads along the ship’s length) is safe, we follow following steps:

105
Step 1: The floodable length curve is plotted.

Step 2: Watertight bulkheads are placed at random, but known positions along the length of the
ship, thus dividing it into a number of watertight compartments.

Figure 4: Step 2- Compartment Layout.

Step 3: Triangles are drawn for each compartment such that the height of each triangle is equal to
the length of the compartment.

Step 4: At this stage, it is important to know what compartment standard the ship has to be
designed to. So what is a Compartment Standard? A ship is said to have a Single Compartment
Standard if it is designed to be sea-worthy (should be able to remain afloat, and margin line should
not be immersed) even after any one of its watertight compartments have been damaged
completely. Similarly, a ship with Two Compartment Standard can remain afloat even after

106
complete damage to any of its two adjacent watertight compartments.

So, once the compartment standard is fixed, now check the same using the obtained floodable
length curve. For the compartment layout set in the above example, we have all the triangles with
vertices below the floodable length curve. This means that the chosen compartment plan can be
used to certify the ship with Single Compartment Standard.

One Compartment Standard.

But if the design of the ship demands a two compartment standard, the above check is not
sufficient. In order to perform a two compartment standard check, the triangles need to be drawn in
a way considering that two adjacent watertight compartments are damaged. For example, in the
diagram below, the triangle AKC has been drawn for the case when compartments AB and BC are
completely flooded. In simpler terms, we will now consider two adjacent compartments as one. The
results obtained for the above case, is as shown below.

107
 Two Compartment Standard.

The results clearly tell us that the margin line would submerge if the following compartments were
flooded together:

• Both AB and BC.

• Both BC and CD.
• Both EF and FG.
• Both FG and GH.

But the margin line would remain above the waterline for simultaneous flooding of either of the two
cases:

• Both CD and DE.

• Both DE and EF.

In such a case, the ship is given a two compartment standard, but only for simultaneous flooding of
compartments CD and EF or DE and EF. Hence, if in case of a damage to the engine room (which
would usually be located in compartment BC), progressive flooding to the steering gear
compartment (AB) or the compartment just forward of the engine room (CD) cannot be afforded to
keep the margin line from submerging.

What is the Concept of Permeability:

Practically, all the compartments in ships would contain items within them that would reduce the
total volume that can be occupied by the flooded water. The items include stiffeners, web frames,
longitudinals, brackets, beam knees, equipment, piping, and outfits. Hence, the ratio of the
floodable volume to the total volume of the compartment gives the permeability of the
compartment. It is denoted by p, and is usually expressed in percentage.

The general values of permeability used for different types of compartments are listed below,
followed by a logical understanding of the variation in the values:

Watertight Compartment – 95 to 97%

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Accommodation spaces – 95%

Machinery compartments – 85%

Cargo holds – 60%

Stores – 60 %

The floodable length of each point “P “ along the ship’s length is multiplied by the permeability to
obtain the Permissible Length. It is based on this permissible length curve, and not on the floodable
length that we judge the final compartment standards of the ship. This is exactly what has been
illustrated below, where the permissible length curves are first plotted for each permeability value.

One compartment standard with permeability factors considered.

The permissible length curves for 85 percent and 60 percent permeability are now incorporated into
the floodable subdivision diagram. Here, for machinery compartments (e.g. engine room
compartment BC) the vertices for the triangle needs to be checked against the 85% curve, instead of
the floodable length (100%) curve, which we did when permeability was not introduced. In this case,
all compartments satisfy for single compartment standard.

The application of permeability would come to be noticed in a case illustrated below:

109
 Evaluation of compartment standard and marginal compartment with permeability.

Here, the machinery compartment (AB) seems to be within the permissible length. But how do we
assess whether compartment BC is safe or not? This is the subdivision diagram for a typical
merchant ship. The compartment BC is generally used for cargo holds, where the permeability is as
low as 60 percent. Hence, the triangle for this compartment is to be checked against the 60 percent
permissible length curve, which determines that one compartment standard is achievable.

Another important concept that comes to play here, is that of Marginal Compartment. If you notice
compartment CD, its length is exactly equal to the floodable length, which is why the vertex of its
triangle coincides the floodable length curve. Such a compartment is called a Marginal
Compartment. However, in this case, the marginal compartment does not behave as one because of
the permeability factor. The compartment CD in merchant ships is usually used for cargo hold or
forward stores, giving it a permeability of 60 percent.

It is therefore evident that though the triangles may overshoot the floodable length curve, the final
analysis is to be made only after calculating the permeability of every compartment.
Effects of flooding on a ship:
The study of damaged stability of a surface ship comes of use when the ship’s watertight hull is
affected in a way that allows water to flood any compartment within the ship’s hull. Since this
changes the stability parameters of the ship, the extent of which depends on the extent of damage
and flooding, it is studied separately from intact stability.
Before going into the methods that are used to evaluate the damaged stability of a ship, we will
discuss the effects of flooding on a ship:

Change of Draft: Flooding results in entry of water into the ship’s damaged compartment. This will
cause a change in draft to the point where the displacement of the undamaged (intact) part of the
ship will be equal to the displacement before damage less the weight of the water that entered the
ship after flooding. To express it:

Change of Trim: Ingress of water in a compartment can be considered as an addition of weight to

any point along the length of the ship. This causes a change in the trim of the ship.

110
Heeling: The ship will heel if the damaged compartment is unsymmetrically positioned about the
centreline of the ship. If the metacentric height of the ship in the flooded condition is negative, the
damaged ship is rendered unstable. In such a case, the ship would capsize if the flooded
compartment is unsymmetrical about the centreline, and is prone to capsize by action of any
external heeling moment if the compartment is symmetrical about the centreline.

Change in Stability: The metacentric height of the ship changes due to flooding. This can be
explained by the general expression of metacentric height:

The explanation of reduction in stability can be done in two ways, which is exactly what we will
study in this article, but at a later stage. For now, it should suffice to understand that when a ship is
flooded, it results in a change of KB and BM values. The KB rises due to flooding, and it may rise
further due to change in the ship’s trim. However, there is a significant reduction in BM, which is a
function of the area moment of the ship’s water plane.

Change in Freeboard: The increase in draft of the flooded ship results in reduction of freeboard,
which poses a great threat to the residual buoyancy of the ship. Even though the metacentric height
may be positive after flooding, reduction in freeboard to a point where the deck is immersed,
decreases the ship’s range of stability. This means that the ship could now capsize due to external
forces of wind or waves.

Loss of the ship: One of the most common terms that is used in damaged condition of a ship, is
Margin Line. The Margin Line of a ship is an imaginary waterline considered 76 mm below the
uppermost continuous watertight deck. If a ship is damaged, it is considered to be safe only if the
margin line is not immersed. Once the waterline reaches the margin line at any point along the
length of the ship, the ship is considered to be unsafe, and evacuation becomes mandatory.

111
 Reduced GM due to damage to a ship.

The reduction in metacentric height due to damage can be extrapolated to the stability curve as a
reduction in height of the GZ curve and range of stability, as shown in the figure above. So if the loss
in metacentric height is such that the remaining maximum righting lever (GZ) is less than the heeling
moment, the ship will capsize.

It is therefore, the designers work to:

1. Design the subdivision in such a way that the remaining righting arm is sufficient upto a
certain level of damage.
2. To identify the extent of damage that can be considered safe for the ship.

Stability of ships in damaged condition:

Sufficient intact stability in all conditions to enable the ship to withstand flooding of any
compartment within the floodable length.

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The stability in the damaged condition and after equalization, where provided shall be as follows:
1. In case of symmetrical flooding, there shall be a positive residual GM of 0.05m.
2. The maximum angle of heel after flooding but before equalization shall not exceed 150 .
After equalization the maximum angle of heel for one compartment flooding shall not be
more than 70 and for two or more adjacent compartment flooding shall not exceed 120
3. In no case the margin line be submerged in final stage of flooding. If submerges in
intermediate stages then administration shall prescribe arrangement for safety.
4. Unsymmetrical flooding to be kept to minimum. Means to correct large angle of heel be self
acting type. Controls to cross flooding shall be operable from above the bulkhead deck.
5. The time for equalization should not exceed 15 minutes.
6. The positive righting lever curve shall have a minimum range of 150 beyond the angle of
equilibrium.
7. The area under the righting lever curve shall be at least 0.015 m-radians from the angle of
equilibrium to whichever is lesser of
a) The angle at which progressive flooding occurs
b) 220 in case of 1 compartment or 270 in case of > 2 compartment flooding
8. The residual righting lever is to be obtained after taking into account the greatest of the
following heeling moments:
a) Crowding of all passengers to one side
b) Launching of fully loaded davit launched survival craft on one side
c) Wind pressure

GZ (m) = (Heeling moment / displacement) + 0.04 [not less than 0.1 m]

Moments due to crowding of passengers:

⚫ 4 persons per m2
⚫ Each passenger 75 kg
⚫ Passengers on one side muster stations

Moments due to launching of survival craft:

◼ Lifeboats and rescue boats and davit launched liferafts fully loaded swung out on the

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 heeled side
◼ Maximum heeling moment during launching to be used
◼ LSA on the opposite side to which ship has heeled shall be assumed to be in the stowed
position.
Moments due to wind pressure:
⚫ Wind pressure of 120 N/m2
⚫ The area applicable is the lateral area of the ship above the waterline in the intact
condition
⚫ The moment arm shall be vertical distance between the centre of the lateral area to a
point at the mean draft.

