INDIAN

HISTORY
NOTES

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What is History?
The word history is derived from the ancient Greek word ‘Historia’, which translates into “an
inquiry”. Thus the knowledge acquired by the investigation of the events of the past is history.
In simple terms, it is the enquiry of the ‘human past’.
Classification of the timeline in historical studies
Historians have classified the study of history into the following divisions based on the tools
used in different ages, knowledge of writing and modes of communication: –
1. Pre-history – It consists of the events that occurred before theinvention of writing. It is
further classified as: –
• Palaeolithic age or the Old Stone Age: The Greek word ‘lith’ refers to stone. It was the
time when people first started using stone tools. It extends from 2,500,000 Million years
ago (MYA) to 11,700 years ago. In this age, the tools used were unpolished and rough
stones. This age features the evolution of proto-humans to humans.
• Mesolithic Period, or the Middle Stone Age – extends from 11,700 years ago to 6000
BCE. The time frame is different for different regions in the world. There is a prevalence
of microliths (miniature stone tools) in this age, and by its end, people had started
domesticating animals and cultivating plants.
• Neolithic Period or the New Stone Age: The beginning of cultivation and the end of the
hunting and gathering phase is the distinguishing feature of this age. It generally extends
from 6000 BCE to 1000 BCE in most regions of the world. People used microlithic blades,
polished stones, and weapons made of bones. People started living in rectangular or
circular houses.
• Chalcolith Period or the Stone-Copper Age: The prefix ‘Chalco’ comes from the Greek
word khalkos, meaning ‘copper’. At around 3000 BCE, people started using copper along
with stone tools. This was the first time when metal was used. This led to an
improvement in cultivation techniques, and people began growing cereals, pulses and
cotton, apart from increased domestication of animals.
2. Proto-history – refers to the civilisation phase of history before the invention of writing.
Such civilisations find mention in the writings of other contemporary literate cultures.
Even those cultures that had some mode of written communication but did not develop
into fully functional languages are also classified as Proto-historical periods.
For example – the Indus valley civilisation (IVC) valley script remains deciphered, but it is
mentioned in the writings of the Mesopotamian civilisation. Therefore, it is classified as a proto-
historical civilisation.

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 3. History – It consists of events that occurred after the invention of writing. Therefore, it
enables us to reconstruct the actual events of the past on the basis of written records
and archaeological sources. For example – the Edicts of the Ashokan period are an
essential source for reconstructing the society, religion, polity and economy of the past.
Classification of the Historical Period:
The Historical period is further divided into loosely defined broad sub-periods, wiz. Ancient
History, Medieval History, Modern Age, and the contemporary age.
1. Ancient History: It is generally classified as the history before the invention of paper. In
this age, we generally study inscriptions on metal plates, rocks and monuments. It also
includes written artefacts on leaves.
2. Medieval History: Generally, the period between 500AD and 1500AD is considered
medieval history. However, in India, Medieval history extends from the 11th Century to
the middle of the 18th Century (1750). This period saw the introduction and gradual
adoption of paper. Therefore the text records increased dramatically, which is the
primary source of reconstruction of medieval history. These include judicial records, a
record of taxes and accounts, chronicles and religious texts.
3. Modern History: In European History, the period after the end of the middle ages
(1500AD) is referred to as the Modern era. Similarly, in the study of Indian history, the
age after the decline of the Mughals till the Indian Independence is known as Modern
History. It roughly corresponds to the British rule in India.
4. Contemporary History: Indian History after the Indian Independence in 1947 is generally
known as Post-Independence era or Contemporary History. However, many world
historians include the history of the world wars too in this period.

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Chronology of Ancient India

Dynasty/Period Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Indus Valley ~2500 BCE - Not applicable Urban culture, no Harappa,

Civilization ~1750 BCE rulers known Mohenjo-Daro

Vedic Period ~1500 BCE - Aryan Tribes Janapadas, Ganga-Yamuna

~600 BCE Mahajanapadas plains

Mahajanapadas ~600 BCE - Various tribal Bimbisara, Magadha,

~321 BCE chieftains Ajatashatru Kosala, Avanti
(Magadha)

Magadha Dynasties (Ancient Kingdoms)

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Haryanka ~544 BCE - 413 Bimbisara Ajatashatru, Rajgir,

