EASWARI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
Ramapuram, Chennai 600 089
Academic Year (2024-25)
QUESTION BANK (PART A AND B QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS)

Course Code : 231CYB101T Subject : Engineering Chemistry

Course : B.E /[Link]. Year/Sem : I/I
Department : Chemistry Branch : Common to all branches

UNIT I - WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

PART A
1) Write a note on zeolites.
Zeolites are naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. Its general formula is Na2O.
Al2O3, xSiO2. yH2O. (x=2 – 10, y = 2 – 6). Natural zeolites are green and non-porous. The synthetic
form of zeolites is known as permutit, which is porous and gel like structure.

2) Bring out the differences between scale and sludge.

S. No Sludge Scale
1 Sludge is a loose, slimy and non- Scale is a hard adherent coating.
adherent precipitate.
2 The main sludge forming substances The main Scale forming substances are
are MgCO3,MgCl2, MgSO4 and Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and MgCl2.
CaCl2 etc.
3 Sludge formation can be prevented Scale formation can be prevented by
by using soft water using acids like HCl, H2SO4.
4 Sludge can be removed by “blow- Scale formation can be removed by
down Operation”. i. Internal treatment.
ii. External treatment.

3) Define reverse osmosis.

Reverse osmosis is defined as when the pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the
higher concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed i.e., solvent flows from higher concentration of
lower concentration. This is called reverse osmosis.

4) List out two disadvantages of using hard water in boilers. or Give reason for softening water
before using in boiler.
If hard water obtained from natural sources is fed directly into the boilers, the following troubles
may arise,
a. Scale and sludge formation.
b. Priming and foaming (carry over)
c. Caustic embrittlement.
d. Boiler corrosion.
UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

5) Mention any two requirements of boiler feed water.

i. Boiler feed water should have zero hardness
ii. It must be free from dissolved gases like O2, CO2
iii. It should be free from suspended impurities
It should be free from dissolved salts and alkalinity.

6) Write short notes on calgon conditioning of water.

Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6]. This substance interact with calcium
ions forming a highly soluble complex and thus prevents the precipitation of scale forming salt.
2CaSO4+ Na2[Na4 (PO3)6] → Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
The complex Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] is soluble in water and there is no problem of sludge disposal.

7) Justify calgon conditioning is better than phosphate conditioning.

In calgon conditioning calgon forms highly soluble complex, but in phosphate conditioning, it
gives soft sludge. So periodical disposal of sludge is important need in phosphate conditioning, but in
calgon conditioning no problem of disposal.

8) Define hardness of water.

Hardness is the property or characteristics of water, which does not produce lather with soap.
Hardness can be detected by treating water with soap.
2C1 7H35 COONa+CaCl2 C17H35COO)2 Ca ↓ + 2NaCl
soap hardness hard soap causing substance (Insoluble ppt.)

9) List the salts responsible for carbonate and non-carbonate hardness of water.
Carbonate hardness: Ca (HCO3)2 and Mg (HCO3)2
Non- carbonate: CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4

10) Distinguish between carbonate (temporary) hardness (CH) and non-carbonate (permanent)
hardness (NCH).
Non-carbonate
S. No Carbonate (temporary) hardness
(permanent) hardness
1 This is due to bicarbonates of This is due to chlorides and
calcium and magnesium sulphates of calcium and
magnesium
2 It can be removed by boiling of It cannot be removed by boiling
water of water
3 It is also called alkaline hardness It is also called non-alkaline
hardness
11) Distinguish between hard and soft water.
S. No Hard water Soft water
1 Hard water does not produce lather Soft water produces very good
with soap solution. lather with soap solution.
2 It gives wine red colour with EBT It gives steel bluecolour with
indicator. EBT.

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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

12) Mention theions causes alkalinity in water.

i. Hydroxyl ion (OH-),
ii. Carbonate ion (CO32-) and
iii. Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

13) Reason out why boiled water is not always 100% safe for drinking purposes.
Boiling kills only the existing germs in water, but does not provide any protection against further
possible contamination during storage, etc.

14) Compare scales and sludges.

Sludge: If the precipitate is loose and slimy it is called sludge. Sludges are formed by the substances
like MgCO3,MgCl2, MgSO4 and CaCl2. They have greater solubilities in hot water than cold
water.
Scale : On the other hand, if the precipitate forms hard and adherent coating on the inner walls of the
boiler, it is called scale. Scales are formed by substances like Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and
Mg(OH)2.

15) Soft water is not demineralised water whereas demineralisedwater is soft water. Justify the
statement or distinguish between soft water and demineralised water.
The soft water does not contain hardness producing ions like Ca2+, Mg2+, but will contain other
ions like cations Li+, Na+, K+ and anions. On the other hand, demineralised water does not contain
both anions and cations.

16) Define boiler compounds. Mention two different boiler compounds and their actions.
Scale forming substances can be removed by adding chemicals directly to the boiler. These
chemicals are called boiled compounds.
Examples: Sodium carbonate and Sodium phosphate.
i. CaSO4 +Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4
ii. 3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

17) Write a note on colloidal conditioning.

Scale formation can also be minimized by adding colloidal conditioning agents such as glue,
agar-agar, gelatin, [Link] the boiler. These substances act as protective colloids. This process is called
colloidal conditioning.

18) Write a note on ion-exchange resin.

Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers with a micro porous
structure. The functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion exchanging
properties.

19) How is water demineralised by using an ion- exchanger?

When water containing both anions and cations is passed through first cation exchanger and then
through anion exchanger, all the ions are adsorbed by the two ion exchange columns as given below,

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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

RH2 + CaCl2 → RCa +2HCl Cation exchanged

R’(OH)2 + 2HCl → R’Cl2 + 2H2O Anion exchanged

RH2 +R’(OH)2 + CaCl2 →RCa + R’Cl2 + 2H2O Overall reaction

20) Phosphate conditioning is suitable at all-operating pressures? Give reasons to support this
statement.
In high pressure boilers, an excess of a soluble phosphate is added to the boiler water to
precipitate the residual calcium ions in the form of a non-adherent precipitate of calcium phosphate
and thus the scale formation is prevented.

21) Mention any two disadvantages of deposit formation in stream boilers.

1. Wastage of fuel
2. Decrease in efficiency
3. Boiler explosion

22) Define reverse osmosis.

If pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the higher concentration side, the solvent
flow is reversed i.e., solvent flows from higher concentration tolower concentration. This is called
reverse osmosis.

23) Differentiate between drinking water and boiler feed water.

S. No Drinking water Boiler feed water
1 Total dissolved solids including Total hardness should be zero
hardness producing salts should be and free from gases like CO2, O2
less than 500 ppm etc.
2 pH of water may be 6.5-8.5 pHof water should be near to7.

24) List the advantages of reverse osmosis method.

a) The life time of the membrane is high and it can be replaced within few minutes.
b) It removes ionic as well as non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
c) Due to low capital cost, simplicity, low operating, this process is used for converting sea water
into drinking water.

25) Internal treatment for water is done before feeding into the boiler. Justify the statement.
Internal treatment for water is done before feeding into the boiler, because scale forming
substances which were not completely removed in the external treatment should be removed by adding
chemicals directly into the boiler.

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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

PART B

1. Elaborate the mechanism of ion exchange process in water treatment.

Ion exchange process is also known as demineralization process. This process removes almost all
the ions (both anions and cations) present in the hard water.
The soft water produced by lime-soda and zeolite processes, does not contain hardness producing
Ca and Mg2+ions, but it will contain other ions like cations Na+, K+ and anionsSO42-, Cl- etc. But
2+

demineralized water does not contain both anions and cations. Thus, a soft water is not demineralized water
whereas a demineralized water (D M.) is soft water.
Ion-Exchange resins are insoluble. Cross linked long chain organic polymers with a micro porous
structure and the “functional Groups” attached to the chains are responsible for the ion-exchanging
properties. Resins with acidic functional group are capable of exchanging H + ions with other cations. Resins
with basic functional groups are capable of exchanging OH−ions with other anions.
Resins are classified as:
Cation Exchange Resins: Cation exchange resins contains acidic functional groups (–COOH, –SO3H)
areresponsible for exchanging their hydrogen ions with cations of hard water. Cation exchange resin is
represented as RH2 (R-SO3H; R-COOH = RH2)
Example: (i) Sulphonated coal
(ii)Sulphonated polystyrene
RH2 + Ca(HCO3)2→ RCa + H2CO3
RH2 + CaCl2→ RCa + 2HCl
RH2 + CaSO4 → RCa + H2SO4
(RH2 = Cation exchange resin)

ii. Anion Exchange Resins: Anion exchange resins contains basic functional groups (–NH2, –OH) are
responsible for exchanging their anions with other anions of hard water. Anion exchange resin is
represented as R’(OH)2.
Example: Urea-formaldehyde
Cross-linked Quaternary ammonium salts.
R’-NH2 = R’(OH)2

R’(OH)2 + 2HCl→ RCl2 + 2H2O

R’(OH)2+ H2SO4→ RSO4 + 2H2O
Summary,
RH2 + CaCl2 → RCa + 2HCl Cation exchanged
R’(OH)2 + 2HCl → R’Cl2 + 2H2O Anion exchanged

RH2 +R’(OH)2 + CaCl2 →RCa + R’Cl2 + 2H2O Overall reaction

In ion-exchange process, hard water is allowed to pass through cation exchange resin, which remove
Ca and Mg2+ ions and exchange equivalent amount of H+ ions. Anion exchange resin removes
2+

bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates from water and exchange equivalent amount of OH− ions.
Thus, by passing hard water through cation hardness is observed by the following reactions. H + and
OH−ions, thus released in water from respective cation and anion exchange columns which combines to
produce water molecules.
H+ + OH− → H2O
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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

The water coming out from the exchanger is ion free from anions and cations. Thus, water of zero hardness
is obtained.

Regeneration: When cation exchanger losses capacity of producing H+ ions and exchanger losses capacity
of producing OH− ions, they are said to be exhausted. The exhausted cation exchanger is regenerated by
passing it through dilute HCl or dilute H2SO4.
RCa + 2HCl → 2RH2 + CaCl2
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by passing a dilute solution of NaOH.
R’Cl + 2NaOH → R’(OH)2 + NaCl

2. Explain in detail about the reverse osmosis process and its advantages.
Desalination is the process of removing common salt from sea water. Seawater desalination has
the potential to reliably produce enough potable water to support large populations
Osmosis:
If two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane which is
permeable to the smaller solvent molecules but not to the larger solute molecules, then the solvent will
tend to diffuse across the membrane from the less concentrated to the more concentrated solution. This
process is called osmosis.
Osmosis is of great importance in biological processes where the solvent is water. The transport of
water and other molecules across biological membranes is essential for many processes in living
organisms.
The energy which drives the process is usually discussed in terms of osmotic pressure.

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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

Reverse osmosis
If hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure applied then the flow of solvent from
higherconcentration to lowerconcentration occurs. This is called reverse osmosis;this can also be called
as Super filtration. The membranes used are cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate, polymethyl acrylate and
polyamide polymers. This process is also known as super or hyperfiltration.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and reliable process & Capital and operating expenses are low.
2. The life of the semi-permeable membrane is about two years and it can be easily replaced within a
few minutes, thereby nearly uninterrupted water supply can be provided.