Past question papers

1. WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY THE TERM “SUBDIVISION LOADLINES”. WHY IS IT
NECESSARY-EXPLAIN. EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURE OF CALCULATING “PERMISSIBLE LENGTH”.
WHERE AND HOW DO WE USE IT. (JAN 08), (JAN 09)
1. EXPLAIN “FACTOR OF SUB-DIVISION” AND “CRITERIA SERVICE NUMERAL”. HOW ARE BOTH
RELATED TO “FLOODABLE LENGTH” AND “PERMISSIBLE LENGTH” OF PASSENGER SHIPS
W.R.T. SUB-DIVISION REQUIREMENTS AS PER SOLAS. (MAY 08), (MAY 09), (NOV 09)
2. EXPLAIN FLOODABLE LENGTH, MARGIN LINE, FACTOR OF SUBDIVISION. (NOV 08)
3. EXPLAIN WHAT IS “UNIFORM AVERAGE PERMEABILITY”. WHERE AND HOW DO YOU USE
THIS. (JAN 09)

08.07.2016
Question 1. (a) Write Short notes on “Special Constructional features of “Ro Ro Ships”
Answer 1a)
The problem areas Although ro-ros have proved commercially very successful, some concern has been
expressed about ro-ro ships from the safety point of view virtually ever since the first ro-ro ships were
introduced. The whole design concept is different from that of traditional ships because of the
introduction of a number of elements which make ro-ro ships unique.
1. The lack of internal bulkheads On conventional ships, the hull is divided into a number of separate
holds by means of transverse bulkheads, many of which may be watertight. In the event of the hull
being holed, the bulkheads will limit or delay the inrush of water, resulting in the ship sinking slowly
enough for the evacuation of those on board or even preventing the ship from sinking at all. With ro-
ro ships the installation of unpierced transverse bulkheads is a major obstacle, at least on the upper
"through" decks: the whole idea of the ro-ro ship depends upon being able to drive cargo on to the
ship at one end and off again at the other. The installation of fixed transverse bulkheads would prevent
this. Although ro-ros are all fitted with the watertight collision subdivision, and engine-room
bulkheads below the freeboard deck prescribed by SOLAS, the huge vehicle decks make it possible for
water to enter very rapidly and fire can also spread very quickly for the same reason.
2. Cargo access doors The cargo access doors at the stern and bow of the ship represent a potential
weak spot, as do the side doors with which some ro-ro ships are equipped. Over the years such doors
can become damaged or twisted, especially when the door also serves as a ramp.
3. Stability The movement of cargo on the vehicle deck can affect the intact stability of the ship,
causing it to list. The sudden inrush of water following damage to the hull or failure of watertight doors
can be 3 even more serious (and rapid). The fact that ro-ro ships generally have a very large
superstructure compared with other types means that they can be more affected by wind and bad
weather.

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4. Low freeboards Cargo access doors fitted on cargo-only ro-ros are often very close to the waterline.
This means that a defective trim or a sudden list, caused, for example, by the movement of cargo, can
bring the access threshold below the waterline, resulting in a sudden inrush of water (if the door is
open) which will in turn result in the list increasing and a possible capsizing of the ship.
5. Cargo stowage and securing A list can cause cargo to break loose if it is not correctly stowed and
secured. The problem is made worse because the crew of the ship cannot normally see how the cargo
is stowed inside or on the trailer in which it is transported. A heavy load which breaks loose can cause
other units to follow suit. The result can be an increased list, the spillage of dangerous substances and,
in extreme cases, damage to the hull and ship's structure.
6. Life-saving appliances The high sides of many modern ro-ros, including passenger ships, pose
problems regarding lifesaving appliances: the higher a lifeboat, for example, is stowed the more
difficult it can be to launch, especially if the ship is listing badly.
7. The crew The factors referred to above indicate that ro-ros are highly sophisticated ships which
require very careful handling. This makes them exceptionally vulnerable to human error. How safe are
ro-ros?

Intact and damage stability of ro-ro passenger ships One of the most important proposals in the report
of the Panel of Experts concerns the effect of a build-up of water on the enclosed ro-ro deck, which it
describes as the "most dangerous problem for a ro-ro ship." As we have seen, since April 1990 all new
passenger ro-ro ships have had to be built according to SOLAS 90 while a slightly modified version was
made applicable to existing ro-ro passenger ships. Tests carried out in the United Kingdom have shown
that SOLAS 90 would give an "adequate standard" of protection following an accident, such as a
collision, which occurs in wave heights of up to 1.5 metres. The Panel concluded that these
requirements should be improved to include the effect of water being accumulated on the ro-ro deck
in order to enable the ship to survive in more severe sea states. It felt that this could certainly not be
excluded when realistic scenarios are considered and the Committee endorsed that view. It agreed
the Panel's proposals would have profound implications for the existing ro-ro fleet, necessitating
substantial design and construction improvements which would, in turn, be costly and could make
some existing ro-ros commercially non-viable. Understandably, there were considerable difference of
opinion among delegates about the proposals and in particular about the recommendation that SOLAS
90 should be modified to take into account water on the vehicle deck. Nevertheless, draft texts were
prepared and circulated to Parties to the SOLAS Convention. This had to be done at least six months
before the November Conference for legal reasons. Having decided this, the Committee turned its
attention to other issues raised by the Panel of Experts' report. One-compartment standard ships The
Committee agreed that the one-compartment standard should not be accepted for new ro-ro
passenger ships carrying more than a relatively low number of passengers. This standard means that
ships should be able to survive if one watertight compartment is flooded. 20 The Committee agreed
that existing one-compartment ships should be modified to comply with a two-compartment standard
or have their certified number of passengers reduced over a period of years to an approved limited
number. Second line of defence It was agreed that there should always be an inner door behind the
bow door or visor to act as a second line of defence. Further measures to prevent water entering the
ro-ro deck - for example, through doors leading to other parts of the ship - were agreed. These include
the banning of the practice of operating ro-ro passenger ships with watertight doors open. This would
only be allowed if such doors are power-operated and controlled from the bridge. Drainage It was
agreed that the drainage of water from the ro-ro deck should be improved. An amendment to SOLAS
requiring that discharge valves, which can be closed from a position above the bulkhead deck, shall
be kept open at sea was submitted to the Conference. Operational matters There was agreement that
ferry operations are generally performed in a safe and orderly manner, but experience has shown that
some improvements could be made. The MSC also recognized that early implementation of the
International Safety Management (ISM) Code will have an important impact on the safety of ro-ro
passenger ships. Although it will not be applied to passenger ships until 1 July 1998, the MSC agreed

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that this does not prevent Governments from making the Code mandatory for ships flying their flags
at an earlier date and a recommendation that this be done was actually adopted by IMO in 1993.
Working language The MSC stressed the importance of all crew members being able to understand
each other. It agreed to an amendment to SOLAS requiring that a working language be established for
each individual roro passenger ship and further agreed that this requirement could be extended to all
passenger ships. Operational limitations In some cases limitations are imposed on how and where a
ship may be operated, but these can be lost or mislaid during the ship's life, for example, if it changes
hands or flag. The MSC approved a new SOLAS regulation making it a requirement for this information
to be included in a manual to be kept by the master which would remain with the ship for its entire
life and be updated as necessary and that this requirement be made applicable to all types of ships.
Lashing and securing of cargoes On 1 July 1996 a SOLAS amendment will enter into force making it
mandatory for ships to carry a Cargo Securing Manual. The rapid turn-round times of ro-ro ships makes
the lashing and securing of cargoes difficult and the MSC agreed to an amendment to SOLAS to ensure
that securing in compliance with the Code be completed before ro-ro ships are allowed to sail. It points
out the importance of ensuring that cargoes are properly stowed and secured within containers and
wheeled vehicles carried on ro-ro ships. It also undertook to arrange appropriate solutions to this
problem with bodies dealing with road transport. Access to ro-ro decks The MSC agreed that access
by passengers to the ro-ro deck when the ship is under way should be banned. Alarms on, and
surveillance of, hull doors The Committee decided that a better safety level could be achieved if alarms
required on the navigating bridge were supplemented by an audible alarm indicating any change of
state of the doors under surveillance. Audible alarms should be fitted to doors for which surveillance
is required. Leakage surveillance by closed circuit television should be provided in the engine room as
well as on the bridge. 21 Constructional matters An amendment to SOLAS designed to eliminate the
risk of flooding of vehicle spaces through ventilation trunks and air pipes was approved. Training and
related matters As draft amendments to the STCW Convention and a related STCW Code were to be
adopted at a conference in June/July this year, the MSC felt that there was a need for additional
training of crew members with special duties in emergencies, such as crews of fast rescue boats. It
further agreed that there should be additional training for personnel on ro-ro passenger ships in such
topics as shore-based fire fighting, crowd management, loading and unloading, stability, crisis
management and human behaviour. Communications The MSC agreed to develop performance
standards for public address systems and that requirements should be introduced into SOLAS to
ensure that they operate efficiently. To ensure efficient external communications, arrangements
should be made so that at least one member of the crew is dedicated to perform radiocommunication
duties in the event of an emergency. The MSC agreed to ensure that distress messages are efficiently
sent and received and that the work currently being carried out by IMO concerning the mandatory
carriage of identification transponders be given high priority. The MSC further agreed that float-free
voyage data recorders - similar to the "black boxes" carried by aircraft - should be fitted to ro-ro
passenger ships.