Dynasty BCE Udayin Pataliputra

Shishunaga ~413 BCE - ~345 Shishunaga Kalashoka Pataliputra

Dynasty BCE

Nanda Dynasty ~345 BCE - ~321 Mahapadma Dhana Nanda Pataliputra

BCE Nanda

Maurya Empire

Time Period 321 BCE - 185

BCE

Founder: Chandragupta Maurya

Prominent Rulers: Ashoka,

Bindusara

Capital: Pataliputra

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Post-Mauryan Dynasties

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Shunga Dynasty ~185 BCE - ~73 Pushyamitra Agnimitra Shunga Pataliputra

BCE Shunga

Kanva Dynasty ~73 BCE - ~28 Vasudeva Kanva None significant Pataliputra
BCE

Indo-Greeks ~200 BCE - ~10 Demetrius (in Menander Taxila, Gandhara

CE India) (Milinda)

Shaka ~1st BCE - 4th Maues Rudradaman I Western India

(Scythians) CE

Kushan Dynasty ~1st CE - ~3rd Kujula Kadphises Kanishka Peshawar,

CE Mathura

South Indian Kingdoms (Sangam Period)

Kingdom Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Cheras ~300 BCE - 3rd Not well- Senguttuvan Kerala, Tamil

CE documented Nadu

Cholas ~300 BCE - 13th Karikala Chola Rajaraja I (later Tamil Nadu
CE period)

Pandyas ~300 BCE - 3rd Not well- Nedunjeliyan Madurai

CE documented

Gupta Empire (Golden Age)

Time Period 320 CE - ~550

CE

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Founder: Chandragupta I

Prominent Rulers: Samudragupta, Chandragupta II

(Vikramaditya)

Capital: Pataliputra, Ujjain

Post-Gupta Period (Late Ancient Period)

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Harsha ~606 CE - 647 CE Harshavardhana Harsha Kannauj

Empire

Chalukyas 543 CE - 753 CE Pulakesin I Pulakesin II Vatapi

(South) (Badami)

Pallavas ~275 CE - 897 CE Simhavarman Narasimhavarman I Kanchipuram

(South) (Mamallan)

Post-Gupta Period (550 CE – 750 CE)

Dynasty Time Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Period

Pushyabhuti Dynasty 606 CE – Naravardhana Harshavardhana Kannauj

(Harsha Empire) 647 CE

Maitrakas ~475 CE – Senapati Dharasena I Vallabhi (Gujarat)

776 CE Bhatarka

Maukharis ~550 CE – Harivarman Ishvaravarman Kannauj, Ganga-

7th CE Yamuna Doab

Later Guptas ~550 CE – Krishnagupta Adityasena, Magadha

8th CE Madhavagupta

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Chalukyas of Badami 543 CE – Pulakesin I Pulakesin II Vatapi (Badami)
753 CE

Pallavas ~275 CE – Simhavarman Narasimhavarman I Kanchipuram

897 CE (Mamallan)

Early Medieval Period (750 CE – 1206 CE)

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Pala Empire 750 CE – Gopala Dharmapala, Devapala Bengal, Bihar

1161 CE

Pratihara Empire 730 CE – Nagabhata Mihira Bhoja, Kannauj

1036 CE I Mahendrapala

Rashtrakutas 753 CE – 982 Dantidurga Amoghavarsha I Manyakheta

CE

Cholas 9th CE – 13th Vijayalaya Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Thanjavur

CE Chola I

Chalukyas of 973 CE – Tailapa II Vikramaditya VI Kalyani

Kalyani 1190 CE

Ghaznavids 971 CE – Sabuktigin Mahmud of Ghazni Ghazni,

1186 CE Northwest India

Delhi Sultanate (1206 CE – 1526 CE)

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Mamluk (Slave) 1206 CE – Qutb-ud-din Iltutmish, Razia Sultana Delhi

Dynasty 1290 CE Aibak

Khilji Dynasty 1290 CE – Jalal-ud-din Alauddin Khilji Delhi

1320 CE Khilji

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Tughlaq Dynasty 1320 CE – Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad bin Delhi
1414 CE Tughlaq Tughlaq, Firoz Shah

Sayyid Dynasty 1414 CE – Khizr Khan Mubarak Shah Delhi

1451 CE

Lodi Dynasty 1451 CE – Bahlul Lodi Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Delhi