3. Discuss the various methods available for internal conditioning.

Suitable chemicals are added to the boiler water either to precipitate or to convert the scale into
compounds is called internal treatment of the boiler feed water. Internal treatment can be done as given
below,
1. Carbonate conditioning:
The addition of sodium carbonate in hard water reacts with the hardness causing agents and gives
calcium and magnesium carbonates which are soft and non-adherent and can be removed easily by blow-
down operation.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 ↓ +Na2SO4
2. Calgon conditioning:
It involves in addition of calgon into boiler water. It prevents the scale and sludge formation by
forming soluble complex compound with [Link] = Sodium hexa meta phosphate = Na2[Na4 (PO3)6]
2CaSO4 + Na2 [Na4(PO3)6] →Na2 [Ca2(PO3) 6] + 2Na2SO4
3. Phosphate conditioning:
The addition of sodium phosphate in hard water reacts with the hardness causing agents and gives
calcium and magnesium phosphates which are soft and non-adherent and can be removed easily by blow-
down operation.
3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl
3MgSO4 + 2Na3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
Generally, three types of Phosphates are employed.
i. Tri sodium Phosphate (Na3PO4): is too alkaline used for treat to too acidic water.
ii. Sodium Phosphate (Na2HPO4): is weakly alkaline used for treat to weakly acidic water.
iii. Sodium dihydrogen Phosphate (NaH2PO4): is too acidic used for treat to too alkaline water.

4. Colloidal conditioning:
The addition of organic substances such as Kerosene, Agar-Agar, Gelatin, etc., these substancesget
coated over the scale forming precipitates and give a loose and non-sticky precipitate which can be removed
by using blow-down operation.

4. Enumerate the water softening process using zeolites with a neat diagram.
Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate capable of exchanging reversibly its sodium ions for
2+
Ca and Mg2+, having the general formula Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O. Common zeolite is
Na2O.Al2O3.3SiO2.2H2O and known as natrolith. They are green sand and non-porous. They are used
for water softening.

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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

Synthetic form of Zeolite is Known as permutit. These are porous and glassy and have greater
softening capacity than green sand. They are prepared by heating together with China clay, feldspar and
soda ash.
Method of Softening:
Hard water is passed through a bed of zeolite at a specific rate at ordinary temperature. The
hardness causing cations i.e., Ca2+ and Mg2+ are exchanged for Na+ and it is converted to CaZe and
MgZe.
Reactions taking place are:
Na2Ze+Ca(HCO3)2 → 2NaHCO3+CaZe
Na2Ze+Mg(HCO3)2 → 2NaHCO3+MgZe
Na2Ze+ CaSO4 → Na2SO4+CaZe
Na2Ze+ CaCl2 → 2NaCl+CaZe

Regeneration of Zeolite: The process is also commercially successful since the Ca/Mg zeolites formed
by passing hard water through the bed can be easily regenerated into Na2Ze by passing 10% of NaCl
(brine) solution through the exhausted zeolite.
CaZe or MgZe+ NaCl→ Na2Ze+CaCl2 (or MgCl2 )
The washings containing CaCl2 or MgCl2 are removed. The water softened by this process can be used
for laundry purposes.

Advantages:
i. Hardness of water can be removed completely up to about 10 ppm.
ii. The equipment used is small and easy to handle.
iii. It requires less time for softening.
iv. There is no sludge formation, hence the process is clean.
v. Easy to regenerate.

Disadvantages:
i. Coloured water or water containing suspended impurities cannot be used before filtration.
ii. Water containing acid cannot be used for softening since acid may destroy the zeolite.
iii. Since on removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ the soft water contains large amount of NaHCO3, this on
heating liberates CO2, which causes corrosion in the boilers and hence this soft water is not
suitable for boilers.
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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

5. Elaborate about scales and sludges. Suggest any two methods to prevent their formation.
Sludges: Sludge is a soft, loosy and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. It is formed at comparatively
colder portions of the boiler and collects in the area where flow rate is slow.
Ex: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4.

Reasons for formation of sludges:

The dissolved salts whose solubility is more in hot water and less in cold water produce sludges.

Disadvantages of sludges:
1. Sludges are bad conductors of heat and results in the wastage of heat and fuel.
2. Excessive sludge formation leads to the settling of sludge in slow circulation areas such as pipe
connections, plug openings, gauge–glass connections leading to the choking of the pipes.

Prevention of sludge formation:

a. By using soft water which is free from dissolved salts like MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2 and MgSO4 can be
used to prevent sludge formation.
b. By doing blow down operation frequently sludge formation will be prevented.

Scales
Scales are hard, adhering precipitates formed on the inner walls of the boilers. Scales are stick very
firmly on to the inner walls of the boiler. It is removed with chisel and hammer. Scales are formed by
decomposition of calcium bicarbonate in low pressure boilers.

Reasons for formation of scales:

a. Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate
b. Hydrolysis of Magnesium salts
c. Decomposition of calcium sulphate
d. Presence of silica

Disadvantages of Scales:
1. Wastage of heat and fuels: Scales are poor thermal conductivity so that the rate of heat transformation is
reduced.
2. Lowering of boiler safety is due to overheating of the boiler material becomes softer and weaker, which
causes distortion of boiler.
3. Decrease in efficiency of the boiler due to scales deposited in the valves and condensers of the boiler
causes choking.
4. Danger of explosionhappens due to the formation of the scales; the boiler plate faces higher temperature
outside and lesser temperature inside due to uneven expansion. The water comes suddenly contact with
overheated portion and larger amount steam is formed immediately, this results in development of sudden
high pressure which may cause explosion of the boiler.

Prevention of scales:
If the scale formation is soft, it can be removed by a scrapper, wire brush.
a. By giving thermal shocks, by sudden heating and sudden cooling which makes scale brittle and removed
by scrubbing with wire brush.
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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

b. If scale is very hard that is formed by CaCO3 can be removed by washing with 5-10% HCl and CaSO4
can be removed with EDTA solution.

6. Describe the principle and method involved in the determination of different types and amount of
alkalinity in water.
Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of hydroxideions, carbonate ions and bicarbonate ions.
Alkalinity is classified as
Depending upon the anions, there are three types of alkalinities:
a. Hydroxide alkalinity – due to hydroxide ions
b. Carbonate alkalinity - due to carbonate ions
c. Bicarbonate alkalinity - due to bicarbonate ions
The alkalinity due to hydroxide and carbonate can be detected by Phenolphthalein indicator and so they are
collectively called as Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, represented by P.
The alkalinity due to carbonate and bicarbonate can be detected by Methyl orange indicator and so it is
called as Methyl orange Alkalinity, represented by M.

1. Determination of Phenolphthalein Alkalinity,P:

100 ml of given water sample is taken in the conical flask, few drops of Phenolphthalein indicator is added
and titrated against N/50 H2SO4, let the titre value when the solution becomes colourless be V1 ml.

2. Determination of Methylorange Alkalinity,M:

Then, in the same solution a few drops of Methylorange indicator are added and titrated against the same
acid until the colour changes from yellow to red orange; let the titrevalue be V 2 ml.

(a) Calculation of Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, P:

Volume of the acid used to

phenolphthalein end point =V1 ml
Normality of the acid, N1 = 1/50 N
Volume of water sample, V2 = 100 ml
Normality of water, N2 =?
According to volumetric law V1N1 = V2 N2
N2 = V1N1/ V2
= V1 X 1/50 / X 1/100
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UNIT I WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

Phenolphthalein Alkalinity,
P in terms of CaCO3 = N2equivalent of CaCO3 1000 ppmof CaCO3
= V1 X 1/50 X 1/ 100 X 50 X 1000 mg of CaCO3 = 10 V1
P = 10 V1 ppm

(b) Calculation ofMethylorangeAlkalinity, M:

Volume of the acid used to = V2 ml

Methylorange end point
Total volume of acid used to = (V1 + V2) ml
Methylorange end point
Normality of the acid, N2 = 1/50 N
Volume of water sample, V1 = 100 ml
Normality of water, N1 = (V1+V2)X 1/50 X 1/ 100

Methylorange Alkalinity,
M in terms of CaCO3 = N2 equivalent of CaCO3 1000 ppmof CaCO3
= (V1+V2) X 1/50 X 1/ 100 X 50 X 1000 mg of CaCO3
= 10 (V1+V2)
M = 10 (V1+V2) ppm

11
UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

UNIT II - POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

PART A

1) Define degree of polymerization.

The number of repeating units (n) in a polymer chain is known as degree of [Link] is
represented by the following relationship.
Degree of polymerization = Molecular weight of the polymeric network
Molecular weight of the repeating unit

2) Define Copolymers.
When polymers are made up of two or more different monomer units then the polymers are known
as copolymers.

3) Describe homo and hetero chain polymers. Give an example for each.
Homochain polymers are those in which the main chains are constructed from atoms of a single
element. Example:Carbon-chain polymer or C-chain polymer, Sulfur-chain polymer or S-chain
polymer.A polymer, whose chain is made of different atoms, is called a hetrochain [Link]
example, nylon 6, whose main chain composed of C and N atom.
- [-NH- (CH2) 5-CO-]n-

4) How polymers are classified on the basis of their tacticity?

Isotactic Polymer: All the functional groups are arranged in the same side with respect to the main
chain.
Syndiotactic Polymer: All the functional groups are arranged in the alternative sequence with
respect to the main chain.
Atactic Polymer: All the functional groups are arranged randomly on both sides
with respect to the main chain.

5) Differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers.

[Link]. Thermoplastic resins Thermosetting resins

1. They are formed by addition They are formed by condensation

polymerization polymerization

2. They consist of long chain linear They consist of three dimensional

polymer structure network structure

6) Write about polymers and monomers.

Polymers: polymers are macromolecules formed by the repeated linking of large number of small
molecules (monomer).
Monomer: Monomer is a micro molecule which combines with each other to form a polymer.

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UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

7) Define polymersization.
Polymerisation is the process of formation of polymer by the combination of the large number of
monomers with or without elimination of by products like water or small molecules.

8) Describe oligo polymers and high polymers.

A polymer with low degree of polymerization is known as oligo polymers. Their molecular weight
ranges from 500 – 5000.
A polymer with high degree of polymerization is known as high polymers. Their molecular weight
ranges from 10,000 – 2, 00,000.

9) Differentiate between homopolymer and copolymer.

A homo polymer consists of identical monomer units, while a copolymer consists of monomer units
of different chemical structures.

10) Define functionality of a monomer with a suitable example.

The number of reacting sites or bonding sites or reacting functional groups persent in a monomer is
known as functionality. Example: CH2 = CH2, Functionality is 2.

11) List out the various ways by which polymers can be classified.
i. Classification based on structure: Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics.
ii. Classification based on usage:General purpose plastics and Engineering plastics.

12) Give any two advantages and disadvantages of plastic.

Advantages: Good thermal and electrical insulators, high corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages: Softness, deformation under load.

13) Why thermosetting plastics cannot be reused and reshaped?

The molecules of monomers in thermosetting plastics are held together by strong covalent
bonds , and these bonds retain their strength, even on heating. Thus they cannot be softened by
heating and cannot be reshaped or reused. However, on very strong heating, they burn and undergo total
destruction.

14) Define copolymerization?

It is the joint polymerization in which two or more different monomers combine to give a co-polymer.
It usually leads to high molecular weight compounds and the polymer which contains different unit is
called co-polymer.

15) Give any two differences between addition and condensation polymerization.

S. No Addition Polymerization Condensation Polymerization

1. Monomers having multiple bond Monomers having same or different

undergo addition polymerization types of functional groups undergo
condensation polymerization.

2. Monomers add on to give a Monomers condense to give a

polymer and no other by product polymer and byproducts are formed
is formed
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UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

16) Define living polymer and dead polymer.

The growing chain of the polymer is known as living polymer, The product of addition polymerization
is called as dead polymer.

17) Mention any two uses of Nylon 6:6.

It is used for fibers, which are used in making socks, ladies shoes, dresses, carpets, etc. Nylons are
used for making filaments for ropes, bristles for tooth-brushes.

18) Write any two properties of epoxy resins.

i) Due to the presence of stable ether linkage, epoxy resin possesses high
chemical- resistance to water, acids, alkalis, various solvents and other chemicals.
ii) They are flexible, tough and possess good heat resistance.