(b) Draw and Label Midship Section of a “Gas Transport Membrane Tank”
with respect to Gas Carriers. (5)

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2. Write Short notes on the following
(a) Body Plan , (b) Sheer Plan
Body Plan

Planes parallel to the front and back of the imaginary box are called stations. There are three
important stations. The intersection of the stem of the ship at the design water line is called Forward
Perpendicular (FP). The intersection of the stern at design waterline(immersed transom) or the rudder
stock is called the Aft Perpendicular (AP). The station midway between the perpendiculars is called
the midships stations.

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Each station plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved line at the points of intersection.
These lines are called sectional lines and are all projected onto a single plane called the Body Plan.

The body plan takes advantage of the ship's symmetry. Hence only half the section is show; the
sections forward of amidships are drawn on the right side, and the sections aft of the amidships are
drawn on the left side. The amidships section is generally shown on both sides of the body plan. The
vertical line in the center separating the left and right half of the ship is called the centerline.
Half-Breadth Plan

The bottom of the box is a reference plane called the base plane. The base plane is usually level with
the keel. A series of planes parallel and above the base plan are imagined at regular intervals, usually
at every meter. Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a line at the points of intersection.
These lines are called waterlines and are all projected onto a single plane called the Half-Breadth
Plan.

Each waterlines shows the true shape of the hull from the top view for some elevation above the base
plane.

The water lines referred to here has nothing to do with where the ship actually floats. There waterlines
are the intersection of the ship's hull with some imaginary plane above the base plane.

Since ships are symmetric about their centerline they only need be drawn for the starboard or port
side, thus the name Half-Breadth Plan.
Sheer Plan

A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the center of the ship and parallel to the sides of
the imaginary box is called the centerline plane. A series of planes parallel to one side of the centerline
plane are imagined at regular intervals from the centerline. Each plane will intersect the ship's hull
and form a curved line at the points of intersection. These lines are called buttock or butt lines and

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are projected onto a single plane called the Sheer Plan.

Each buttock line shows the true shape of the hull from the side view for some distance from the
centerline of the ship. The centerline plane shows a special butt line called the profile of the ship.

3. (a) Discuss the Advantages & Disadvantages for the use of Aluminum in Ship building. (6)

Answer 3a)
1. Aside from taking advantage of the high strength of aluminium alloys forshipbuilding, they
also use composite materials (fibreglass and carbon fibre) for the purpose of lightening
vessels. ... Aluminium ships have a clear advantage over steel ships with regards to total
ownership costs.
2. Aluminum oxidizes quickly, and the resulting surface coat of aluminum oxide resists further
corrosion, by air, water, and chemicals. ...Aluminum is 100% recyclable without losing any of
its natural characteristics.Aluminium has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.

3. Light weight. Its density is 2.72 t/cum as compared to7.84 t/cum for Steel. Saving in
deadweight, leading tomore cargo carrying capability. A lot of vessels now havetheir
superstructures made of aluminium. This has lead tolowering of centre of gravity. Therefore
improved stability.

4. Lower hull weight requires less power for propulsion or more speed for the same power.
Many fast ferries,hovercrafts & catamarans have their entire hull built of aluminium alloy.

5. Stregthwise comparable to steel. Also it is comparativelymore durable at lower temperatures

than steel. Steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, forming cracks whichrapidly propagate.
Aluminium does not have thisdisadvantage, which makes it useful as a tank material onLPG
and LNG carriers.

6. Aluminium has high corrosion resistant properties.

7. Aluminium is non magnetic. Non existence of inducedmagnetism benefits the ship’s compass
& other suchequipment.This quality is particularly useful in warshipsmaking them immune to
magnetic mines.

8. Disadvantages:
1) Aluminium has low melting point (6590C) as compared to steel(15000C). In normal
conditions this temperature is sufficiently high. However in case of fire the aluminium
structure could melt & collapse. Therefore fire protection regulations are more stringent in
these vessels. Aluminium bulkheads on passenger vessels are to be insulated to a fire resistant
standard equivalent to steel bulkheads. Machinery casings must be made of steel & lifeboat
davits should not be made of aluminium alloy components.
2) Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its use in shipbuilding. The metals
affinity for oxygen causes aluminium alloys in the molten state to readily absorb oxygen
causing excessive corrosion, thereby weakening the metal. Welding of aluminium has to be
done in a gas shield and only Metal Inert Gas(MIG) and Tungsten Inert Gas(TIG) welding
processes are suitable. On board welding thus becomes a costly affair. 3) It is very expensive.
Aluminium at $1250 per tonne , is almost ten times as expensive as steel. 4) Aluminium has
to be insulated from steel to prevent a galvanic cell being set up and bimetallic corrosion
taking place. If not, it will act as an anode and get wasted away in the galvanic reaction,
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 protecting the steel. It may be concluded that while use of aluminium is feasible for hatches,
superstructures, gas tanks & even for the entire hulls of hovercrafts & ferries, until the cost is
brought down, steel will continue to dominate the shipbuilding industry.

(b) With a neat diagram, describe how Aluminum Plate is Connected to Steel Plate in Ship building.
(4)

4. (a) Categorise different types of Chemical Tankers and Sketch location of their Cargo Tanks, as per
IBC Code. (5)

Answer 4a) Types of Chemical Tankers

Chemical cargoes can be very dangerous, most of them being flammable and/or toxic, some of them
extremely so. The IBC Code defines three ship types (ST) of chemical tankers: ST1, ST2, and ST3.

– ST1 is a chemical tanker intended to transport most dangerous products, which require maximum
preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo. Accordingly, a type 1 ship should survive
the most severe standard of damage stability and its cargo tanks should be located at the maximum
prescribed distance onboard from the shell plating.

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– ST2 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring significant preventive measures.

– ST3 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring moderate degree of containment
to increase survival capability in a damaged condition.

The IBC Code lists, in its fourteen chapters, the requirements that must be satisfied by a ship prior to
it being certified as a chemical tanker regardless of the specific cargoes it is intended to carry. Within
each chapter the designer is given an option of the level of compliance required. If compliance with
the more onerous requirements is chosen, the ship will be more sophisticated and will therefore be
able to carry the more hazardous cargoes.

Tank capacity limitation:

ST 1 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 1,250 m3 in any one tank

ST 2 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 3,000 m3 in any one tank

ST 3 : There is no filling restriction for chemicals assigned to Ship Type 3 Cargo Tank

Tank location:

Cargo tanks shall be located at the following distances inboard – MEAN OF DOUBLE BOTTOM HEIGHT
TO THE BASE LINE OR MOULDED LINE (ABOVE THE BOTTOM PLATE).

ST 1 : from the side shell plating, not less than the transverse extent of damage (B/5 or
11.5mwhichever is less), and from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not less
than the vertical extent of damage (B/15 or 6 m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760
mm from the shell plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising from
tank washing.

ST 2 : from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not less than the vertical extent
of damage ( B/15 or 6m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760 mmfrom the shell plating. This
requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising from tank washing.

ST 3 : no requirement

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(b) Classify & Explain different types of Gas Carriers as per IGC Code. (5)

Answer 4b) Types of Gas carriers as per IGC Code

Ships should be designed to one of the following standards:
1. A type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
maximum preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
2. A type 2G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
significant preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
3. A type 2PG ship is a gas carrier of 150 m in length or less intended to transport products indicated
in Chapter 19 which require significant preventive measures to preclude escape of such cargo, and
where the products are carried in independent type C tanks designed for a MARVS of at least 7 bar
gauge and a cargo containment system design temperature of -55° c or above. Note that a ship of this
description but over 150 m in length is to be considered a type 2G ship.
4. A type 3G ship is a gas carrier intended to carry products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
moderate preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
Thus a type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended for the transportation of products considered to present
the greatest overall hazard and types 2G/2PG and type 3G for products of progressively lesser hazards.
Accordingly, a type 1G ship should survive the most severe standard of damage and its cargo tanks
should be located at the maximum prescribed distance inboard from the shell plating.
Gas Carrier Cargo Tank Location as per IGC Code
Cargo tanks should be located at the following distances inboard :
1. Type 1G ships: from the side shell plating not less than the transverse extent of damage specified
from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centreline not less than the vertical extent of
damage specified and nowhere less than 760 ㎜ from the shell plating.
2. Types 2G/2PG and 3G ships: from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centre-line not
less than the vertical extent of damage specified and nowhere less than 760 Ô from the shell plating.