1526 CE Lodi

Regional Kingdoms and Deccan Sultanates (1206 CE – 1526 CE)

Kingdom/Dynasty Time Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Period

Vijayanagara 1336 CE – Harihara I & Krishnadevaraya, Hampi

Empire 1646 CE Bukka Raya Devaraya II

Bahmani 1347 CE – Ala-ud-din Hasan Muhammad Shah I, Gulbarga, Bidar

Sultanate 1527 CE Bahman Shah Mahmud Gawan

Rajput Kingdoms ~8th CE – Various Clan Rana Sanga, Chittor, Mewar

16th CE Leaders Prithviraj Chauhan

Bengal Sultanate 1342 CE – Shamsuddin Ilyas Ghiyasuddin Azam Bengal

1576 CE Shah Shah

Deccan 1527 CE – Fragmented Ibrahim Adil Shah II Bijapur,

Sultanates 1686 CE Bahmani Empire (Bijapur) Ahmadnagar,
Golconda

Transition to the Mughal Era (1526 CE – 1707 CE)

Dynasty Time Period Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Mughal 1526 CE – 1857 Babur Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Delhi, Agra
Empire CE Aurangzeb

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Post-Mughal Period (1707 CE – 1857 CE)

Dynasty/Power Time Founder Prominent Rulers Capital/Region

Period

Maratha 1674 CE – Shivaji Balaji Baji Rao, Madhavrao I, Pune, Satara

Empire 1818 CE Maharaj Baji Rao II

Sikh Empire 1799 CE – Maharaja Ranjit Singh Lahore

1849 CE Ranjit Singh

Rajput ~18th CE – Various Maharaja Jai Singh II (Jaipur), Jaipur, Mewar,

Kingdoms 19th CE Rajput Rana Bahadur Singh (Mewar) Marwar
Leaders

Hyderabadi 1724 CE – Asaf Jahi Nizam-ul-Mulk, Mir Mahbub Hyderabad

Sultanate 1948 CE Ali Pasha

Kingdom of 1399 CE – Yaduraya Tipu Sultan, Sultan Hyder Ali Mysore,

Mysore 1799 CE Srirangapatna

Bengal 17th CE – Sulaiman Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Murshidabad

Sultanate 18th CE Khan Karrani Khan

British Governors-General of Bengal (1773–1858)

Name Period Notable Contributions/Events

Warren 1773 – First Governor-General of Bengal; implemented reforms,

Hastings 1785 including the Regulating Act of 1773 and reforms in revenue
collection.

Sir John 1785 – Acted as Governor-General; focused on consolidating British

Macpherson 1786 power and dealing with unrest in India.

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Lord 1786 – Introduced land revenue reforms (Permanent Settlement of
Cornwallis 1793 Bengal), aimed at stabilizing the economy.

Sir William 1828 – First Governor-General of India, post-Governor-General of

Bentinck 1835 Bengal; known for social reforms like banning Sati (1829).

Lord Amherst 1823 – Led during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826); focused
1828 on consolidating British control in India.

Governors-General of India (1773 – 1858)

Name Period Notable Contributions/Events

Warren 1773 – First Governor-General of India; major reforms in administration

Hastings 1785 and judicial systems; the Maratha Wars and the Regulating Act of
1773.

Lord 1786 – Reform of the revenue system (Permanent Settlement); led

Cornwallis 1793 campaigns against Tipu Sultan.

Lord Minto I 1807 – Known for his diplomacy with the Marathas and Rajas of Mysore;
1813 opened communication with the East India Company.

Lord Hastings 1813 – Oversaw the end of the Third Maratha War and the annexation of
1823 Mysore, leading to expanded British control.

Lord William 1828 – Introduced social reforms such as banning Sati (1829); focus on
Bentinck 1835 education and economic reforms.

Lord Auckland 1836 – Oversaw the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842); his decisions
1842 led to major military setbacks for the British.

Lord 1842 – Known for his policies during the First Anglo-Afghan War and his
Ellenborough 1844 stance against British military expeditions.

Lord Hardinge 1844 – Played a major role in the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849);
I 1848 oversaw the annexation of Punjab.

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Lord 1848 – Introduced the doctrine of lapse, which led to the annexation of
Dalhousie 1856 many Indian states; major infrastructural improvements like the
railway and telecommunications.

Lord Canning 1856 – Last Governor-General of India before the Indian Rebellion of
1858 1857; his policies led to the transition from East India Company
rule to direct British Crown control.