19) Give any two properties of Nylon 6:6.

Nylons are translucent, white, horny and high melting polymers.

20) Mention any two uses of epoxy resins.

Moulds made from epoxy resins are employed for the production of components for aircrafts
and automobiles.
21) Why is Teflon highly chemical resistant?
Due to the presence of most electronegative element, F in Teflon, there is very strong attractive
forces between its different chains. Hence, it possesses extremely high chemical resistance towards
most chemicals.

22) Why is plasticizer used during moulding of plastics?

Many polymers are not very flexible and elastic, so their moulding into intricate shapes poses
difficulty, even though they are in thermoplastic forms. In order to increase plasticity, flexibility and
mouldability of plastic resins, plasticizers are usually added to them before moulding.

23) What is meant by compounding of plastics?

Compounding of plastics is a process by which polymer resins are mixed with some additives like
fillers, plasiticisers, stabilizers, etc., to impart some special properties to the moulded product.

24) What are the advantages of injection moulding?

i) Low mould cost
ii) Low finishing cost
iii) Low loss of materials
iv) High speed production
25) Define composite materials with suitable example.
It is defined as a material system consisting a mixture of two or more micro-constituents, which are
mutually insoluble, differing in form or composition and forming distinct phases. Examples: Glass
FRP, Carbon FRP, Alumina FRP.

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UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

27) Brief about tacticity of polymers.

The orientation of monmeric units or functional groups in a polymer molecule can take place in an
orderly (or) disorderly manner with respect to the main chain is known as Tacticity. These are
classified as Isotactic Polymer, Syndiotactic Polymer, Atactic Polymer.

PART B

1. Elaborate the preparation, properties and uses of Teflon and Nylon 6,6.
Teflon:
Teflon is obtained by polymerization of water-emulsion of tetrafluroethylene in presence of
benzoyl peroxide under pressure.

Properties:
 Teflon is one of the chemically inert substances. It is not affected by strong acids which are
chemically harmful and even after by boiling aqua-regia
 It is a thermoplastic polymer that appears as a white solid at room temperature, having a
density of about 2200 kg/m3. It has a melting point of 600 K.
 It was stable at high temperatures.
 It bears mechanical properties and degrades gradually above 194 K.
Applications
 PTFE used to coat non- stick frying pans as it has the ability to resist high temperatures.
 It is mostly used as a film interface patch for sports and medical applications, having a
pressure sensitive adhesive backing. It is installed in one of the high friction areas of
footwear, in soles, ankle-foot orthosis.
 It is widely used in medical synthesis, test and many more medicines.
Nylon 6,6
It is prepared by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid
under high pressure and at high temperature.

Properties of nylons
1. Nylon 6,6 has a melting point of 265 °C, high for a synthetic fibre,. This makes it most resistant
to heat and friction and enables to withstand heat setting for twist retention.
2. It has a dense structure with small evenly spaced pores. So it is difficult to dye but dyed it has
superior colour fastness and less susceptible to fading from sunlight.
3. Nylon 6,6 has up to 36,000 psi tensile strength, lower expansion, better dimensional stability and
4
UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

improved thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity.

Uses of nylon
1. Nylon 6,6 is used for making air bags, tyres, ropes, conveyor belts, hoses.
2. It is a light material so it is suitable to be used for parachutes, swimwear, machine parts.

2. Explain addition and condensation polymerization reactions with suitable examples.

Addition Polymerization
It is a reaction that yields a polymer, which is an exact multiple of the original monomeric molecule.
The original monomeric molecule, usually, contains one or more double bonds. In this addition
polymerization there is no elimination of any molecule.
Example: PVC is obtained by heating a water-emulsion of vinyl chloride in presence of a small
amount of benzyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide in an autoclave under pressure.

Condensation polymerization:
During the process of polymeric chain growth if chemical reaction takes place between
different functional group of single monomer or different monomers with the loss of compound like
HCl, H2O or other compounds and the polymer is not an exact multiple of used monomer unit then
the polymerization process is called condensation polymer polymerization. Example of condensation
polymers are PF, UF, MF, Nylon, PET etc.
It is prepared by the condensation polymerization of hexa methylenediamine with adipic acid
under high pressure and at high temperature.

3. Describe the free radical mechanism of addition polymerization.

Free radical polymerisation :
Free-radical polymerization form only linear molecules.
i) Initiation step:
It involves the formation of a free-radical from a radical initiator such as benzoyl peroxides, and
other materials that can generate free radicals.

5
UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

The radical so formed then adds to the monomer to form a new free radical, e.g., it adds to vinyl
monomer in the following way

(ii) Propagation step:

The new free radical now adds to another molecule of monomer to form another new free radical
until a large free radical is formed.

After the first few steps the addition of a monomer unit proceeds at a constant specific rate
independent of the chain length of free radical formed.

(iii) Termination step:

Termination of chains usually occurs by radical coupling or disproportionation reactions.
By coupling or combination, e.g.,

Disproportionation: In which a hydrogen atom of one radical centre is transferred to another radical
centre. This results in the formation of two polymer molecules, one saturated and other
unsaturated, e.g.,

4. Illustrate the compression moulding and injection moulding processes for the manufacture of
plastics.
Compression Moulding
This method is applied to both thermoplastic and thermo setting plastics. Figure shows a typical mould used
to compression moulding.
The mould is made up of two halves, the upper and the lower halves. The lower half usually contains a cavity
in the shape of the article to be moulded. The upper half has a projection, which fits into the cavity when
mould is closed. The material to be moulded is placed in the cavity of the mould. Then the mould is closed
care-fully under low pressure. Finally the mould is heated to 100-200 °C and simultaneously high pressure
(100-500 kg/cm2) is applied on the top of the mould. Curing is done either by heating or cooling. After
curing the moulded article is taken out by opening the mould parts.

6
UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

Compression Moulding

Injection Moulding
This method is mainly applicable to thermoplastics. The powdered plastic material is fed into a
heated cylinder through the hopper. The plastic material

melts under the influence of heat and becomes fluid. The hot fluid is injected at a controlled rate
into a tightly locked mould be means of a screw arrangement or by a piston. The mould is kept cold
to allow the hot plastic to cure and becomes rigid. After curing the mould is opened and the object is
ejected. Telephones, buckets etc., are made by this method.
Advantages
1. Low mold cost 2. Low finishing cost [Link] loss of materials4. High speed production.

5. Distinguish between thermosetting plastics and thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics:
Some polymers soften on heating and can be converted into any shape that they can retain on
cooling. The process of heating, reshaping and retaining the same on cooling can be repeated several
times. Such polymers, that soften on heating and stiffen on cooling are termed 'thermoplastics' e.g.,
polyethylene, PVC, nylon and sealing wax.

Thermosetting plastics:
Some polymers undergo some chemical change on heating and convert themselves into infusible
mass. They are like Yolk of egg, which on heating sets into a mass and once set cannot be reshaped. Such
polymers, that become infusible and insoluble mass on heating, are called 'thermosetting' polymers e.g.,
bakelite.

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UNIT II POLYMERS AND REINFORCED PLASTICS

6. Mention the compounding materials used in plastics, indicating their function and give one
example for each.
Compounding of plastics is a process by which polymer resins are mixed with some additive
like fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, etc., to impart some special properties to the moulded product.
Some important moulding constituents (additives) and their functions are tabulated below.

S.
Additives Examples Functions
No
Thermoplastic resins They are basic bindin materials and hold
Resins (or)
1. Thermosetting resins different constituents together. They are the
Binders
major portion of plastic.
Carborundum, quartza They provide extra hardness
and mica
Fillers or
2. Barium salts They are added to make the plastic impervious
Extenders
to X-rays
Asbestos It provides heat and corrosion resistance
Vegetable oils, Camphor, They are added to resins to increase their
Tricresyl phosphate, plasticity and flexibility. They neutralize the
Tributyl phosphate, inter molecular forces of attraction between the
3. Plasticizers
Tetrabutyl phosphate polymer chains, this results in greater freedom
of movement of polymer chain, thereby
increasing the flexibility of plastic.
Opaque moulding Used in opaque plastics.
stabilizers:Lead salts
like lead chromate, white
lead, red lead.
4. Stabilizers
Transparent moulding Used in transparent plastics
stabilizers: Stearates of
lead, cadmium and
barium.
Catalysts Hydrogen peroxide, It is added only in the case of thermosetting
5. (or) Benzoyl peroxide, Metal plastics to accelerate the condensation
Accelerators oxides like zinc oxide polymerization to form cross linked polymer.
Inorganic pigments and Provide attractive colours to the plastics
organic dye
Pigments
6. Carbon black Provides black colour.
and dyes
Zinc oxide Provides white colour.
Chromium trioxide Provided green colour.
Anti- Diphenyl amines, Phenyl Used to prevent of Oxidative degradation in
7.
oxidants p-naphthylamine polymers
Waxes, oils and It reduces the friction during moulding prpcess
8. Lubricants
steartates between mould and article.

8
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

UNIT III - FUELS AND COMBUSTION

PART A
1) Define caking coals and coking coals.
Coals that produce soft and plastic mass at around 400o C that re-solidifies to form a porous solid
are called caking coals. Caking coals that produce solid product of useful grade are called coking coals.

2) Write a short note on carbonization of coal.

When bituminous coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, the volatile matter escapes out and
the mass become hard, strong, porous and coherent, which is called metallurgical coke. This process is
called carbonization.

3) Describe the term fixed carbon.

It refers to the amount of carbon left behind that can be burnt by a primary current of air from the
hot bed of the fuel. It is calculated by deducting the percentage amount of ash, moisture and volatile
matter from 100.
4) Differentiate low temperature carbonization and high temperature carbonization.
S. No Low temperature carbonization High temperature carbonization
1. It is carried out at 500 - 700o C It is carried out at 900 - 1100oC
2. Produce low temperature coke, which is Produces metallurgical coke for use
used as smokeless domestic fuel. in blast furnace.

5) What is metallurgical coke? Give the characteristics of metallurgical coke.

When Bituminous coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, the volatile matter escapes out
and the mass become hard, strong, porous and coherent, which is called metallurgical coke. This process
is called carbonization.
Characteristics:
i. Porosity: Coke should be highly porous.
ii. Strength: It should have high mechanical strength.
iii. Calorific Value: The calorific value of coke should be high.
iv. Purity, the moisture, ash, sulphur contents in metallurgical coke should be low.

6) Distinguish between coal and coke.

S. No Coal Coke
1. Percentage of fixed carbon and the Percentage of fixed carbon and the calorific
calorific value of coke is low. value of coke is high.
2. Percentage of moisture, volatile and ash Percentage of moisture, volatile and ash
contents are high in coal. contents are low in coal.

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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION
7) List out the drawback of using sulphur in coal.
i. The combustion of products of sulphur, i.e., SO 2 and SO3 are harmful and have corrosion effects on
equipments.
ii. The coal containing sulphur is not suitable for the preparation of metallurgical coke as it affects the
properties of the metal.

8) Write briefly on the ranking of coal.

Coal is classified on the basis of its rank. The rank of coal indicates its degree of maturity.
Various types of coal are:
Wood > Peat > Lignite > Bituminous coal > Anthracite (Calorific value increases from left to right)

9) Define octane number. How can it be improved?

The percentage by volume of isooctane in the isooctane-heptane mixture that matches the
knocking characteristics of the fuel being tested is called the octane number.
Octane number can be improved by adding anti-knock agents like Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL)

10) Define cetane number. How can it be improved?

Cetane number is defined as, “the percentage of cetane present in a mixture of cetane and methyl
naphthalene”, which matches the fuel under test in ignition property.

11) Explain the reason for not using of leaded petrol.

i. Lead oxide deposits on the spark plug and on cylinder wall, which is harmful to engine life.
ii. This creates atmospheric pollution.