For the purpose of tank location, the vertical extent of bottom damage should be measured to the
inner bottom when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the bottom of the
cargo tanks. The transverse extent of side damage should be measured to the longitudinal bulkhead
when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the side of the cargo tanks (see
figure 2.1). For internal insulation tanks the extent of damage should be measured to the supporting
tank plating.

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Except for type 1G ships, suction wells installed in cargo tanks may protrude into the vertical extent
of bottom damage specified that such wells are as small as practicable and the protrusion below the
inner bottom plating does not exceed 25% of the depth of the double bottom or 350 ㎜ , whichever
is less. Where there is no double bottom, the protrusion below the upper limit of bottom damage
should not exceed 350 ㎜. Suction wells installed in accordance with this paragraph may be ignored
in determining the compartments affected by damage.

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 INDIAN MARITIME UNIVERSITY
(A Central University Government of India)
B.Sc (Nautical Science)
Semester: VI
Naval Architecture Paper – II (AK) Dec 2019
Subject Code: UG 21 T3602

Time: 3 hours
Max.Marks:70
Pass Marks:35
___________________________________________________________________
_________
Note: Question No. 1 is compulsory.
Answer any 6 questions from remaining 8 questions (each of 10 marks).
Scientific Calculator is permitted if required.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------
Q.1 Short Questions starting with word define or state from Units 1 to 8
(2 x 5 =10 marks)

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 (a) Functions of a Drawing Office or Optical Detailing or Design
Office: -
The one-hundredth size negatives are projected from a
projection tower onto a plate. The negative and plate distance is
correctly adjusted and the image is focused so that the
magnification is exactly 100 times. The outline is then marked off
using cord and chalk or hammer, punch and paint. The
traditional method was gradually replaced by Drawing Office or
Optical Detailing or Design Office.

(b) How availability of Oxygen affects on corrosion: -

In open spaces oxygen is available in abundance and therefore
more corrosion. In enclosed spaces, corrosion proceeds only as
long as the oxygen is available. In inerted tanks corrosion is very
much reduced. The more corrosion takes place at the water
surface rather than at great depths and is visible between the
light and load waterline on the shipside.

(c) Coating condition is defined as:

GOOD – minor spot rusting
FAIR – local breakdown of coating at edges of stiffeners and weld
connections and/or light rusting over 20% area.
POOR – coating breakdown in general over 20% or more area
or hard scale over 10% areas.

(d) Type ‘A’ ships

1. Designed to carry only liquid cargo in bulk
2. Has a high integrity of exposed deck
3. Openings closed by watertight gasketed steel covers
4. If > 150 m shall be able to withstand flooding of any
compartment/compartments with an assumed permeability of
0.95 and shall remain afloat in satisfactory condition of
equilibrium.
5. Machinery spaces treated as floodable compartment with
permeability 0.85.

(e) Margin Line: - A margin line is an imaginary line drawn about

76mm below the bulkhead deck. to keep the vessel stable and in
order to maintain her watertight integrity, the bulkhead deck and in
fact the margin line should not get submerged in case of flooding of
any compartment.

Q2. (a) What are the principles of ship design. (5

marks)

Answer – The principles of ship design are

1. Safety –

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 h) Personal safety on board
i) Stability and safety
j) Motions and safety
k) Controllability and safety
l) Fire Safety
m) Machinery safety
n) Rule based design and risk based design.
2. Sustainability – one has to consider technologies and their effect on
environment
3. Efficiency – Powering and resistance, propulsive efficiency, hull efficiency,
optimization of powering.
4. Nature of service requirements – routes, ports, type of cargo,
5. Dimensional requirements – L, B, Draft/Depth restrictions
6. Manpower requirements – as per type of ship, size of ship,
national/international requirements.
7. Deadweight displacement ratio and Volume requirements -
8. Seakeeping and manoeuvrability –The ship should have a good turning
ability. She should be able to keep a straight line course.
9. Strength – Longitudinal strength, transverse strength, torsional strength,
fatigue. The hull girder strength is greater than the load strength of static
and dynamic forces.
10.Stability and trim – a ship should be stable in all conditions of loading, trim
shall not be excessive. Stable at small and large angles. Minimum free
surface effect, guarded against grain shifting. Ship can survive after
damage.
11.General arrangement -
12.Corrosion factor – in deciding the measures/systems to be used to control
corrosion.
13.Economic factor – investment cost and return

Q2. (b) Describe contract (full) design. (5 marks)

Answer: Contract Design:
Many ideas have been developed in the concept stage. A lot of
calculation will be carried out, many using CFD and FEA methods, to
establish the ship’s main performance characteristics. These will be
confirmed by model tests as the final form emerges.
The makeup of the ship includes the equipment, systems and sub-
systems which contribute to its ability to perform its intended
functions. The layout of the ship will emerge as the building blocks
are assembled to create the crew accommodation, main and auxiliary
machinery spaces with their control areas, cargo spaces and cargo
handling equipment, storerooms and so on. The electrical, chilled
water, air conditioning, hydraulic and compressed air system
capacities will be defined and associated cables and pipes positioned.
Duplicate supply for vital; equipment such as steering gear. Ship will
be divided into zones. Ideally the CAD system will be used which will
include the safeguards controlling design changes. The basic ship

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 design will be supported by a mass of specifications, many
international requirements, which will control the development of the
detail design.

Q3. (a) List the sequence of events of a ship construction carried out at
Shipyard. (5)

Answer: Sequence of events in the construction of a ship

1. Ship Design
2. Drawing of Plans – Sheer Plan (Side view), Half Breadth Plan (Top
view), Body Plan (End view)
3. Approval of Plans
4. Filling of Plans – Table of offsets and fairing, Mould loft(full scale),
1/10 scale plan, 1/100 glass negatives, Numerical controls, CAD/CAM
5. Transfer of Plan to Plate – Traditional mould loft, Optical marking,
Numerical controller, Computer controlled flame profilers.
6. Plate preparation – Issue of plates, Grit blasting, Priming
7. Plate and Sections – Marking, Cutting, Machining, Bending & Shaping
8. Production of sub-assemblies and assemblies
9. Fabrication of units
10.Erection and welding
11.Launching
12.Trials, Tests & Certification.

Q3.(b) Describe lofting and fairing techniques. (5 marks)

Answer:
Lofting and fairing – The actual construction of any type of ship is
complicated by the various curves of the hull, the compound angles formed
by the joints between the various structural members, and the necessity of
producing hull that is absolutely symmetrical and fair (having regular curves
and surfaces that are smooth). Because of these requirements, it is almost
impossible to build any form of ship directly from small scale plans, as is
done in the case of other kind of structures. Instead the ship builder, before
beginning work, must resort to the practice of lofting or laying down, the
lines of the ship.
After the lines plans are approved, the gaps between the design stations
need to be filled in so as to get a full scale picture of the ship. Since the
plans only depict dimensions or profiles at design stations, the interval
between the stations needs to be filled out and faired so as to obtain the
smooth curve between two stations. From the lines plan a table of offsets
is drawn up. This table of offsets is actual numerical values of dimensions
obtained from the lines plan. It is a list of half breadths, lengths at various
waterlines and at various distances from the centerline, heights of decks,
the deck stringers, tanktop, etc. The measurements are taken at each of
the design stations. The table is then sent to loftsmen for fairing.

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 Lofting consists essentially of preparing in full size an exact skeleton plan
of the hull to be built. Computers and dedicated programs for shipbuilding
are used wherein the table of offsets is fed in and the full scale plan is drawn
with fairing done automatically. This plan is saved in a wire frame model
and can be rotated and viewed from any angle, and dimensions of any
individual section can be obtained from this.

Q4. (a) Describe Lighter Aboard Ship. (5 marks)

Answer: Lighter Aboard Ship:-
6. Dumb barges (lighters) loaded with cargo are bodily lifted and placed
aboard the ship. Stern of the ship is shaped to bring a floating lighter in
position. It is lifted by a gantry crane and placed aboard as required.
Accommodation is nearer to the forward end. This type of ship is suitable
for trade between ports connected with Inland Waters.

7. LASH barges are loaded at inland river and shallow ports. Then, the
barges are towed to ocean port's fleeting areas to meet the LASH mother
vessel. On arrival, the mother vessel crane lifts the LASH barges onto
the ships. LASH cargo does not require transshipment as the movement
from the origin to destination takes place with a single bill of lading.
8. An important technical problem raised by the invention of the new
transport system was the shape of the lighters. Several other designs,
differentiated mainly by the shape of the lighters and the loading
mechanism, were proposed, but the LASH system found the largest
range of applications. In this approach, the lighters were individually
lifted onto the carrier ship by a large crane located at the stern of the
ship. The crane could move the entire length of the ship and stack the
lighters atop each other in the ship's body and on the deck. The cranes
had a load-carrying capacity of more than 500 Mp. Loading or unloading
a lighter took on average fifteen minutes. LASH ships were constructed
in Europe, Japan the USA with almost uniform parameters.