Viceroys of India (1858 – 1947)

Name Period Notable Contributions/Events

Lord Canning 1858 – First Viceroy of India; dealt with the aftermath of the Indian
1862 Rebellion of 1857 and restored order.

Lord Elgin 1862 – Managed the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857; involved
1863 in Second Anglo-Afghan War.

Lord 1864 – Focused on administrative consolidation after the Rebellion and

Lawrence 1869 Indian territorial stability.

Lord Mayo 1869 – Introduced land reforms; assassinated during a visit to the
1872 Andaman Islands in 1872.

Lord 1872 – Focused on administrative stability; dealt with Afghanistan and the
Northbrook 1876 Anglo-Zulu War.

Lord Lytton 1876 – Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India during his rule;
1880 implemented controversial policies like the Arms Act and Ilbert
Bill.

Lord Ripon 1880 – Introduced significant reforms in local self-government and Indian
1884 Councils Act of 1892.

Lord Dufferin 1884 – Known for promoting Indian participation in the legislative
1888 councils; promoted reform and development.

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Lord 1888 – Focused on consolidating British rule in India and improving
Lansdowne 1894 education and infrastructure.

Lord Curzon 1899 – Known for the Partition of Bengal (1905); his policies led to
1905 significant unrest and political movements in India.

Lord Minto 1905 – Passed the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) to include more Indians
1910 in governance; promoted reforms.

Lord 1910 – Oversaw the Delhi Durbar (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to
Hardinge II 1916 Delhi; increased repression of nationalist activities.

Lord 1916 – Led during World War I; passed the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
Chelmsford 1921 in 1919 that increased Indian representation.

Lord Reading 1921 – Oversaw the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919); repressive policies
1926 during Gandhi’s early movements.

Lord Irwin 1926 – Known for his role in Salt March (1930) and the early stages of
1931 Civil Disobedience.

Lord 1931 – Repression of Civil Disobedience Movement and dealt with unrest
Willingdon 1936 in the provinces.

Lord 1936 – Played a role during World War II and Quit India Movement
Linlithgow 1943 (1942).

Lord Wavell 1943 – Known for efforts towards independence and the Simla
1947 Conference (1945), which saw key negotiations between Indian
leaders and the British.

Lord 1947 Demarcation between India and Pakistan

Mountbatten

Prehistoric Era
Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
• Period: 2.5 million years ago – 10,000 BCE
• Key Features:

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 • Early human existence; hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
• Stone tools used for hunting and gathering.
• Sites: Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Hunsgi (Karnataka).
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)
• Period: 10,000 BCE – 8,000 BCE
• Key Features:
• Transition from hunting-gathering to food production.
• Microlith tools (smaller, sharper tools).
• Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh).
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)
• Period: 8,000 BCE – 2,500 BCE
• Key Features:
• Beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals.
• Settled life, pottery, and weaving.
• Sites: Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir).
Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age)
• Period: 2,500 BCE – 1,000 BCE
• Key Features:
• Use of copper tools alongside stone tools.
• Settled villages and early trade.
• Sites: Jorwe (Maharashtra), Ahar (Rajasthan).

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Bronze Age Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
• Period: 2,600 BCE – 1,900 BCE (Mature Phase)
• Key Features:
• Urban centers like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal.
• Planned cities with drainage systems.
• Use of bronze tools, trade, and undeciphered script.
Decline of IVC
• Period: 1,900 BCE – 1,300 BCE
• Reasons for decline:
• Environmental changes, shifting rivers, or invasions.

Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Era)

Period: 1,500 BCE – 1,000 BCE
• Key Features:
• Arrival of Aryans; Rigveda composed.
• Pastoral economy, worship of nature deities (Agni, Indra).
• Tribal society organized into janas.

Later Vedic Period

Period: 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE
• Key Features:
• Expansion into the Ganges plain.
• Stratification of society (Varna system).
• Emergence of rituals and sacrificial practices.
• Texts: Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda.

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Second Urbanization (Mahajanapada Era)
Period: 600 BCE – 322 BCE
• Key Features:
• Emergence of 16 Mahajanapadas (e.g., Magadha, Kosala, Avanti).
• Rise of cities like Rajgir, Kashi, and Pataliputra.
• Growth of heterodox sects: Jainism and Buddhism.
• Key Figures: Mahavira (Jainism), Gautama Buddha (Buddhism).