12) What is aviation gasoline? How is it obtained?

Petrol used as fuel in aeroplane is known as aviation gasoline. It has an octane number of 100 or
even more. Ordinary gasoline is converted to aviation gasoline by subjecting it to isomerisation,
alkylation and reforming processes.

13) Write the significance of volatile matter in coal.

i. It reduces calorific value of coal
ii. Coal with high percentage of volatile matter burns with a flame and smoke
iii. The coal with high percentage of volatile matter do not coke well

14) Define ‘gross calorific value’.

It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated when one unit of the fuel is burnt completely
and the combustion products are cooled to room temperature.

15) Define ‘net calorific value’.

It is defined as the net heat produced, when a unit quantity of the fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are allowed to escape.

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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION
16) Mention the advantages of using gaseous fuels over other kinds of fuels.
i. Calorific value is generally higher than solid and liquid fuels.
ii. Neither ash nor smoke is produced.
iii. They need lesser amount of air for complete combustion.

17) Define calorific values of a fuel.

The calorific value of a fuel is defined as “the total amount of heat liberated, when a unit mass of
fuel is burnt completely”.

18) Briefly explain about the analysis of coal.

In order to assess the quality of coal the following two types of analysis are made:
i. Proximate Analysis:
It involves the determination of percentage of,
a. Moisture content
b. Volatile matter
c. Ash content
d. Fixed carbon in coal.
ii. Ultimate Analysis:
It involves the determination of percentage of,
a. Carbon and hydrogen content
b. Nitrogen content
c. Sulphur content
d. Ash content
e. Oxygen content.

19) What is refining of petroleum?

The process of removing impurities and separating the crude oil into various fractions having
different boiling points is called refining of petroleum.

20) Mention the uses of flue gas analysis.

i. Flue gas analysis gives an idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process.
ii. The presence of a high percentage of CO in the flue gas shows incomplete combustion of the fuel and
also indicates short supply of oxygen.
iii. If the flue gas contains considerable amount of oxygen indicates an excess supply of oxygen and the
possibility of complete combustion.

21) Write a short note on classification of petroleum

Petroleum is classified into three types.
i. Paraffinic-Base type crude oil-It contains saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35H72 with a smaller
amount of naphthenes and aromatics.
ii. Napthenic (or) Asphaltic Base type crude oil-It contains cycloparaffins or naphthenes with a smaller
amount of paraffins and aromatics.
iii. Mixed Base type crude oil-It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons.
3
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

22) List out the characteristics of a good fuel.

i. Moderate ignition temperature
ii. High specific heat
[Link] smoke and less ash content
iv. Inexpensive and readily available

23) Distinguish between petrol and Diesel.

[Link]. Petrol Diesel
1 Fuel for SI engine Fuel for CI engine
2 Knocks due to premature ignition Knocks due to ignition delay
3 Anti knocking is improved through the Antiknocking is improved by
addition of TEL doping with isoamyl nitrate.

24) Discuss the advantages of using coke than coal in metallurgical processes.
i. Percentage of fixed carbon in coke is more.
[Link], ash, sulphur contents are very low. The mechanical strength, calorific value is high.

25) Describe the significance of proximate analysis of coal.

i. High moisture, less calorific value.
[Link] volatile matter, less calorific value.
[Link] ash content, less calorific value.
[Link] fixed carbon, more calorific value.

26) What is CNG? Mention its calorific value.

When the natural gas if compressed, it is called compressed Natural Gas (CNG). The calorific
value of CNG is 11720 Kcal/kg

27) Explain the basic principle of the Bergius process.

The Bergius process involves hydrogenating coal under high pressure and temperature in the
presence of a catalyst to produce liquid hydrocarbons (synthetic petrol).

28) What is power alcohol? Mention its advantages.

Ethyl alcohol blended with petrol at concentration of 5-10% is called power alcohol. It is cheaper
than petrol. As ethyl alcohol contains oxygen atoms, complete combustion occurs so emission of CO,
hydrocarbon particulates are reduced.

29) Explain about cryogenic fuel.

Cryogenic engine makes use of Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) as propellants
which liquid at - 183 ° C and -253 ° C respectively.
4
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

30) Write the advantages of cryogenic fuel.

Cryogenic fuels are used in rockets, which are eco-friendly, non-toxic, and non-corrosive.
Cryogenic engine propellants are safer to handle and store. Additionally, it will lower the price of launch
operations.
31) Explain why cryogenic fuels need to be stored at very low temperatures.
Cryogenic fuels need to be stored at very low temperatures to remain in a liquid state, which
allows for more efficient storage and transport compared to their gaseous forms.

PART B
1. Describe about the proximate analysis of coal.
It includes the determination of physical constituents like moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed
carbon in coal. This gives quick and valuable information regarding commercial classification and
determination of suitability for a particular industrial use.
Moisture:
About 1 g of finely powered air-dried coal sample is weighed in a crucible. The crucible is placed
inside an electric hot air-oven, maintained at 105° - 110°C. The crucible is allowed to remain in oven for
1 hour and then taken out, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Loss in weight is reported as moisture (on
percentage-basis).
Loss in weight of the coal
Percentage of moisture = X 100
Weight of air dried coal
Volatile matter:
After the analysis of moisture content the dried sample of coal left in the crucible is covered with a lid
and placed in an electric furnace (muffle furnace), maintained at 950°± 20°C, for 7 minutes. The
crucible is cooled first in air, then inside a desiccator and weighed again. Loss in weight is reported as
volatile matter on percentage-basis.
Loss in weight of the coal
Percentage of volatile matter = Weight of air dried coal
X 100

Ash:
After the analysis of volatile matter residual coal in the crucible is heated without lid in a muffle
furnace at 700 ± 50°C for 1/2 hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccator and
weighed. Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated, till a constant weight is obtained. The residue is
reported as ash on percentage-basis.

Weight of Ash formed

Percentage of ash = Weight of air dried coal
X 100
Fixed carbon:
It is determined by subtracting the sum total of moisture, volatile and ash contents from 100.
Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of (moisture + volatile matter + ash).

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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Significance of proximate analysis:

Proximate analysis provides following valuable information in assessing the quality of coal:
Moisture:
High percentage of moisture is undesirable because,
i. Moisture lowers the effective calorific value of coal.
ii. Moreover, it quenches the fire in the furnace.
iii. It increase the transport cost.
iv. Hence, lesser the moisture content, better the quality of coal as a fuel.
v. However, presence of moisture, up to 10%, produces a more uniform fuel-bed and less of "fly-ash".
Volatile matter:
Higher volatile content in coal is undesirable.
i. A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a long flame, high smoke.
ii. It reduce the calorific value of coal.
iii. High-volatile matter containing coals do not cake well; whereas medium-volatile matter content coals
are capable of yielding hard and strong coke on carbonization.
iv. A high volatile matter content means that high-proportion of fuel will be distilled and burned as a gas or
vapour.
v. Hence, lesser the volatile matter, better the rank of the coal.
Ash content:
Higher ash content in coal is undesirable
i. Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal.
ii. Moreover, ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature.
iii. It often causes trouble during firing by forming clinker which block the interspaces of the grate. This in-
turn causes obstruction to air supply; thereby the burning of coal becomes irregular.
iv. The presence of ash also increases transporting, handling and storage costs.
v. The presence of ash also causes early wear of furnace walls, burning of apparatus and feeding
mechanism.
Fixed carbon:
Higher percentage of fixed carbon is desirable.
i. It gives greater calorific value and better the quality of coal.
ii. The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and the shape of the fire-box.

2. Illustrate about Carbon, Hydrogen and Sulphur content present in the coal can be analyzed by
Ultimate analysis.
Carbon and hydrogen:
About 1-2 g of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen in a combustion
apparatus. The C and H of the coal are converted into CO2and H2Orespectively.

C + O2 CO2

H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION
The gaseous products of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH and anhydrous CaCl2tubesof

known weights. The increase in weight of KOH tube is due to the formation of CO 2, while increase in the
weight of anhydrous CaCl2tube is due to the formation of H2O. From the weight of CO2 and H2O
formed the percentage of carbon and hydrogen in the coal can be determined as follows.

Sulphur:
A known mass of coal is burnt completely in a bomb calorimeter for determination of a calorific
value. During this determination, S is converted into sulphate. The sulphates are extract with water and treated
with barium chloride solution, so that sulphates are precipitated as barium sulphate. This precipitate is filtered,
washed, dried and weighed to constant weight. From the weight of barium sulphate (BaSO 4) obtained the
sulphur present in the coal is calculated as follows,
S + 2O2 SO42-
SO42-+ BaCl2 BaSO4

Weight of BaSO4 obtained 32

Percentage of Sulphur = X X 100
Weight of coal sample 233
3. Discuss steps involved in refining of crude petroleum

Petroleum or crude oil is naturally occurring liquid fuel. It is dark greenish brown or black
coloured viscous oil found deep in earth's crust. Crude oil containing mixture of paraffinic, olefinic and
aromatic hydrocarbons with minor amounts of organic compounds like N, O and S.
The Process of removing impurities and separating the crude oil into various fractions having
different boiling points is called "Refining of Petroleum". The process of refining involves the following steps.
Step -I: Separation of water (Cottrell's process)
The crude oil from the oil well is an extremely stable emulsion of oil and salt water. The crude
oilis allowed to flow between two highly charged electrodes, where colloidal water droplets combine to form
large drops, which is then separated out from the oil.

Step - II: Removal of harmful impurities

The sulphur compounds present in the crude oil is removed by treating oil with copper oxide,
which results in the formation of copper sulphide (solid), which is then removed by filtration.

7
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Step - III: Fractional distillation of crude petroleum

The purified crude oil is then heated to about 400°C in an iron retort, where the volatile
substances are evaporated. The hot vapors are then passed into the bottom of a fractionating column. The
fractionating column is a tall
cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal stainless steel trays at short distances. Each tray is
provided with small chimney covered with a loose cap.
When the vapours of the oil go up in the fractionating column, they become gradually cooler and get
condensed at different heights of column. The fractions having higher boiling points condense at lower trays
whereas the fractions having lower boiling points condense at higher trays. The gasoline obtained by the
fractional distillation is called straight - run gasoline. Various fractions obtained at different trays are given in
table.
Various fractions, compositions and their uses
[Link] Name of the Boiling Range of Uses
o
fraction Range C C-atoms
As domestic and
Uncondensed Below 30
1 C1 to C4 industrial fuel under
gases °C
the name LPG
2 Petroleum ether 30 - 70 °C C5 to C7 As a solvent
Gasoline (or) Fuel for IC engines, solvent
3 40 - 120 °C C5 to C9
petrol. and in dry cleaning.
Naphtha (or) 120. - 180 C9 to As solvent and in dry
4
solvent spirit. °C C10 cleaning.
180 - 250 C10 to As fuel for jet engines
5 Kerosene oil.
°C C16 and an illuminant.
Diesel oil (or) 250 - 320 C10 to C
6 As Diesel engine fuel.
gas oil °C 18
320 - 400 C17 to Production of gasoline by
7 Heavy oil.
°C C30 cracking process.
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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