Q4. (b) Categorise different types of Chemical Tankers as per IBC Code.
(5 marks)
Answer: The IBC Code defines three ship types (ST) of chemical tankers: ST1,
ST2, and ST3.
1. ST1 is a chemical tanker intended to transport most dangerous products,
which require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of such
cargo. Accordingly, a type 1 ship should survive the most severe standard
of damage stability and its cargo tanks should be located at the maximum
prescribed distance onboard from the shell plating.
2. ST2 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring significant
preventive measures.
3. ST3 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring
moderate degree of containment to increase survival capability in a
damaged condition.
Q5. (a) Describe the principle of the Galvanic Cell . (5 marks)

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 Answer : Consider two electrically connected metals, copper and zinc placed
in an electrolyte copper sulphate. The metals are electrodes. Electrons flow
from one metal to the other. The one which loses electrons is called the
anode and the one which gains electrons is called the cathode. This
combination of electrodes, electrolyte flow of electron is called a galvanic
cell.
Zinc ions are discharged from the anode into the solution. Thus the anode
gets corroded. The electrons travel from the zinc anode to the copper
cathode. Thus the cathode becomes negatively charged. The zinc ions which
are discharged into the solution, displace copper from the solution and these
positively charged copper ions are attracted to the negatively charged
cathode where they get deposited. Thus the zinc anode gets corroded and
the copper cathode gets protected.

Q5. (b) Describe Electro-Chemical Corrosion. (5 marks)

Answer : Electro-Chemical – For an electro-chemical reaction, there must
be anodic and cathodic areas on the metal and a path i.e. electrolyte, for
the current to flow. On a single metal plate, different areas on the plate act
as anodes and cathodes. The anodic area is usually surrounded by cathodic
area. This anode and cathode in the presence of an electrolyte makes up a
Corrosion Cell. Thousands of corrosion cells exist all over the plate. The part
which acts as the anode gets destructed while the part which acts as
cathode is protected. When the atmospheric conditions are mild and
uniform such as high temperatures and high humidities ashore, the
corrosion cells are very small and plates corrodes uniformly all over forming
a thin layer of rust called MILL SCALE. When conditions are severe and non-
uniform such as at sea, the corrosion cells are large and the plate gets
severely corroded at places in what is known as PITTING.

Q6. (a) What are the features of Harmonised System of Survey and
Certification? (5 marks)
Answer : The features of HSSC are as follows:
10.All certificates will be issued on one date only.
11.One-year standard interval between surveys.
12.All cargo ship certificates are designed for 5 years validity. Annual surveys
+ 3 months of anniversary date and intermediate survey + 6 months of
half-way date, together with 2nd or 3rd annual survey.
13.Passenger Ship Safety Certificate has not been changed.
14.First survey is always the Initial survey. Date of completion of all surveys
will be the certificate issue date.
15.Renewal survey can be done upto 3 months prior to expiry date, without
loss of validity.
16.Renewal survey which had validity of less than 5 yrs is now replaced by
annual/intermediate surveys and is called a Periodical Survey.
17.A 3 months’ extension is possible to enable a ship to complete its voyage.
New certificate will start from date of expiry of old certificate.

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 18.Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate, Safety Equipment Certificate
and Safety Radiotelegraphy/Radiotelephony Certificates are replaced by
one certificate called the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate.

Q6. (b) How the planning of survey is done under Enhanced Survey
Program? (5 marks)
Answer: Planning of survey-
A specific survey program is worked out in advance and submitted to
class for approval. Areas/spaces to be prepared for survey by
cleaning, descaling and rigging means of access by stages, movable
platforms, rafts, etc. The planning of the survey is done by two
methods:
3. Mandatory minimum survey program – Take into account mandatory
minimum requirements for Overall Examination, Close-up Survey and
Thickness measurements prescribed by class.
4. Survey based on Survey Planning Document – This document identifies
critical structural areas with high risk based on ship’s structural features,
operational features and damage/repair history. It stipulates location,
extent and means of close-up examination. Because of this, the low risk
areas examinations is reduced.

The survey planning document contains:

g. Ship’s particulars
h. Plans of tanks, cathodic protection, condition of coating
i. Corrosion risk nominated tanks
j. Design risk nominated structures
k. Spaces nominated for close-up examinations
l. Areas nominated for thickness measurement
m. Acceptable corrosion allowance for areas

Q7. (a) How gross tonnage is calculated? (5 marks)

Answer :

'Gross Tonnage' means the measure of the overall size of a ship.

'Net Tonnage' means the measure of the useful capacity of a ship.

The method of determining the Gross and Net Tonnages is prescribed by

formula as follows:-

Gross Tonnage (GT) = K1V

where, V = total volume of all enclosed spaces in cubic metres

K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 V (or as tabulated in Appendix 2 of the Convention)

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Q7. (b) What are uses of Gross and Net Tonnage? (5 marks)
Answer:

The applications of Tonnage Measurement are many and varied and are
used in the assessment of the following: -

Harbour Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net Tonnage.

Pilotage Dues - which can be based on either Gross or Net Tonnage.
Light Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
Canal Dues - usually based on Net Tonnage.
Miscellaneous Fees - e.g. Agency, Towage, Dry Docking, P&I, Registration
and Statutory Surveys.
Criterion for the application of IMO Conventions, e.g. SOLAS, MARPOL,
STCW.
Basis for the formulation of shipping statistics.

Q8. (a) Describe requirements for ventilators as per load line

convention. (5 marks)
Answer: As per regulation 19 of International Load Line Convention
following are the requirements:
1. Ventilator Coamings of steel or equivalent material,
2. Ventilator Substantially constructed & efficiently connected,
3. Coaming shall be supported if height > 900mm,
4. Ventilator need not be fitted with closing arrangements if coaming ht is
4.5m and 2.3m in Posn 1&2 respectively,
5. Ventilator Coaming height in Posn1 at least 900mm and in Posn 2 at
least 760mm

Q8. (b) Explain the Special conditions of freeboard assignment for

type’A’ ship. (5 marks)
Answer:
The special conditions for freeboard assignment for type’A’ ship as
per Regulation
26 are: -
1. Machinery casings protected by enclosed poop or bridge.
2. Fore and aft permanent gangway.
3. Exposed hatchways on the freeboard & foxl deck provided with
watertight steel covers.
4. Open rails for at least half the length of the exposed part.

Q9. (a) Describe uniform average permeability. (5 marks)

Answer: The uniform average permeability of a vessel is different
for machinery spaces and other spaces.
A machinery space is taken from the keel to the margin line and

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 between the watertight bulkheads that contain main and aux
propulsion machinery, boilers and permanent bunker spaces.
1. UAP (for machinery space) = 85 + 10 (a – c)/v
where, a = volume of passenger spaces below the margin line
within the limits of machinery space.
c = volume of cargo spaces, bunkers or stores situated
below the margin line within the limits of machinery space.
v = the whole volume of the machinery space below the
margin line

2. UAP (for spaces forward and aft machinery space) = 63 +

(35 a/v)
Where, a = volume of passenger spaces below the margin line
forward or aft of the machinery space.
v = the whole volume of the ship below the margin line
forward or aft of the margin line.

Q9. (b) Describe “factor of sub-division”. (5 marks)

Answer:
The factor of subdivision is always <= 1, so that the ships can have sub-
divisions as efficiently as possible. the factor of sub-division varies
according to:
1. the length of the ship,
2. the mature of service.
the factor of subdivision decreases in a regular manner as the length of
the ship increases. the factor of subdivision is different for cargo ships
and passenger ships and is found out by the below formulas;
a = (58.2)/ (L-60) + 0.18 (for cargo ships of length >=131)
b = (30.3) /(L-42) + 0.18 (for passenger ships of length >=79)

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For cargo ships of length less than 131 and passenger ships of length less
than 79, the factor of subdivision is taken as 1.
The actual length between two bulkheads is not equal to floodable length
but is equal to the permissible length.
permissible length = floodable length x factor of subdivision

B.Sc (Nautical Science) Semester: VI

Naval Architecture Paper – II June 2019
Subject Code: UG 21 T4602
Answer Key

Q1. (a) Lofting and fairing

(2 Marks)

After the lines plans are approved, the gaps between the design stations need to be filled in so
as to get a full scale picture of the ship. Since the plans only depict dimensions or profiles at
design stations, the interval between the stations needs to be filled out and faired so as to obtain
the smooth curve between two stations. From the lines plan a table of offsets is drawn up. This
table of offsets is actual numerical values of dimensions obtained from the lines plan. It is a list
of half breadths, lengths at various waterlines and at various distances from the centerline,
heights of decks, the deck stringers, tanktop, etc. The measurements are taken at each of the
design stations. The table is then sent to loftsmen for fairing.
Lofting consists essentially of preparing in full size an exact skeleton plan of the hull to be built.
Computers and dedicated programs for shipbuilding are used wherein the table of offsets is fed
in and the full scale plan is drawn with fairing done automatically.