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PRE – MAURYAN DYNASTY
Haryanka Dynasty (c. 684 BCE – 413 BCE)
• Capital: Rajagriha (modern Rajgir).
• Key Rulers:
• Bimbisara (544 BCE – 492 BCE):
• Expanded Magadha by conquering Anga.
• Allied with Kosala and Vajji through marriage.
• Patronized Gautama Buddha.
• Ajatashatru (492 BCE – 460 BCE):
• Son of Bimbisara; known for conquering Vajji.
• Introduced military innovations (catapults and chariots).
• Udayin (460 BCE – 440 BCE):
• Built Pataliputra (modern Patna) as the new capital.
Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BCE – 345 BCE)
• Overthrew the Haryankas.
• Key Rulers:
• Shishunaga:
• Defeated Avanti, incorporating it into Magadha.
• Established a temporary capital at Vaishali.
• Kalasoka: Convened the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
Nanda Dynasty (345 BCE – 322 BCE)
• Key Rulers:
• Mahapadma Nanda:
• Centralized power, earning the title "Destroyer of Kshatriyas."
• Amassed immense wealth and military strength.
• Dhana Nanda:

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 • Last Nanda ruler; overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of
Chanakya (Kautilya).

Mauryan Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE)

Founder: Chandragupta Maurya.
• Key Rulers:
• Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE – 297 BCE):
• Unified northern India, defeating Seleucus Nicator.
• Established a centralized administration.
• Bindusara (297 BCE – 273 BCE):
• Extended the empire to southern India.
• Maintained friendly relations with Hellenistic kingdoms.
• Ashoka the Great (273 BCE – 232 BCE):
• Conquered Kalinga but adopted Buddhism after witnessing its
destruction.
• Promoted dharma and non-violence; spread Buddhism across Asia.
Decline:
• Weak successors, internal rebellion, and invasion by Bactrians led to the downfall.

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Post-Mauryan Period (185 BCE – 320 CE)
Shunga Dynasty (185 BCE - 73 BCE)

Ruler Time Period Significance

Pushyamitra Shunga 185 BCE – 149 - Founder of the Shunga Dynasty after overthrowing the
BCE Mauryan king Brihadratha.
- Revived Brahmanical traditions and supported Hinduism.
- Conducted Ashvamedha sacrifices.
- Successfully repelled Greek invasions.

Agnimitra Shunga 149 BCE – 141 - Son of Pushyamitra, known from Kalidasa’s
BCE Malavikagnimitram.
- Strengthened political control and maintained stability.
Vasujyeshtha 141 BCE – 131 - Little historical evidence; likely focused on regional
BCE consolidation.
Bhadraka 131 BCE – 120 - Mentioned in limited sources; period marked by internal
BCE strife.
Pulindaka 120 BCE – 110 - Rule characterized by weakening central authority and
BCE rising regional powers.

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 Ghoseha (Ghosha) 110 BCE – 98 - Presided over a declining empire with fragmented
BCE control.
Vajramitra 98 BCE – 88 BCE - Attempted to hold Shunga territories but faced
challenges from regional powers.

Devabhuti 88 BCE – 73 BCE - Last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty.

- Overthrown by Vasudeva Kanva, marking the end of the
Shungas.

Kanva Dynasty (73 BCE - 28 BCE)

Ruler Significance
Time Period
Vasudeva Kanva 73 BCE – 67 - Founder of the Kanva Dynasty after overthrowing
BCE Devabhuti, the last Shunga ruler.
- Maintained control over central India.
- Continued support for Brahmanical traditions.
Bhumimitra Kanva 67 BCE – 60 - Son of Vasudeva; ensured stability and
BCE administrative continuity.
Narayana Kanva 60 BCE – 50 - Maintained the weakened Kanva rule amid rising
BCE external pressures.
Susarman Kanva - Last ruler of the Kanva Dynasty.
50 BCE – 28
- Overthrown by the Satavahanas, marking the end of
BCE
the dynasty.

Indo-Greeks (Yavanas) (200 BCE - ~10 CE)

Rulers Time Period Significance

Demetrius I 200 BCE – 180 - Founder of the Indo-Greek rule in India.
BCE - Invaded and controlled parts of Northwestern India.
- Known for blending Greek and Indian cultures.