4. Explain in detail about the metallurgical coke synthesized by Otto-Hoffman’s by product oven.

There are several types of ovens used for the manufacture of metallurgical coke. But the important one
is Otto Hoffman's by-product oven.
Otto Hoffman's by-product oven:
In order to:
i. Increase the thermal efficiency of the carbonization process,
ii. Recover valuable by-product (like coal gas, ammonia, benzol oil, tar, etc.), Otto Hoffman developed
modern by product coke oven.
The by-product coke oven consists of number of narrow silica chambers. Each chamber is about 10 - 12
m long, 3 - 4 m high and 0.40 - 0.45 m wide. Each chamber is provided with a charging hole at the top. It is
also provided with a gas off-take valve and iron door at each ends for discharging coke. A finely crushed coal
is introduced into the silica chambers, which are then closed tightly at both ends to prevent any access of air.
The coke ovens are heated to 1,200°C by burning of the preheated air and the producer gas mixture in the
interspaces between the chambers.
The air and gas are preheated by sending them through 2 nd and 3rd hot regenerators. Hot fuel gases
produced during combustion are allowed to pass through 1stand 4th regenerators until the temperature has been
raised to 1000 °C. While 1st and 4th regenerators are beings heated by hot flue gases, the 2nd and 3rd
regenerators are used for heating the incoming air and gas mixture. For economical heating, the direction of
inlet gases and flue gases are changed frequently. The above system of recycling the flue gases to produce heat
energy is known as regenerative system of heat economy. When the process is complete, the coke is removed
and quenched with water. Time taken for complete carbonisation is about 12-20 hours. The yield of coke is
about 70%. The valuable by products like tar, ammonia, H2S, and benzol etc., can be recovered from coal gas.
Otto – Hoffmann’s by product oven

Recovery of by-products:
1. Tar: The gas is first passed through a tower in which liquor ammonia is sprayed. Here dust and target
collected in a tank below, which is heated by steam coils to recover back ammonia sprayed. The ammonia is
used again.
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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION
2. Ammonia: The gases from the chamber are then passed through a tower in which water is sprayed. Here
ammonia goes into solution as NH4OH.
3. Naphthalene: The gases are then passed through another tower in which water at very low temperature
(cooled water) is sprayed. Here naphthalene gets condensed.
4. Benzene: The gases are then passed through another tower, here petroleum is sprayed. Here benzene
condensed.
5. H2S: The gases are then passed through a purifier, packed with moist Fe 2O3. Here H2S is retained.
Fe2O3 + 3H2S Fe2S3 + 3H2O

Advantages of Otto-Hoffman’s process

i. Valuable by products like ammonia, coal gas, naphthalene etc., recovered.
ii. Carbonisation time is less.
iii. Heating is done externally by producer gas.
iv. It also utilizes the waste flue gases for heating the checker work bricks.

5. With a neat diagram explain the analysis of flue gas by Orsat apparatus and mention the
precautions to be followed during the analysis.
The mixture of gases like SO2, CO2, O2, CO etc. coming out from the combustion chamber is called flue
gas. The analysis of a flue gas would give idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process. If the
flue gases contain considerable amount of CO, it indicates that incomplete combustion and it contain a
considerable amount of oxygen indicates, complete combustion. The analysis of flue gas is carried out by
using Orsat's apparatus.
Description of Orsat's Apparatus
It consists of a horizontal tube, having 3 way stopcock. At one end of this tube, U-tube containing fused
CaCl2 is connected. The other end of this tube is connected with a graduated burette. The burette is surrounded
by water-jacket to keep the temperature of gas constant. The lower end of the burette is connected to a water
reservoir by means of a rubber tube. The level of water in the burette can be raised or lowered by raising or
lowering the reservoir. The horizontal tube is also connected with three different absorption bulbs I, II and III
for absorbing CO2, O2, CO.

Orsat’s apparatus
10
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Bulb- I : It contains 'potassium hydroxide' solution, and it absorbs only CO2

Bulb – II :It contains 'alkaline pyrogallol' solution, and it absorbs only CO 2 and O2
Bulb - III: It contains ‘ammoniacal cuprous chloride’ solution and it absorbs CO2, O2 and CO.
Working
The 3-way stopcock is opened to the atmosphere and the reservoir is raised, till the burette is
completely filled with water and air is excluded from the burette. The 3-way stopcock is now connected to the
flue gas supply, the flue gas is sucked into the burette, and the volume of flue gas is adjusted to 100 ml by
raising and lowering the reservoir. Then the 3-way stop cock is closed.
a) Absorption of CO2:
The stopper of the bulb-1 containing KOH solution is opened and all the gas is passed into the
bulb-1 by raising the level of water in the burette. The gas enters into the bulb-I, where CO2 present in the flue
gas is absorbed by KOH.
The gas is again sent to the burette. This process is repeated several times to ensure complete
absorption of CO2 .The decrease in volume of the flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of CO 2 in 100
ml of the flue gas.
b) Absorption of O2:
Stopcock of bulb-I is closed and stopcock of bulb-II is opened. The gas is again sent into the
absorption bulb-II, where O2 present in the flue gas is absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol (925 g of pyrogallol +
200g of KOH in 500 ml distilled water). The decrease in volume of the flue gas in the burette indicates the
volume of O2.
c) Absorption of CO.
Now stopcock of bulb-II is closed and stopcock of bulb-Ill is opened. The remaining gas is sent
into the absorption bulb-III, where CO present in the flue gas is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride
(100 g CuCl2 + 125 mL liquor ammonia + 375 mL distilled water). The decrease in volume of the flue gas in
the burette indicates the volume of CO. The remaining gas in the burette after the absorption of CO 2, O2 and
CO is taken as nitrogen.
Significance or uses of flue gas analysis
i. Flue gas analysis gives an idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process.
ii. If the flue gases contain considerable amount of CO, it indicates that incomplete combustion is
occurring and it also indicates that the short supply of O2.
iii. If the flue gases contain considerable amount of O2, it indicates that complete combustion is occurring
and also it indicates that the excess of O2 is supplied.

6. What is synthetic petrol? Illustrate the manufacturing of synthetic petrol by Bergius process?

Bergius process
This method was developed by Bergius in Germany during the First World War. The low ash coal is
finely powdered and made into a paste with heavy oil and then a catalyst (composed of tin or nickel oleate) is
mixed with it. The paste is pumped along with hydrogen gas into the converter, where the paste is
heated to 400 - 450°C and under a pressure 200 – 250atm for about 1.5 hours.

11
UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

During this process hydrogen combines with coal to form saturated hydrocarbons, which
undergo further decomposition at high temperature and pressure to yield mixture of low-boiling lower
hydrocarbons. The mixture is led to condenser, where the crude oil is obtained. Then the crude oil fractionated
to yield:
(i) gasoline
(ii) middle oil
(iii) heavy oil.
The latter is used again for making paste with fresh coal dust. The middle oil is hydrogenated in
vapour -phase in presence of a solid catalyst to yields more gasoline. The yields of gasoline in about 60% of the
coal dust used.

7. What is bio-diesel? Explain trans-esterification of bio-diesel.

Vegetable oils comprise of 90−95% triglycerides with small amount of diglycerides, free fatty
acids, phospholipids, etc. Triglycerides are esters of long chain fatty acids, like stearic acid and palmitic acid.
The viscosity of vegetable oils are higher and their molecular weights are in the range of 600 to 900, which are
about 3 times higher than those of the diesel fuels.
Problems in using Vegetable Oils directly
i. As the viscosity of vegetable oils are high, atomization is very poor and hence inefficient mixing of oil
with air leads to incomplete combustion.
ii. Oxidation and Thermal polymerization of vegetable oils cause deposit formation.
iii. Their high volatility and consequent high flash point lead to more deposit formation.
iv. Their high viscosity causes misfire and ignition delay.
v. The use of vegetable oils as direct fuel requires modification of the conventional diesel engine design.
Manufacture: Trans-Esterification (or) Alcoholysis
The above problems are overcome by reducing the viscosity of the vegetable oils by the process
known as trans-esterification or alcoholysis. Alcoholysis is nothing but displacement of alcohol from an
ester by another alcohol.
It involves treatment of vegetable oil (sunflower oil, palm oil, soya bean oil, mustard oil, etc.)
with excess of methanol in the presence of catalyst to give mono ethyl esters of long chain fatty acid and
glycerine. It is allowed to stand for some time and glycerine is separated.

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UNIT III FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Trans-Esterification or Alcoholysis reaction

Methyl esters of fatty acids, thus formed, are called “Bio-diesel”. Bio diesel is defined as mono-
alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or fats. It is a pure fuel before blending
with conventional diesel fuel. Bio-diesel can be blended with petroleum diesel.
Advantages
i. Bio-diesel is bio-degradable.
ii. It is prepared from renewable resources.
iii. The gaseous pollutants are lesser as compared to the conventional diesel fuel.
iv. Bio-diesel can be produced from different types of vegetable oils. Best engine performance and less smoke
emission are achieved.

8. Describe about cryogenic fuel and explain its advantages and disadvantages.
Cryogenic fuels are fuels that require storage at extremely low temperatures in order to maintain
them in a liquid state. These fuels are used in machinery that operates in space (e.g. rockets and satellites)
where ordinary fuel cannot be used, due to the very low temperature in space. In space no oxygen is available
which is essential part for combustion. Effective fuel and oxidizer combination is,
Fuel: liquid hydrogen
Oxidizer: liquid oxygen
Oxygen remains liquid at -183 ° C and hydrogen remains liquid at -253 ° C respectively.
Operation:
Both oxidizer and fuel are stored in a separate container and placed in a combustion part of a
system. Both are separately injected into the combustion zone and burnt.
Advantages of cryogenic fuels:
i. Cryogenic fuels are environmental cleaner than gasoline or fossil fuels.
ii. Transport cost are less because of their abundance
iii. Cryogenic fuels have a higher mass flow rate than fossil fuels and therefore produce more thrust and power.
iv. If Cryogenic fuels are spilled, no risk to the environment and no need to clean up hazardous waste after a
spill.
Disadvantages of cryogenic fuels:
i. Some cryogenic fuels, like LNG, are naturally combustible. Ignition of fuel spills could result in a large
explosion.
ii. Cryogenic storage tanks must be able to withstand high pressure
iii. As it is non-toxic, cryogenic fuels are denser than air. If leaked, the liquid will boil into a very dense, cold
gas and if inhaled, could be fatal.
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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

UNIT IV - ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

PART A

1) Define nuclear fission.

Nuclear fission is defined as “the process of splitting of heavier nucleus into two (or) more smaller
nuclei with simultaneous liberation of large amount of energy.
2) What is a moderator? Give example.
Moderator is the one, which slows down the speed of neutrons in the nuclear reactors. Example:
Water, Heavy water & Solid graphite
3) Mention few important characteristics of nuclear fission.
i. A heavy nucleus U235 (or) Pu239 when bombarded by slow moving neutrons, split into two or
more nuclei.
ii. Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
iii. Large quantities of energy are produced as a result of conversion of small mass of nucleus into
energy.

4) State nuclear fusion.

The process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier nuclei, with simultaneous liberation
of large amount of energy.
Example: Nuclear fusion reaction
2 2 4
1H + 1H ----------> 2He + energy

5) Discuss lead-acid accumulator.

A secondary cell consisting of lead electrodes, the positive one covered with PbO2, dipping
into H2SO4 solution. Its emf is about 2V.

6) Differentiate between nuclear fission and fusion.

[Link] Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1 It is the process of splitting a heavier It is the process of combination of
nucleus. lighter nuclei.
2 It emits radioactive rays. It does not emit any kind of
radioactive rays.
3 It occurs at ordinary temperature. It occurs at high temperature (106 K)

7) Compare super critical mass and sub-critical mass.

Super critical mass: If the mass of fissionable material (U235) is more than the critical mass. It is
called super critical mass.
Sub - critical mass: If the mass of the fissionable material is smaller than the critical mass, it is called
sub-critical mass.

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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

8) Explain nuclear energy with example.

The energy released when the nuclei of certain atoms undergo nuclear reaction is called nuclear
energy.
Example: When U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, with the release of energy.
235
92U +0 n1 ---------->56Ba144 +36Kr90 + 2 0n1 + energy

9) Identify the drawbacks of nuclear energy?

i. Nuclear reactor generates large amounts of deadly radioactive waste.
ii. The plant cost and operating cost is high.