Q1. (b) Electro-Chemical Corrosion

(2 Marks)

Electro-Chemical Corrosion– For an electro-chemical reaction, there must be anodic and

cathodic areas on the metal and a path i.e. electrolyte, for the current to flow. On a single metal
plate, different areas on the plate act as anodes and cathodes. The anodic area is usually
surrounded by cathodic area. This anode and cathode in the presence of an electrolyte makes
up a Corrosion Cell. Thousands of corrosion cells exist all over the plate. The part which acts
as the anode gets destructed while the part which acts as cathode is protected. When the
atmospheric conditions are mild and uniform such as high temperatures and high humidities
ashore, the corrosion cells are very small and plates corrode uniformly all over forming a thin
layer of rust called MILL SCALE. When conditions are severe and non-uniform such as at sea,
the corrosion cells are large and the plate get severely corroded at places in what is known as
PITTING.

Q1. (c) Type A ship

(2 Marks)

It is designed to carry liquid.

It has high integrity of exposed deck due to small openings which can be closed water-tight.
Has low permeability of cargo spaces.
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 If over 150m of length, when fully loaded, should be able to withstand the flooding of atleast
one compartment with an assumed permeability of 95%, the machinery space is treated as a
floodable compartment with 85% permeability.
A type a ship shall not be assigned a freeboard less than the tabular freeboard as given from
table a.
The machinery casing to be surrounded by an enclosed superstructure.
Since the freeboard of these ships is reduced, there should be a walkway (catwalk) for the crew
to move from crew accommodation to all other working parts of the ship.
Atleast half the length of the exposed part of weather deck should have rails and not bulwark
to quickly drain the water which washes onto the deck.

Q1. (d) Freeboard Deck

(2 Marks)

Freeboard deck – It is an uppermost complete deck exposed to weather & sea on which all
openings have permanent means of closing & below which all openings have permanent
watertight means of closing.
owner may choose a lower deck as freeboard deck provided it is complete & permanent between
the Engine Room and peak bulkheads and athwart ships.
Freeboard is calculated from this deck.

Q1. (e) Factor of subdivision

(2 Marks)

A factor of subdivision is calculated for the ship, describing the number of compartments which
would be bilged or flooded. The maximum permissible length of a compartment at any point
along the length of the ship is obtained from the floodable length by multiplying it by a factor
called the factor of subdivision. The factor of subdivision is always <1. In order that the ship
be divided as efficiently as possible, the factor of subdivision varies.

Q2.(a) What are the common principles governing the ship design?
(5 marks)

Principles of ship design

14. Safety –The ship design must consider following for safety
o) Personal safety on board – such as Bulwark or railings of minimum 1.0 m height.
p) Stability and safety – Sufficient reserve buoyancy, assessment of intact and damaged
stability, monitoring of watertight closing devices on the hull below LWL.
q) Motions and safety – evaluation of stresses in probable extreme sea conditions.
r) Controllability and safety – a vessel should have good controllability to avoid any collision.
Good mooring and anchoring equipment. Emergency facilities and redundancy in
equipment.
s) Fire safety – division of accommodation into zones, approved bulkheads, approved material
inside cabins, firefighting arrangements, and escape provisions.
t) Machinery safety – redundancy of critical/important equipment.
u) Rule based design and risk based design.

15. Sustainability – one has to consider technologies and their effect on environment
f) Air pollution due to exhaust gases
g) Energy efficiency design index
h) LNG as a fuel
i) Alternative energy sources

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 j) Ocean pollution – due to oil, garbage, sewage, ballast water, paints.
16. Efficiency – Powering and resistance, propulsive efficiency, hull efficiency, optimization of
powering.
17. Nature of service requirements – routes, ports, type of cargo,
18. Dimensional requirements – L, B, Draft/Depth restrictions
19. Manpower requirements – as per type of ship, size of ship, national/international requirements.
20. Deadweight displacement ratio and Volume requirements -
21. Seakeeping and manoeuvrability – minimize amount of water shipped on deck by making a
well flared forward section. The heavily flared forward section will increase pitching. A
bulbous bow may help in reducing pitching. Stabilizers, bilge keels will minimize rolling. Deep
draft reduces slamming. Bottom needs to be extra strengthened to prevent effects of slamming.
The ship should have a good turning ability. She should be able to keep a straight line course.
22. Strength – Longitudinal strength, transverse strength, torsional strength, fatigue. The hull girder
strength is greater than the load strength of static and dynamic forces.
23. Stability and trim – a ship should be stable in all conditions of loading, trim shall not be
excessive. Stable at small and large angles. Minimum free surface effect, guarded against grain
shifting. Ship can survive after damage.
24. General arrangement -
25. Corrosion factor – in deciding the measures/systems to be used to control corrosion.
26. Economic factor – investment cost and return

Q2.(b) Describe the points to be considered during ship design to take care of the
safety aspect. (5 marks)

Safety – all human activities involve risk. In marine industry one has to accept a certain amount
of risk to life, property and environment. An accidental hazard may take place due to one or
more risk factors occurring simultaneously causing loss of life and property. A design with
absolute safety will be costly and unaffordable. Therefore, a ship is designed to certain
acceptable level of safety. This safety level must be acceptable to owner, builder, classification
society, statutory authorities, operating personnel and society at large. The ship design must
consider following for safety
1. Personal safety on board – Bulwark or railings of minimum 1.0 m height. All openings on freeboard
deck must have a sill height/coaming height and fitted with weather tight closing devices. Scuppers
and freeing port for faster drainage of green seas. Openings below the freeboard deck fitted with
non-return valves. Walkways and guard rails for crew on board. Anti-skid flooring on open decks
of passenger ships. Means to rescue people on board in case of emergency. First aid and dispensary
facility.
2. Stability and safety – Sufficient reserve buoyancy, assessment of intact and damaged stability,
monitoring of watertight closing devices on the hull below LWL.
3. Motions and safety – evaluation of stresses in probable extreme sea conditions.
4. Controllability and safety – a vessel should have good controllability to avoid any collision. Good
mooring and anchoring equipment. Emergency facilities and redundancy in equipment.
5. Fire safety – division of accommodation into zones, approved bulkheads, approved material inside
cabins, firefighting arrangements, and escape provisions.
6. Machinery safety – redundancy of critical/important equipment.
Q3.(a) List out the sequence of events covering all activities, which takes place in the construction of a

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 ship. (5 marks)

Sequence of events in the construction of a ship

m. Ship Design – Concept design, contract design and detailed design.
n. Drawing of Plans – Sheer Plan (Side view), Half Breadth Plan (Top view), Body Plan (End
view)
o. Approval of Plans
p. Filling of Plans – Table of offsets and fairing, Mould loft (full scale), 1/10 scale plan, 1/100
glass negatives, Numerical controls, CAD/CAM
q. Transfer of Plan to Plate – Traditional mould loft, Optical marking, Numerical controller,
Computer controlled flame profilers.
r. Plate preparation – Issue of plates, Grit blasting, Priming
s. Plate and Sections – Marking, Cutting, Machining, Bending & Shaping
t. Production of sub-assemblies and assemblies
u. Fabrication of units
v. Erection and welding
w. Launching
x. Trials, Tests & Certification

Q3.(b) What is a Body Plan ? What are its uses?

(5 marks)

Body Plan – The body plan shows the transverse sections at designed stations which appear as
curved shapes. The portside is used to depict the forward part of the ship and the starboard side
the aft part. Waterlines appear as straight lines. The body plan shows the shape of frames,
transverse bulkheads, floors, knees, margin plates, position of girders, longitudinal, decks,
panting beams, stringers, tank top, etc.
This plan is used to obtain values for various parameters needed for the calculation of ship’s
particulars such as;
13. Block co-efficient, prismatic co-efficient, waterplane area co-efficient
14. Displacement at various drafts
15. Transverse and longitudinal centres of buoyancy
16. TPC, BM, BML, MCTC, CF, etc.
17. Cross curves of stability
18. Wetted surface areas
19. Resistance calculations
20. Flooding calculations
21. Strength calculations,
22. Hold capacities and tank capacities
23. Approximate tonnage
24. Launching calculations.

Q4.(a) What are the special features of a Ro-Ro ship.

(5 marks)

1. The lack of internal bulkheads On conventional ships, the hull is divided into a number of
separate holds by means of transverse bulkheads, many of which may be watertight. In the
event of the hull being holed, the bulkheads will limit or delay the inrush of water, resulting in
the ship sinking slowly enough for the evacuation of those on board or even preventing the ship
from sinking at all.

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2. Cargo access doors The cargo access doors at the stern and bow of the ship represent a
potential weak spot, as do the side doors with which some ro-ro ships are equipped. Over the
years such doors can become damaged or twisted, especially when the door also serves as a
ramp.
3. Stability The movement of cargo on the vehicle deck can affect the intact stability of the
ship, causing it to list. The sudden inrush of water following damage to the hull or failure of
watertight doors can be 3 even more serious (and rapid). The fact that ro-ro ships generally
have a very large superstructure compared with other types means that they can be more
affected by wind and bad weather.
4. Low freeboards Cargo access doors fitted on cargo-only ro-ros are often very close to the
waterline. This means that a defective trim or a sudden list, caused, for example, by the
movement of cargo, can bring the access threshold below the waterline, resulting in a sudden
inrush of water (if the door is open) which will in turn result in the list increasing and a possible
capsizing of the ship.
5. Cargo stowage and securing A list can cause cargo to break loose if it is not correctly stowed
and secured. The problem is made worse because the crew of the ship cannot normally see how
the cargo is stowed inside or on the trailer in which it is transported. A heavy load which breaks
loose can cause other units to follow suit. The result can be an increased list, the spillage of
dangerous substances and, in extreme cases, damage to the hull and ship's structure.
6. Life-saving appliances The high sides of many modern ro-ros, including passenger ships,
pose problems regarding lifesaving appliances: the higher a lifeboat, for example, is stowed
the more difficult it can be to launch, especially if the ship is listing badly.
7. The crew The factors referred to above indicate that ro-ros are highly sophisticated ships
which require very careful handling. This makes them exceptionally vulnerable to human error.
How safe are ro-ros?