Menander I 165 BCE – 130 - Most famous Indo-Greek ruler.

(Milinda) BCE - Converted to Buddhism, as noted in Milinda Panha.
- Promoted Greco-Buddhist art and philosophy.

Apollodotus I 180 BCE – 160 - Expanded Indo-Greek influence in Sindh and

BCE Western India.
- Introduced bilingual coins, combining Greek and
Indian languages.

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 Antialcidas 115 BCE – 95 - Diplomatic ties with Indian rulers; mentioned in the
BCE Heliodorus Pillar.

Heliocles II 95 BCE – 80 - Last significant Indo-Greek ruler.

BCE - Decline of Indo-Greek power due to invasions by
Shakas and Kushanas.

Shaka Dynasty (Scythians) (~1st Century BCE - 4th Century CE)

Ruler Time Period Significance

- Founder of Shaka rule in India. - Established dominance
Maues
1st Century BCE in Gandhara and Punjab regions. - Introduced coins
(Moga)
featuring Greek and Indian cultural symbols.
- Expanded Shaka control over Northwestern India. - Era
Azes I 57 BCE – 35 BCE is associated with the beginning of the Vikrama Samvat
calendar.
- Strengthened trade links with the Silk Road. - Continued
Azes II 35 BCE – 12 BCE
cultural synthesis with local traditions.
- Controlled parts of Western India, including Gujarat and
Maharashtra. - Issued numerous coins and inscriptions
Nahapana 1st Century CE
(e.g., the Nashik inscriptions). - Engaged in conflicts with
the Satavahanas.
- Most prominent Shaka ruler. - Known for the Junagadh
Rudradaman Rock Inscription in Sanskrit. - Restored the Sudarshana
130 CE – 150 CE
I Lake and promoted Sanskrit literature. - Consolidated
Shaka power in Western India.
Rudrasimha - Continued Shaka rule in Western India but faced
150 CE – 190 CE
I increasing resistance from local powers.

• The Shakas were significant for their contributions to trade, coinage, and the cultural
amalgamation of Indian and Hellenistic traditions. They played a key role in shaping the
political and economic history of Western and Northwestern India before being overtaken
by the Satavahanas and later the Guptas.

Parthians (Pahlavas) (~1st Century BCE - ~1st Century CE)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period
Gondophares 20 CE – - Founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. - Established control over
I 50 CE parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northwestern India. -

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 Time
Ruler Significance
Period
Mentioned in Christian traditions as the ruler associated with St.
Thomas the Apostle's visit to India.
- Successor of Gondophares, maintained Indo-Parthian territories. -
50 CE –
Abdagases I Issued coins with bilingual inscriptions, reflecting Greek and Indian
65 CE
influences.
1st - Expanded and consolidated Parthian control in parts of Balochistan
Orthagnes Century and Sindh. - Promoted trade and cultural interactions along the Silk
CE Road.
2nd
- Faced increasing resistance from local rulers and invasions by the
Pacores Century
Kushanas, leading to the decline of Indo-Parthian power.
CE

• The Parthians (Indo-Parthians) were significant for their role as a bridge between
Hellenistic and Central Asian influences in India. They contributed to cultural synthesis
and facilitated trade along the Silk Road. However, their rule was relatively short-lived,
overshadowed by the rising Kushana Empire.

Kushan Dynasty (~1st Century CE - ~3rd Century CE)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period
- Founder of the Kushana Empire. - Unified several Central Asian
Kujula 30 CE –
tribes under Kushana rule. - Established control over Bactria and
Kadphises 80 CE
expanded into Northwestern India.
- Strengthened Kushana dominance in Central Asia and the Indian
Vima Taktu 80 CE –
subcontinent. - Consolidated territories acquired by Kujula
(Sadashkana) 95 CE
Kadphises.
- Expanded the empire further into Northern India, including parts
95 CE –
Vima Kadphises of the Gangetic plain. - Introduced gold coins, reflecting economic
127 CE
prosperity and trade links.
- Most renowned Kushana ruler. - Convened the 4th Buddhist
127 CE – Council in Kashmir, promoting Mahayana Buddhism. - Supported
Kanishka I
150 CE Gandhara and Mathura art. - Strengthened trade along the Silk
Road and issued coins with diverse cultural symbols.
150 CE – - Continued Kanishka’s policies of cultural and religious patronage.
Huvishka
190 CE - Supported both Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
- Last significant ruler of the Kushana Dynasty. - Witnessed the
190 CE –
Vasudeva I beginning of the empire’s decline due to internal strife and external
230 CE
invasions by the Sasanians.