10) Give the important requirements for the nuclear chain reaction to occur.
i. The At least one neutron should be generated per fission reaction.
ii. Sufficient amount of U235 must be present to capture the neutrons, otherwise neutrons will escape
from surface.

11) Recall nuclear reactor.

The arrangement or equipment used to carry out fission reaction under controlled conditions
is called a nuclear reactor.

12) What is nuclear chain reaction?

A fission reaction, where the neutrons from the previous step continue to propagate and
repeat the reaction is called nuclear chain reaction.

13) Interpret fissile nucleides and fertile nucleides?

i. The fissionable nucleides such as U235& Pu239 are called fissile nucleides
ii. The non-fissionable nucleides such as U238& Th232 are called fertile nucleides.

14) Examine Breeder reactor?

Breeder reactor is the one, which converts non-fissionable material (U238, Th232) into
fissionable material (U235, Pu239)

15) Mention any two differences of a nuclear reaction and chemical reaction.
[Link]. Nuclear reaction Chemical reaction
1 Rapid exothermic reaction Slow reaction

2 Initiated by neutrons Initiated by heat or cold

16) What is photogalvanic cell (or) Solar cell?

Photogalvanic cell is the one, which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun)
directly into electrical energy. It consists of p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-
type semiconductor (such as Si doped with P). They are in close contact with each other.

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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

17) Paraphrase the applications of Solar cells.

1. Solar cells are used in calculators, electronic watches, radios and TVs.
2. Solar cells are superior to other type of cells, because these are non-polluting and eco-friendly.
3. Solar energy can be stored in Ni-Cd batteries and lead-acid batteries.
4. Solar cells can be used to drive vehicles.

18) Report fuel cell.

Fuel cell is a voltaic cell, which converts the chemical energy of the fuels directly into
electricity without combustion. It converts the energy of the fuel directly into electricity. In these cells,
the reactants, products and electrolytes pass through the cell.

19) List out the applications of H2-O2 fuel cell?

i. H2-O2 fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines or other
military-vehicles.
ii. In case of H2-O2 fuel cells, the product of water is proved to be a valuable source of fresh water by
the astronauts.

20) What is wind energy? How is it obtained?

Moving air is called wind, the energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind
energy. The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed. The wind energy is harnessed by
making use of wind mills.

21) Discuss the drawbacks of wind energy?

Public resists for locating the wind forms in populated areas due to noise generated by the
machines and loss of aesthetic appearance.
Wind forms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.

22) Furnish the sequence of reactions in proton cycle nuclear fusion.

In nuclear fusion reaction, two protons (hydrogen atoms) combine to give a helium atom with the
liberation of large amount of energy.
2 2 4
1H +1H ---------->2He + energy

23) Analyze the important requirements of a battery?

A battery should fulfill the following requirements
i. It should be light and compact for easy transport
ii. It should have long life both when it is being used and when it is not used

24) Relate the advantages of alkaline battery over dry battery?

[Link] does not dissolve readily in a basic medium.
[Link] life of alkaline battery is longer than the dry battery, because there is no corrosion on Zn.
[Link] battery maintains its voltage, as the current is drawn from it.

25) Will the emf of battery vary with size? Give reasons for your answer.
Voltage of battery does not vary with size. Since Nernst equation describes the variation of
emf with concentration of the ingredients of the cell only. There is no size factor in the equation.
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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

26) What are secondary cells? Give an example.

In secondary cells, electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical
energy. They can be recharged. Eg. Lithium battery

27) List the applications of lithium batteries?

Toys, clocks, digital camera, as a backup battery in computers, used in communication equipments
and also in remote car locks.

28) Lithium battery is the cell of future, Why?

[Link] cell voltage is high, 3V
[Link] lithium is a light weight metals, only 7g (1 mole) material is required to produce 1 mole of
electrons.
[Link] Lithium has the most negative E0 value, it generates a higher voltage than other types of cells
[Link] all the constituents of the battery are solids, there is no risk of leakage from the battery

29) Generalize the limitations of H2-O2 Fuel Cell?

i. Hydrogen is explosive.
ii. While using these fuel cells in an automobile, high pressure is created inside the engine, which is
quite risky.
iii. Hydrogen is a gas, so a large investment of cost and energy is required to compress it into liquefied
form.

PART B

1. What is a nuclear reactor? Describe the components of a light water power plant with a suitable
block diagram.
The arrangement or equipment used to carry out fission reaction under controlled conditions is called
nuclear reactor. The energy released by the fission reaction in the nuclear reactor can be used to produce
steam which can turn turbines and produce electricity.

1. Fuel rods:
The fissionable material used in the nuclear reactor is enriched U 235. It is used in the form of rods or strips.
Example: U235, Pu239Function: It produces fuel and neutrons. This neutron starts nuclear chain reaction.

2. Control rods:
To control the rate of fission of U-235, movable rods made of cadmium (Cd). These rods absorb the excess
neutrons. So the fission reaction proceeds at steady rate. These rods are lowered and raised as of need. If the
rods are deeply inserted inside the reactor, they will absorb more neutrons and the reaction becomes very
slow. If the rods are pushed outwards, they will absorb less neutrons and the reaction will be very fast.
113 + n1→ Cd114 + γ- ray
43Cd 0 43
5B + 0n → 5B + γ - ray
10 1 11

Example: Cadmium, Boron. Function: It controls the nuclear chain reaction and avoids the damage to the
reactor.
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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

3. Moderators:
The substances used to slow down the neutrons are called moderators. Example: Ordinary water, Heavy
water, graphite
Function: The kinetic energy of fast neutron (1meV) is reduced to slow neutrons (0.25 eV).

4. Coolant
In order to absorb the heat produced during fission reaction, the coolant is circulated in the reactor core. It
enters the base and leaves at the top. The heat carried by outgoing liquid is used to produce steam.
Example: Water (act as coolant and moderator), Heavy water, liquid metal (Na or K) Function: It cools the
fuel core.

5. Pressure vessel
It encloses the core and also provides the entrance and exit passages for coolant. Function: It withstands the
pressure as high as 200 atm.
6. Protective shield
The moderator, control rods and fuel element are enclosed in a chamber which has a thick concrete shield
(10 m thick). Function: The environment and the operating persons are protected from destruction in case of
leakage of radiation.
7. Heat exchanger
It transfers the heat liberated from the reactor core to boil water and produce steam at about 400 Kg/cm2.
8. Turbine
The steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to operate a steam turbine, which drives a generator to
produce electricity.

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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

2. Illustrate the construction and working of a photovoltaic cell with a diagram.

Solar cells

A device which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun) directly into electrical
energy is called ‘Solar cell’. This is also called as ‘Photovoltaic cell’.
Principle:
The basic principle involved in the solar cells is based on the photovoltaic (PV) effect. When sun rays fall
on the two layers of semiconductor devices, potential difference betweenthe two layers is produced. This
potential difference causes flow of electrons and thus produces electricity.
Example: Silicon solar cell

Construction:
Solar cell consists of a p-type (such as Si doped with boron) and an n-type (such as Si doped with
phosphorous) semiconductor plates. They are in close contact with each other.
Working:
When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band
get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor. Thereby
potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (i.e. electric current).
The potential difference and hence current increases as more solar rays falls on the surface of the top
layer. Thus, when this p and n- layers are connected to an external circuit, electrons flow from n layer to
p-layer and hence current is generated.

3. Outline the recent developments in solar cell materials?

A typical solar cell consists of semiconducting materials such as p and n type silicon. In order to
achieve maximum solar to electricity efficient, innovative solar energy materials at low cost, are being
used.
Some solar cells
1. Organic solar cells
Organic materials are recently being used in the fabrication of solar cells, due to its flexibility and low
cos i fabrication on large scale. The following organic materials are used in the fabrication of solar cells.
Eg : Styrene sulphonate, Ethylene-dioxythiophene

2. Polymer solar cells

As compared to silicon based solar cells, polymer based solar cells are more efficient due to its
flexibility, light weight and cheap. The following polymer film is used in polymer solar cells.
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UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

Eg : Copper film that are coated over kaptox substrates

3. Thin film solar cells
Due to their narrow design (light weight, flexibility and ease of installation) second generation thin-film
solar cells are growing as one of the most promising PV technologies. This films are 350 times smaller
light absorbing layers compared to standard Si- panels.
Eg:i) Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
ii) Amorphous silicon
iii) Gallium arsenide (Ga-As)
iv) Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)
4. Perovskite solar cells
Among the next generation solar cells, hybrid metal hallide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) play an
important role due to their low price, thinner design, low temperature processing and excellent light
absorption properties.
Eg : Combined perovskite and Si-PV materials shows a record efficiency of upto 28%.
5. Quantum dot solar cells
Quantum dots are used as a solar energy absorbing materials in a quantum dot solar cell. Unlike bulk
materials Quantum dots, having band gap are capable of being turned across a broad range of energy
levels.
Eg : Quantum dots sensitized nano crystalline TiO2 film of solar cells have high power conversion
efficiency.
6. Solar Paints
Solar paint is another transformative technology. These can be coated over the polymer films.
Eg : Solar paint hydrogen generates energy from photovoltaic water splitting.

7. Thermo-radiative PV devices or Reverse solar panels

They can generate electricity at night by utilizing the heat irradiated from the panels to the optically
coupled deep space, which serves as a heat sink.

4. Explain dry cell with appropriate equations.

A cell without fluid component is called as dry cell. Example: Daniel Cell, Alkaline Battery.

Construction and working:

The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte consisting of NH4Cl, ZnCl2 and MnO2 to

7
UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

which starch is added to make it thick paste-like so that is less likely to leak. A graphite rod serves as the
cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte in the centre of the cell. The dry cell is a primary battery, since
no reaction is reversible by supplying electricity. Dry cell is very cheap to make. It gives voltage of about
1.5 V.

The electrode reactions are given below,

Anodic Reaction : Zn(s) ⎯⎯→Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− (Oxidation)

Cathodic Reaction : NH4+(aq) + MnO2 (s) + 2e−→MnO(OH)-(s) + NH3(aq) (Reduction)

Overall Reaction : Zn(s) + NH4−(aq) + MnO2 (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + MnO(OH)-(s) + NH3(aq)

ZnCl2 + 2 NH3 (aq) → [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2(s)

Disadvantages
(i) When current is drawn rapidly, drop in voltage occurs.
(ii) Since the electrolyte is acidic, Zn dissolves slowly even if it is not in use.

Uses:
It is used in Transistor, calculators, flash- lights, torches.

5. Sketch the construction and working of lead-acid batteries.

(Or)
State lead accumulators and discuss the construction and functioning of a lead accumulator?

The typical example for storage cell is Lead-acid storage cell. A secondary battery can
operate as a voltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a voltaic cell, it supplies electrical
energy and becomes run down. When it is recharged, the cell operates as an electrochemical cell.
Construction and working: A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6)

8
UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

connected in series to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, a number of Pb plates, used as anodes are
connected in parallel and a number of PbO2plates, used as cathodes are connected in parallel. The
plates are separated by insulators like rubber or glass fiber. The entire combination is immersed in
20% dil. H2SO4.

The cell is represented as:

Pb | PbSO4 || H2SO4 || PbSO4 | PbO2 | Pb

When the lead acid battery operates, the following cell reactions occur.

Anodic Reaction:
Oxidation reaction takes place at anode. The electrons are released from anode. Hence the anode is
called as negative anode and is represented as (-). Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions and gives two
electrons, which further combines with SO42−to form insoluble PbSO4
Pb(s) + SO24− → PbSO4(s) + 2e−
Cathodic Reaction:
Reduction takes place at cathode. Hence the cathode is called as positive cathode and is
PbO2 (s) + 4H++ SO42−+ 2e−→PbSO4(s) + 2H2O

Overall cell reaction during discharging:

Pb(s) + PbO2 (s) + 2H2SO4 (aq) →2 PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O + energy

From the above cell reactions, it is clear that PbSO4 is precipitated at both the electrodes and the
concentration of H2SO4 decreases. So, the battery needs recharging.