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Q4.(b) Sketch and label Independent Spherical Tank Type B of a semi-refrigerated
ship. (5 marks)

Q5. (a) Explain the factors affecting corrosion in steel on board ship.
(5 marks)

Factors Affecting Corrosion –

Humidity – The rate of corrosion increases with humidity. At less than 65% humidity, corrosion
hardly takes place.
Availability of Oxygen – In open spaces oxygen is available in abundance and therefore more
corrosion. In enclosed spaces, corrosion proceeds only as long as the oxygen is available. In inerted
tanks corrosion is very much reduced. The more corrosion takes place at the water surface rather than
at great depths and is visible between the light and load waterline on the shipside.
Temperature – Higher the air temperature, the greater the rate of corrosion in the atmosphere. In
water however, as the temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen decreases, so the two counteract
each other.
Velocity of ship – The more the velocity of water along the steel surface, the more plentiful the
oxygen supply, resulting in greater corrosion. Corrosion is more at the inlets and outlets on the
shipside because of differing temperatures, along the waterline and at the stern region because of
increased oxygen supply due to turbulence.

Q5. (b) Sketch and describe Impressed Current System. (2 Marks for sketch&3
Marks for describing)

An alternating current is fed from the ship’s mains to a rectifier which converts it into a direct current
before supplying it to the anodes. The anodes are made of a relatively noble metal such as lead or
silver. Any corrosion cells which may be formed on the anode get cancelled and corrosion of the
anode is controlled.

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 The anodes are cast in a fiberglass bodies and fitted in recessed boxes on the ship’s hull. The cables
are led through special ducts conforming to stringent construction regulations. Maintaining the exact
current is important as a low current will provide inadequate protection, while a higher current will
damage the paintwork and cause blistering.
The system must be switched off when alongside jetty.

Q6. (a) What are the functions of Classification Societies?

(5 marks)

Classification Societies
11. They are independent, non-profit making organization.
12. They are group of professional experts, technologically competent.
13. Cargo owners, insurers wanted reliability of ships from some independent source. Class fulfils
this purpose.
14. It is mandatory that the ships are classed with a recognized classification society.
15. IACS endeavours to maintain high standards among its members.
Functions of Class
19. Publish rules and regulations for construction and classification.
20. Publish a register of all ships classed with them.
21. Supervise ship construction.
22. Recommend and verify the repairs.
23. Conduct Class surveys.
24. Conduct IMO surveys on behalf of FSA.
25. Research into ship design, strength of material, etc.
26. Provide valuable input to IMO.
27. Carry out bunker analysis, etc.

Q6. (b) Describe Enhanced Hull Survey Program.

(5 marks)

Enhanced survey programme is a guideline for shipping companies and owners to prepare their
ships for special surveys to maintain the safety of the vessel while at sea or at a port. A survey
programme (a Planning document for surveying and paperwork) is to be developed by the
owner and is to be submitted to the recognised authorities such as classification societies, 6
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months before the survey.

Enhanced Survey programme is developed in such a way that it can be integrated with other surveys
which are performed at following intervals:

– Annual
– Intermediate Survey
– Dry Dock Survey
– Renewal Survey

Features of Enhanced Survey Programme –

1. Survey planning
2. Document file
3. Improved thickness measurement
4. Harmonisation between dry-dock and renewal surveys
5. Extended intermediate survey.
6. Possible annual examination of tanks/spaces
7. Phase out of CHS

For a company to comply and perform an ESP or an enhanced survey program, it needs to design an
enhanced survey programme, which must include the step by step planning to implement the special
survey. It can be said that the ESP is conducted to check the watertight integrity of the ship by inspecting
the following areas of the ship:

– Close-up survey of the structures such as Shell, frames, bulkheads etc.

– Thickness measurement of hull
– Inspecting and Testing of Cargo Tanks
– Inspecting and Testing of Ballast Tanks
– Inspection and Testing of Hatch Covers and Coamings
– Inspecting and Testing fuel tanks, side and double bottom Tanks

Q.7. (a) Describe how Net Tonnage is calculated.

(5 marks)

Net Tonnage is a function of total profit making volume of enclosed spaces. An

allowance for propelling power and volume of certain spaces deducted from volume of
Gross Tonnage to get the volume for Net Tonnage.
Deductions –
- Master’s & crew accommodation,
- Store rooms
- Spaces used for water ballast,
- Spaces for boiler and ship’s main pumps outside E/R,
- Spaces used for navigation, radio and battery storage.
Net Tonnage is calculated by formula;
NT = K2VC(4d/3D)2 + K3(N1 +N2/10)

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 (4d/3D)2 not > 1
K2VC(4d/3D)2 not < 0.25 GT
Net Tonnage shall not be < 0.30 GT

Vc = volume of cargo spaces in cu.m.

K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 VC
D = molded depth amidships
d = molded draft amidships
1.25(𝐺𝑇+10,000)
K3 =
10,000

N1 = No. of passengers in cabins with not>8 berths

N2 = No. of other passengers
If N1 + N2 < 13, than it is taken as zero
Ships of less than 20 m in length, Net Tonnage = 0.20 LBD
L= aggregate length of cargo spaces from bulkhead to bulkhead

Q.7.(b) Explain Enclosed Spaces as per International Tonnage Convention.

(5 marks)

As per International Tonnage Convention the Enclosed Spaces are all those spaces, which
are bounded by
- The ship’s hull and/or
- Fixed or portable partitions or bulkheads and /or
- Decks or coverings but not permanent or movable awnings
Any break in a deck or an opening in the ship’s hull, deck or covering of a space or in the
partition or bulkhead of a space or the absence of a partition or bulkhead of a space shall
not exclude a space from being an enclosed space.
It used to be the case earlier that shipowners, in order to reduce the tonnage in the ballast
condition would build certain compartments with a break on the deck or an opening in the
bulkhead so that these could be showed as open compartments. The openings were fitted
with the closing appliances, which were detached so that the compartments could be closed
when desired in the loaded condition. The new regulations have effectively plugged this
loophole.

Q8. (a) Explain any 5 conditions of freeboard assignment.

(5 mark)

Write any 5 from the following 16 Conditions of Freeboard Assignment

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1. Information to be supplied to the master

The master of every new ship shall be supplied with information to arrange for the loading and
ballasting of his ship in such a way as to avoid the creation of any unacceptable stresses in the
ship's structure.

2. Superstructure end bulkheads

Bulkheads at exposed ends of enclosed superstructures shall be of an acceptable level of
strength.

3. Doors
All access openings in bulkheads at ends of enclosed superstructures shall be fitted with doors
of steel or other equivalent material, permanently and strongly attached to the bulkhead, and
framed, stiffened and fitted so that the whole structure is of equivalent strength to the un-
pierced bulkhead and weathertight when closed.

4. Position of hatchways, doorways and ventilators

Position 1 Upon exposed freeboard and raised quarter decks, and upon exposed superstructure
decks situated forward of a point located a quarter of the ship's length from the forward
perpendicular.
Position 2 Upon exposed superstructure decks situated abaft a quarter of the ship's length from
the forward perpendicular and located at least one standard height of superstructure above the
freeboard deck. Upon exposed superstructure decks situated forward of a point located a
quarter of the ship's length from the forward perpendicular and located at least two standard
heights of superstructure above the freeboard deck.

5. Cargo and other hatchways

The construction and means for securing the weathertightness of cargo and other hatchways in
position 1 and 2 shall be at least equivalent to the requirements of regulation 16, unless the
application of regulation 15 to such hatchways is granted by the Administration.
Coamings and hatchway covers to exposed hatchways on decks above the superstructure deck
shall comply with the requirements of the Administration.

6. Hatchway coamings
The coamings of hatchways shall be of substantial construction in accordance with their
position, and their height above the deck shall be at least as follows:

600 mm if in position 1; and

450 mm if in position 2.

7. Hatchways closed by weathertight covers of steel or other equivalent materials

All hatchways in position 1 and 2 shall be fitted with hatch covers of steel or other equivalent
material. Except as provided in regulation 14(2), such covers shall be weathertight and fitted
with gaskets and clamping devices. The means for securing and maintaining weathertightness
shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration. The arrangements shall ensure that the
tightness can be maintained in any sea conditions, and for this purpose tests for tightness shall
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be required at the initial survey, and may be required at renewal and annual surveys or at more
frequent intervals.

8. Machinery space openings

Machinery space openings in position 1 or 2 shall be properly framed and efficiently enclosed
by steel casings of ample strength, and where the casings are not protected by other structures
their strength shall be specially considered. Access openings in such casings shall be fitted with
doors complying with the requirements of regulation, the sills of which shall be at least 600 mm
above the deck if in position 1, and at least 380 mm above the deck if in position 2. Other
openings in such casings shall be fitted with equivalent covers, permanently attached in their
proper positions.

9. Miscellaneous openings in freeboard and superstructure decks

Manholes and flush scuttles in position 1 or 2 or within superstructures other than enclosed
superstructures shall be closed by substantial covers capable of being made watertight. Unless
secured by closely spaced bolts, the covers shall be permanently attached.
Openings in freeboard decks other than hatchways, machinery space openings, manholes and
flush scuttles shall be protected by an enclosed superstructure, or by a deckhouse or
companionway of equivalent strength and weathertightness. Similarly, any such opening in an
exposed superstructure deck, in the top of a deckhouse on the freeboard deck which gives
access to a space below the freeboard deck or a space within an enclosed superstructure shall
be protected by an efficient deckhouse or companionway.
10. Ventilators
Ventilators in position 1 or 2 to spaces below freeboard deck or decks of enclosed
superstructures shall have coamings of steel or other equivalent material, substantially
constructed and efficiently connected to the deck. Ventilators in position 1 shall have coamings
of a height of at least 900 mm above the deck; in position 2 the coamings shall be of a height
at least 760 mm above the deck. Where the coaming of any ventilator exceeds 900 mm in height
it shall be specially supported.

11. Air pipes

Where air pipes to ballast and other tanks extend above the freeboard or superstructure decks,
the exposed parts of the pipes shall be of substantial construction; the height from the deck to
the point where water may have access below shall be at least 760 mm on the freeboard deck
and 450 mm on the superstructure deck.
Where these heights may interfere with the working of the ship, a lower height may be
approved, provided that the Administration is satisfied that the closing arrangements and other
circumstances justify a lower height.

12. Cargo ports and other similar openings

Cargo ports and other similar openings in the sides of ships below the freeboard deck shall be
fitted with doors so designed as to ensure the same watertightness and structural integrity as
the surrounding shell plating. Unless otherwise granted by the Administration, these opening
shall open outwards. The number of such openings shall be the minimum compatible with the
design and proper working of the ship.

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Unless otherwise permitted by the Administration, the lower edge of openings referred to in
paragraph (1) shall not be below a line drawn parallel to the freeboard deck at side, which is at
its lowest point at least 230 mm above the upper edge of the uppermost load line.

13. Scuppers, inlets and discharges

Discharges led through the shell either from spaces below the freeboard deck or from within
superstructures and deckhouses on the freeboard deck fitted with doors complying with the
requirements of regulation 12 shall, except as provided in paragraph (2), be fitted with efficient
and accessible means for preventing water from passing inboard. Normally each separate
discharge shall have one automatic non-return valve with a positive means of closing it from
a position above the freeboard deck. Where the inboard end of the discharge pipe is located at
least 0.01L above the Summer Load Line, the discharge may have two automatic non-return
valves without positive means of closing. Where that vertical distance exceeds 0.02L, a single
automatic non-return valve without positive means of closing may be accepted. The means for
operating the positive action valve shall be readily accessible and provided with an indicator
showing whether the valve is open or closed.

14. Side scuttles, windows and skylights

Side scuttles and windows, together with their glasses, deadlights and storm covers, if fitted,
shall be of an approved design and substantial construction. Non- metallic frames are not
acceptable.
Side scuttles are defined as being round or oval openings with an area not exceeding 0.16 m2.
Round or oval openings having areas exceeding 0.16 m2 shall be treated as windows.
Windows are defined as being rectangular openings generally, having a radius at each corner
relative to the window size and round or oval openings with an area exceeding 0.16 m2.

15. Freeing ports

Where bulwarks on the weather portions of freeboard or superstructure decks form wells,
ample provision shall be made for rapidly freeing the decks of water and for draining them.

The minimum freeing port area (A) on each side of the ship for each well on the freeboard
deck shall be that given by the following formulae in cases where the sheer in way of the well
is standard or greater than standard.
The minimum area for each well on superstructure decks shall be one-half of the area given
by the following formulae:

where the length of bulwark (l) in the well is 20 m or less: A = 0.7 + 0035 × l (m²);

where l exceeds 20 m: A = 0.07 × l (m²).

l need in no case be taken as greater than 0.7L. If the bulwark is more than 1.2 m in average
height, the required area shall be increased by 0004 m² per metre of length of well for each
0.1 m difference in height. If the bulwark is less than 0.9 m in average height, the required
area may be decreased by 0004 m² per m of length of well for each 0.1 m difference in height.
In ships with no sheer, the area calculated according to paragraph (b) shall be increased by
50 %. Where the sheer is less than the standard, the percentage shall be obtained by linear
interpolation.

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16. Protection of the crew
The deckhouses used for the accommodation of the crew shall be constructed to an acceptable
level of strength.
Guard rails or bulwarks shall be fitted around all exposed decks. The height of the bulwarks or
guard rails shall be at least 1 m from the deck, provided that where this height would interfere
with the normal operation of the ship, a lesser height may be approved, if the Administration
is satisfied that adequate protection is provided.
Guard rails fitted on superstructure and freeboard decks shall have at least three courses. The
opening below the lowest course of the guard rails shall not exceed 230 mm. The other courses
shall be not more than 380 mm apart. In the case of ships with rounded gunwales the guard
rail supports shall be placed on the flat of the deck. In other locations, guardrails with at least
two courses shall be fitted.

Q8. (b) Describe passenger ship subdivision load lines.

(5 marks)

A ship intended for alternating modes of operation may, if the owners desire, have one or more
additional load lines assigned and marked to correspond with the subdivision draughts which
the Administration may approve for the alternative service configurations. Each service
configuration so approved shall comply independently of the results obtained for other modes
of operation.
In order that the required degree of subdivision shall be maintained, a load line corresponding
to the approved subdivision draught shall be assigned and marked on the ship’s sides.
The freeboard corresponding to each of these load lines shall be measured at the same position
and from the same deck line as the freeboards determined in accordance with the International
Convention on Load Lines in force.
The freeboard corresponding to each approved subdivision load line and the service
configuration, for which it is approved, shall be clearly indicated on the Passenger Ship Safety
Certificate.
In no case shall any subdivision load line mark be placed above the deepest load line in salt
water as determined by the strength of the ship or the International Convention on Load Lines
in force.
Whatever may be the position of the subdivision load line marks, a ship shall in no case be
loaded so as to submerge the load line mark appropriate to the season and locality as
determined in accordance with the International Convention on Load Lines in force.
A ship shall in no case be so loaded that when it is in salt water the subdivision load line mark
appropriate to the particular voyage and service configuration is submerged.

9. (a) Sketch and explain application of Floodable Length Curve. (2 marks for
sketch and 3 marks for explanation = 5 marks)

Traditionally, a ship is divided longitudinally into a number of watertight compartments to

restrict the flooding to one or more compartments in case of damage. This prevents progressive
flooding (i.e. flooding across the entire ship’s length in case of a damage at any location). The
compartmentalization is done by means of transverse watertight bulkheads. But the interesting
question that arises here is, how many watertight bulkheads would a particular ship require?
How many compartments do we divide a ship into? These are answers that need to be

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answered at a very initial phase of the design, most usually, in the concept design phase.
To understand the ‘how’s of this concept, we first need to understand the concept of
“floodable” length. Refer to the figure underneath to follow the concept further.

Figure 2: Floodable Length Curve.

For any point ‘P’ along the length of the ship, the floodable length (l) is the maximum portion
of the ship’s length with the point ‘P’ at the center that can be completely flooded
symmetrically without immersing the margin line. For our convenience, we represent the
floodable length of every point on the vertical axis. So, for the point ‘P’ we can plot the
floodable length at point ‘F’ on the vertical axis. Similarly, when the floodable lengths of all
the points on the ship are plotted, we obtain the Floodable Length Curve.
So, what is the use of Floodable Length Curves? The advantage that these curves come with
is that they can be plotted very inexpensively, and at a very initial stage of the design. This
makes it possible for the designers to decide on the number of watertight compartments,
marginal compartments, and transverse bulkheads required by the ship.

9. (b) Describe how Criterion of Service Numeral (Cs) is calculated.

(5 marks)

To determine if a ship is a cargo ship or a passenger ship, a criteria of service numeral (cs) is
assigned to it.

Cs = 72 (M + 2P1) / (V + P1 –P), (where P1 <P)

Cs = 72 (M + 2P) / V, (in all other cases)

Where, M = volume of machinery spaces including bunker spaces,
P = volume of passenger spaces below the margin line,
V = whole volume of the ship below the margin line,
P1 = kn, where k = 0.056l (l = length of the vessel)
n = number of passenger for which the ship is certified.

If Cs <=23 it is a cargo ship.

If Cs >=123 it is a passenger ship.
If Cs <=23 and length >=131, the subdivisions will be governed by factor A.
If Cs >=123, the subdivisions will be governed by factor B.
If Cs is between 23 and 123 the sub-division is governed by factor F;
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Where F = A – [(A-B) x (C

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