Overall cell reaction during recharging:

The cell can be recharged by passing electric current in the opposite direction. The electrode reaction
gets reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO2 on the cathode. The concentration of
H2SO4 also increases.

Advantages of lead–acid batteries:

9
 UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

i. It is made easily.
ii. It produces very high current.
iii. The self discharging rate is low.
iv. It works effectively even at low temperatures.
Uses:
i. Lead – acid batteries are used in cars, buses, trucks etc.
ii. It is used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, and power stations and hospitals.
iii. IT industry, educational institutions, laboratories etc.

6. Summarize lithium ion battery with suitable diagram.

Li-Ion Batteries consist of a three primary functional components.

Cathode – positive electrode – Layers of lithium cobalt oxide
Anode – negative elect ode – Layers of porous carbon (graphite)
Electrolyte – Polymer gel

Construction:
Both anode and cathode are dipped in a polymer gel and are separated by perforated plastic separator.

Working:
Charging
During charging Li+ion flows from the positive electrode (cathode) to negative electrode (anode)
through the polymer electrolyte. Electrons also flow from the positive electrode to negative electrode
through the wire. The electrons and Li+ions combine at the negative electrode and deposit there as Li
Charging reaction: LiCoO2 + C → Li1-xCoO2 + CLix

Discharging
During discharging, the Li+ions flow back through the electrolyte form negative electrode to the
positive electrode. Electrons also flow from the negative electrode to positive electrode through the wire.
The Li+ions an selectrons combine at the positive electrode and deposit there as Li

Discharging reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + CLix→LiCoO2 + C

Uses: It is used in cell phone, note PC, portable LCD TV, power tools and electric vehicles.
10
UNIT IV ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

7. Explain the construction and working of H2 -O2 fuel cells.

 Anode- Hydrogen gas
 Cathode- Oxygen gas
 Electrolyte- 25-40% KOH
 Electrode - Two porous carbon electrode impregnated with a finely Pt or Ni as catalyst.
 The cell develops the emf of 1.23 V.
 The efficiency of hydrogen – oxygen fuel cell is 70%.
 The operating temperature is 60-70 °C

Working:
Hydrogen (the fuel) is bubbled through the anode compartment, where it is oxidized. The oxygen (oxidizer)
is bubbled through the cathode compartment, where it is reduced.

Anode reaction : 2H2+ 4OH− → 4H2O + 4e−

Cathode reaction : O2+ 2H2O+ 4e− →4OH−
_________________________________________
Net reaction : 2H2+O2→ 2H2O
________________________________________
Advantages:
i. It is highly reliable.
ii. It does not cause any pollution.
iii. It produces portable water.
iv. It is used in space vehicles, submarines.
Disadvantages:
i. Hydrogen gas is expensive.
ii. As hydrogen is a gas, it is difficult to compress in liquid form.
iii. High pressure is needed when it is used in automobiles.
Applications:
i. It is used in Apollo spacecraft to produce electricity and water.
ii. It is used in military and other commercial vehicles of all types.
11
 Unit V NANOCHEMISTRY AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY

UNIT V - NANOCHEMISTRY AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY

PART A

1) List the properties of nanomaterials which differ it from atoms and bulk materials.
The property of nanomaterials differ from atoms and bulk materials due to
[Link] fraction of surface atoms
[Link] surface energy
[Link] confinement
[Link] imperfections
2) Define carbon nanotubes.
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure having a length-to-diameter
ratio greater than 10,00,000.

3) List any two important applications of gold nanoparticles in medicine.

i. Target drug delivery – Slow and selective release of drugs to the target organs.
ii. Gold nanoparticles as sensors – Gold nanopartilces undergo colour change during the transition of
nanoparticels.

4) Describe about nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles are the particles, the size of which ranges from 1 – 50 nm.

5) Describe about nanorods.

Nanorods are the material having an aspect ratio in the range 1 to 20nm with short
dimension of the material being 10-100 nm.

6) Name any four applications of nanomaterials.

i. Medcine - as Nano drugs, Nano-medibots
ii. Industries – as Catalyst and in water purification
iii. Electctronics – Nano radios and Quantum wires
iv. Bio – nanomaterials – as Bone cement, Bone plates and dental implants

7) Define Nanochemistry.
Nanochemistry is defined as the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic,
molecular and macromolecular scales.

8) Defend nano rod and nanowire are not same.

Nanorods are the material having an aspect ratio in the range 1 to 20nm with short dimension of the
material being 10-100 nm. while Nano-wire is a material having an aspect ratio ie., length to width ratio
greater than 20.

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 Unit V NANOCHEMISTRY AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY
9) Write any two applications of carbon nanotubes.
i. It is used in battery technology and in industries as catalyst support.
ii. It is used as fillers in composites and ICs.
iii. CNTs are efficiently used as drug carriers inside the body for drug delivery.

10) Describe nanomaterials.

Nanomaterials are the materials having components with the size less than 100 nm at least in
one dimension.

11) Name some important physical methods of synthesizing nanomaterials.

[Link] ablation
[Link] Deposition(CVD)
[Link]-deposition.

12) Write some characteristic properties of nanomaterials.

i. Nanomaterials are very strong and withstand extreme strain and tension.
ii. It possesses very high surface area compared to bulk materials.
iii. It have significantly lower melting points and appreciable reduced lattice constants.

13) Discover the importance of magic number.

Magic numbers are important because in some materials, certain collections of atoms are more
preferred due to energy minimization and exhibiting high stable structures and providing unique properties
to the materials. These collections of atom providing stable structures to the materials are called as MAGIC
NUMBER.
For example, one of the combinations of 55 atoms of gold provides stable structure and hence its magic
number is 55.

14) Define CVD.

CVD is chemical vapour deposition. It is a process of chemically reacting a volatile compound
of a material with other gases, to produce a non volatile solid that deposit automatically on a
suitably placed substrate.

15) State nanoclusters.

Nano clusters constitute an intermediate state of matter between molecules and bulk materials.
These are fine aggregates of atoms or molecules. Types: Atomic and Molecular clusters.

16) Write about nano material’s preparation by precipitation method.

Nanoparticals are synthesized by the precipitation reaction between the reactants in presence
of water soluble inorganic stabilizing agent.

17) Define nano-wire.

Nano-wire is a material having an aspect ratio ie., length to width ratio greater than 20. Nano
wires are also referred to as quantum wires.
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 Unit V NANOCHEMISTRY AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY

18) List any four nanomaterials.

[Link] nanotube
[Link]
[Link] dots
[Link]

19) State the characteristics of nanowires.

i. Nano-wires are one dimensional material.
ii. Conductivity of nanowire is less than that of the corresponding bulk materials.
iii. It exhibits distinct optical, chemical, thermal, and electrical properties due to this large surface area.

20) Name two important applications of nanowires?

i. Nanowires are used for enhancing mechanical properties of composites.
ii. It is also used to prepare active electronic components such as p-n junction and logic gates.
[Link] nanowire crossing are expected to play an important role in future
of digital computing.

21) Distinguish between bulk particles and nanoparticles.

[Link]. Nano particle Bulk particle
1. Size is less than 100 nm. Size is larger in micron size.
2. Collection of few molecules. Collection of thousands of molecules.
3. Surface area is more. Surface area is less.
4. Strength, hardness are more. Strength, hardness are less.

22) Distinguish between Single Walled CNT and Multi Walled CNT.
[Link]. Single Walled CNT Multi Walled CNT
Outer diameter: 2-20nm
Diameter: 1-2 nm; Inner diameter: 1-2nm
1.
Length: 1-100 µm Length: 1-100µm
Inter tubular distance: 0.34nm
2. Single layer of graphene. Multiple layer of graphene.
3. Catalyst is required for synthesis Can be produced without catalyst
4. Purity is poor. Purity is high.

23) Outline the laser ablation technique.

Laser ablation is a technique where pulses of laser radiation are used to evaporate the material from a
target, followed by the condensation on a substrate to produce thin films.
24) Define green nanotechnology.
Green nanotechnology is a branch of green technology that utilizes the concepts of green chemistry
and green engineering. Green technology encourages the replacement of existing products with new
nanoproducts that are more environmentally friendly throughout their life cycle.
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 Unit V NANOCHEMISTRY AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY
25) Name the two important goals of green nanotechnology.
[Link] nanomaterials and products without harming the environment or human health.
[Link] the product that benefit the environment either directly or indirectly
26) List the aims of green nanotechnology
[Link] of less energy during manufacturing
[Link] of recycle after use
[Link] of eco friendly materials
27. Summarize the benefits of green technology.
[Link] energy consumption
[Link] waste
[Link] product design and performance
[Link] business expenses
[Link]-friendly agriculture
[Link] water consumption
[Link] air pollution
[Link] carbon footprint

PART B

1. Illustrate the size dependent properties of nanomaterials.

Size-dependent properties of nanomaterials:
The properties of nanomaterials depend on their size. The reason
for which is mere reduction in their grain size.
The properties like hardness, strength, ductility, melting point and
densities vary for nanomaterials as shown in the figure.
a) Chemical properties– Catalytic properties – Excellent catalytic
property than bulk.
b) Diffusion properties – Sintering of nanomaterials occur at lower
temperature
c) Electrical properties – size dependent – minimum defects in
structure
d) Optical properties– Absorption and scattering of [Link] and gold color varies with size.
e) Magnetic properties– Silver and gold nano particles act as magnetic particles
f) Mechanical Properties – tough and hard- have wear and corrosion resistance than bulk

2. Categorize nanomaterials based on their dimension?

Classification of Nanomaterials:
Zero dimensional : Have diameter less than 100 nm. Eg : nanoparticles, nanoclusters and nanocrystals
One dimensional : One dimension in nanometer scale. Eg: nanofibre, nanorod, nanotube.
Two dimensional : Two dimensions in nanometer scale. Eg : films and coatings with nanometer thickness.
Three dimensional : Three dimensions in nanometer scale. Eg : powders, multilayer materials.

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3. Distinguish molecules, nanoparticles and bulk materials.

Difference Between Molecules, Nano Particles and Bulk Materials

[Link]. Properties Molecules Nano Particles Bulk Materials

1 Size is larger than Size is much larger
Size of the Size is much
molecules but smaller than the molecules
particle smaller
than bulk materials and nanoparticles.
2 Magnitude of
Few Angstroms Angstrom to nanometer
constituting Microns to millimeter
(Å) (10-10 m) 10-10 m to 10-9 m
particles
3 Number of
Two atoms for
constituting 2 to several thousands Infinite
molecules
particles
4 Electronic
Confined Confined Continuous
Structure
5 Well-defined
Geometric Well-defined structure Crystal structure
structure and
structure and predictable decides.
predictable
6 Example NaCl, HCl (NaCl)n Gold bar & Silver bar
In general, Nanomaterials Vs Bulk materials:
Nanomaterials possess:
1. Hardness : 5 times more
2. Wear resistnce : 200 times more
3. Electrical resistivity : 3 times more
4. Optical : unexpected property
5. Mechanical : less defects and hence more mechanical strength

4. Evaluate nanomaterial synthesis by laser ablation and chemical vapour deposition methods.
1. Laser ablation:
In the ablation technique, high-power laser pulse is used to evaporate the material from the target.
The stoichiometry of the material is protected in the interaction. The total mass ablated from the target per
laser pulse is referred to as the ablation rate.
When a beam of laser is allowed to irradiate the target, a supersonic jet of particles is evaporated
from the target surface. Simultaneously, an inert gas such as argon, helium is allowed to pass into the
reactor to sweep the evaporated particles from the furnace to the colder collector.

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The ablated species condense on the substrate placed opposite to the target. The ablation process takes
place in a vaccum chamber, either in vaccum or in the presence of some background gas.
Factors influence ablation process:
Laser source, Structural and chemical composition of target material, Chamber pressure, Flow and
pressure of the gas, Temperature, Distance between the target and the substrate.
Uses
i. Nanotubes having a diameter of 10 to 20 nm and 100µm can be produced by this method.
ii. Ceramic particles and coating can be produced.
iii. Other materials like silicon, carbon can be converted into nanoparticles by this method.
Advantages of laser ablation
i. The amount of heat required is less.
ii. It is very easy to operate.
iii. It is eco-friendly method because no solvent is used.
iv. The product, obtained by this method, is stable.
v. This process is economical.

2. Chemical Vapour Deposition

This process involves conversion of gaseous molecules into solid nanomaterial in the form of tubes,
wires or thin films. First the solid materials are converted into gaseous molecule and then deposited as
nanomaterials. Example - CNT [Link] CVD reactor consist of a higher temperature vacuum
furnace maintained at inert atmosphere. The solid substrate containing catalyst like nickel, cobalt, iron
supported on a substrate material like, silica, quarts is kept inside the furnace. The hydrocarbons such as
ethylene, acetylene and nitrogen cylinders are connected to the furnace. Carbon atoms, produced by the
decomposition at 1000°C, condense on the cooler surface of the catalyst. As this process is continues, CNT
is produced continuously.

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Types of Chemical Vapour Deposition Reactor

1. HOT-WALL CVD
Hot wall CVD reactors are usually tubular in form. Heating is done by surrounding the reactor with
resistance elements.
2. COLD WALL CVD
In cold wall CVD reactors, substances are directly heated inductively while chamber walls are air (or)
water cooled.
ADVANTAGES OF CVD
[Link], produced by this method, are highly pure. It is economical.
[Link], produced by this method, are defect free.
[Link] it is simple experiments, mass production in industry can be done without major difficulties

5. Explain the synthesis of nanomaterials by thermolysis method.

Thermolysis is characterized by subjecting the metal precursor (usually organometallic compounds in
oxidation state zero) at high temperatures together with a stabilizing agent. Nano-particles show an increase
in size relating to the temperature rise. This is due to the elimination of stabilizing molecule, generating a
greater aggregation of the particles.
(a) Hydrothermal synthesis
It involves crystallization of substances from high temperature aqueous solution at high vapour
pressure. Hydrothermal synthesis is usually performed below the super critical temperature of water
(374°C).

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Hydrothermal synthesis is performed in an apparatus consisting of a steel pressure vessel called autoclave
in which a nutrient is supplied along with water. A gradient of temperature is maintained at the opposite
ends of the growth chamber, so that the hotter end dissolves the nutrients and the cooler end causes seeds to
take additional growth.
(b) Solvothermal synthesis
Solvothermal synthesis involves the use of solvent under high temperature (between 100°C to 1000°C)
and moderate to high pressure (1atm to 10,000 atm) that facilitate the interaction of precursors during
synthesis.

Solvothermal synthesis of zinc oxide

A solvent like ethanol, methanol, 2-propanol is mixed with certain metal precursors and the solution
mixture is placed in an autoclave kept at relatively high temperature and pressure in an oven to carry out
the crystal growth. The pressure generated in the vessel, due to the solvent vapour, elevate the boiling point
of the solvent.

Zinc acetate dihydrate is dissolved in 2-propanol at 50°C. subsequently, the solution is cooled to 0°C
and NaOH is added to precipitate ZnO. The solution is then heated to 65°C to allow ZnO growth for some

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period of time. Then a capping agent (1-dodecanethiol) is injected into the suspension to arrest the growth.
The rod shaped ZnO nano-crystal is obtained.

6. Design a cell for the preparation of nanowires (or) Explain about template assisted nanomaterial
synthesis method.
Electro-deposition is an electrochemical method in which ions from the solution are deposited at the
surface of cathode. Template assisted electro-deposition is an important technique for synthesizing metallic
nanoparticles with controlled shape and size. Array of Nano-structured materials with specific
arrangements can be prepared by this method using an active template as a cathode.

The cell consists of a reference electrode, specially designed cathode and anode. All these electrodes
are connected with the battery through a voltmeter and dipped in an electrolytic solution of a soluble metal
as shown in figure. When the current is passed through the electrodes of templates, the metal ion from the
solution enter into the pores and get reduced at the cathode resulting in the growth of nanowire inside the
pores of the template. Example: Electrodeposition of Gold on Silver.

Advantages:
i. This method is relatively cheap and fast.
ii. Complex shaped object can be coated.
iii. The film or wire obtained is uniform
iv. Metal nanowires including Ni, Co, Cu and Au can be fabricated by this method.

7. Elaborate the synthesis, properties and applications of carbon nanotubes.

Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes can be synthesized by any one of the following methods.
1. Pyrolysis
Carbon nanotubes are synthesized by the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons such as acetylene at about 700
°C in the presence of Fe-silica or Fe-graphite catalyst under inert conditions.
2. Laser Evaporation
It involves vaporization of graphite target, containing small amount of cobalt and nickel, by
exposing it to an intense pulsed laser beam at higher temperature (1200 °C) in a quartz tube reactor. An

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inert gas such as argon (or) helium is simultaneously allowed to pass into the reactor to sweep the
evaporated carbon atoms from the furnace to the colder copper collector, on which they condense as carbon
nanotubes.

3. Carbon Arc Method

It is carried out by applying direct current (60- 100A and 20-25 V) arc between graphite electrodes
of 10-20 µm diameter.
4. Chemical Vapour Deposition
It involves decomposition of vapour of hydrocarbons such as methane, acetylene, ethylene, etc., at
high temperatures (100 °C) in presence of metal nanoparticle catalysts like nickel, cobalt, iron supported on
MgO or Al2O3. Carbon atoms produced by the decomposition condense on a cooler surface of the catalyst.
Properties of CNTs
[Link] are very strong, withstand extreme strain in tension and possess elastic flexibility.
[Link] atoms in a nanotube are continuously vibrating back and forth.
[Link] is highly conducting and behaves like metallic or semiconducting materials.
[Link] has very high thermal conductivity and kinetic properties.
Uses of CNTs
i. It is used in battery technology and in industries as catalyst.
ii. It is also used as light weight shielding materials for protecting electronic equipments.
iii. CNTs are used effectively inside the body for drug delivery.
iv. It is used in composites, ICs.

8. Explain the applications of nanoparticles

MEDICINE
1. Nano drugs
Nano materials are used as nano drugs & drug carriers for the cancer and TB therapy.
2. Laboratories on a chip
Nano technology is used in the production of electronic chips.
3. Nano-medibots
Nanoparticles function as nano-medibots that release anti-cancer drug and treat cancer.
4. Gold-coated nano shells

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It converts light into heat, enabling the destruction of tumours.
5. Gold nano particles as sensors
Gold nanoparticles undergo colour change during the transition of nanoparticles.
INDUSTRIES
1. As Catalyst: It depends on the surface area of the material. As nanoparticles have an appreciable
fraction of their atom at the surface, its catalytic activity is good.
Example: Bulk gold chemically inert, whereas gold particles have excellent catalytic property.
2. In water purification
Nano filtration makes se of nano porous membranes having pores smaller than 10 nm. Dissolved
solids and colour producing organic compounds can be filtered very easily from water. Magnetic nano
particles are effective in removing heavy metal contamination from waste water.
3. In fabric industry
The production of smart-clothing is possible by putting a nano coating on the fabric
(i) Embedding of nano-particles on fabric makes them stain repellent.
(ii) Socks with embedded silver nano-particles fills all the bacteria and makes it odour free.
4. In Automobiles
(i) Incorporation of small amount of nano-particles in car bumpers can make them stronger than steel.
(ii) Specially designed -particles are used as fuel additive to lower consumption in vehicles.
(iii) Nano catalysts (Catalytic Convertor) in vehicles exhaust reduce the release of toxic gases to the
environment.
5. In food industry
The inclusion of nano-particles in food contact materials can be used to generate novel type of
packing materials and containers
6. In energy sector
In solar power, nano-technology reduces the cost of photovoltaic cells by 10 to 100 times.
ELECTRONICS
[Link] wires are found to have high electrical conductivity.
[Link] integrated memory circuits have been found to be effective devices.
iii.A transistor, called NOMFET, (Nano particle organic memory field effect transistor) is created by
combining gold nano particles with organic molecules.
[Link] wires are used to build transistors without p- n junctions.
[Link] radios are the other important devices, using carbon nanotubes.
[Link] (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), performs both as switches and as
amplifiers
BIO-MATERIALS (BIOLOGY)
[Link] materials are used as bone cement and bone plates in humans.
[Link] is also used as a material for joint replacements.
[Link] technology is being used to develop miniature video camera attached to a blind person's glasses.
[Link] materials are also used in the manufacture of some components like heart valves and contact lenses.
[Link] materials are also used in dental implants and breast implants.
[Link] are used as light weight shielding materials for protecting electronic equipments against
electromagnetic radiation

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9. Summarize the concepts and importance of green nano technology.

Green nanotechnology is a branch of green technology that utilizes the concepts of green chemistry
and green engineering. Green technology encourages the replacement of existing products with new
nanoproducts that are more environmentally friendly throughout their life cycle.

Goals:
[Link] nanomaterials and products without harming the environment or human health.
[Link] the product that benefit the environment either directly or indirectly
Aims:
[Link] of less energy during manufacturing
[Link] of recycle after use
[Link] of eco friendly materials
The main benefits of green technology are:
i. Reduced energy consumption
ii. Reduced waste
iii. Improved product design and performance
iv. Reduced business expenses
v. Eco-friendly agriculture
vi. Reduced water consumption
vii. Reduced air pollution
viii. Reduced carbon footprint
Applications:
Nano green products for water treatment:
Water purification methods are chemical intensive and are costly as well as harmful to the environment.
But, nanomaterials based adsorbents, catalysts for water technologies can create eco – friendly solutions for
the water treatment.
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Nanomaterials can be used for detecting and sensing pollutants, treating and remediating
contaminants and preventing pollution. Nanomaterials can be used in meshes, filters, clays, ceramics,
adsorbents,catalysts and zeolites.
Example:
CNT: CNT have high permeability, increased surface area and good thermal and mechanical
stability. It removes harmful components like bacteria, sediments, viruses and organic contaminants.

2. Nano – green technology for renewable energy

Some novel solar cell materials like titanium dioxide, cadmium telluride, quantum dots and silver with a
polymer that can absorb solar energy. The cost of production is much less.
Nano particles, deposited in quantum dots, nano particle ink, silver cells and nanowires, produces highly
stable laminate layers for solar cell protection.
3. Nanotechnology for environmental remediation and waste management.
There are several remediation technique that use nanotechnology.
Example:
Solar photo catalysis using titanium dioxide nanoparticles, can degrade pollutants like volatile organic
compounds and nitrous oxides and is used in cement and commercial plants.
4. Nanotechnology in chemical substitution
Nanotechnology products are very good substitutes for harmful chemicals such as highly toxic chemicals
and heavy metals.
Example: Nanoparticles of silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, magnesium dioxide and zinc oxide can
replace chemical flame retardants such as bromine, which is highly toxic.
Environmental concerns with nanotechnology:
1. It is very difficult to keep track of nanoparticles once they are released into the environment. So the
impacts of nanoparticles on ecosystems cannot be determined easily.
2. Long-term exposure to low , highly dispersed doses of nanoparticles may cause a considerable impact.

Unit Prepared by Signature Approved by

I Dr. R. Anithadevi
II Dr. R. Narendar
III Dr. S. Suganya
IV Dr. B. Shanthi
Dr. C. Ravichandran
V Dr. N. V. Prabhu HoD - Chemistry

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