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 • The Kushana Dynasty played a crucial role in shaping Indian culture, art, and religion.
They were instrumental in promoting Mahayana Buddhism, fostering artistic
advancements in Gandhara and Mathura, and serving as key players in Silk Road trade
networks. Their decline marked the rise of regional powers and the Gupta Empire in
Northern India.

Satavahana Dynasty (~1st Century BCE - 3rd Century CE)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period
1st - Founder of the Satavahana dynasty. - Established rule in the
Simuka Century Deccan region after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. - Promoted
BCE both Vedic and Buddhist traditions.
- Expanded the Satavahana kingdom into Madhya Pradesh and
70 BCE –
Satakarni I Maharashtra. - Performed Vedic rituals like Ashvamedha
60 BCE
sacrifices.
20 CE – - Known for compiling the Gatha Saptashati, a collection of
Hala
24 CE Prakrit poems. - Promoted literature and arts.
- Most prominent Satavahana ruler. - Defeated the Shakas and
Gautamiputra 106 CE – restored Satavahana power. - Patron of both Vedic and Buddhist
Satakarni 130 CE traditions. - Controlled vast territories, from the Western Ghats to
Central India.
- Strengthened the empire’s economic and cultural foundations. -
Vasisthiputra 130 CE –
Supported trade with the Roman Empire and issued a large
Pulumavi 160 CE
variety of coins.
- Last significant ruler of the dynasty. - Revived Satavahana
Yajna Sri 165 CE –
power and regained control over the western Deccan. - Promoted
Satakarni 195 CE
maritime trade and Buddhism.

• The Satavahanas were significant for their contributions to Indian culture, literature, and
trade. They acted as a cultural bridge between North and South India and were known for
promoting Buddhism while maintaining Vedic traditions. Their decline marked the rise of
regional powers like the Ikshvakus and Western Kshatrapas.

Western Kshatrapas (~1st Century CE - 5th Century CE)

• Successors of the Shakas in Gujarat and Malwa.
• Famous ruler: Rudrasimha I.

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NADHIYA SULTHANA
Chedi/Kalinga Dynasties (~1st Century BCE - 4th Century CE)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Most prominent ruler of the Mahameghavahana dynasty in

Kalinga. - Known for the Hathigumpha inscription, detailing
1st Century
Kharavela his conquests and achievements. - Restored Kalinga’s power
BCE
after the Mauryan conquest. - Promoted Jainism and built
infrastructure, including irrigation and temples.

2nd - Ruled Kalinga after the decline of the Mauryas. -

Mahameghavahana Century Consolidated power and fostered economic prosperity
Kings BCE – 1st through trade and agriculture. - Supported cultural and
Century CE religious developments, particularly Jainism.

- Kalinga became a contested region between the

Later Regional Post 1st
Satavahanas, Guptas, and local dynasties. - Continued to
Rulers Century CE
serve as a major trade hub, with links to Southeast Asia.

Gupta Empire (320 CE – 550 CE) Known as the "Golden Age of India."

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

240 CE – - Founder of the Gupta dynasty. - Established a small kingdom in

Sri Gupta
280 CE the Ganga Basin, laying the foundation for future expansion.

280 CE – - Consolidated the Gupta territories. - Played a transitional role in

Ghatotkacha
319 CE the rise of the dynasty.

- Married Kumaradevi of the Licchavi clan, significantly enhancing

319 CE –
Chandragupta I Gupta prestige. - Assumed the title Maharajadhiraja (King of
335 CE
Kings). - Marked the beginning of the Gupta Era (319–320 CE).

- Known as the "Napoleon of India" for his extensive conquests. -

335 CE –
Samudragupta Expanded the empire across North India. - Patron of arts, music,
380 CE
and literature. - Composed the Prayag Prashasti inscription.

Chandragupta II 380 CE – - Oversaw the "Golden Age" of India. - Promoted science, arts,
(Vikramaditya) 415 CE and literature, with scholars like Kalidasa and Aryabhata in his

27
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

court. - Defeated the Shakas and expanded the empire to Western

India. - Promoted trade with the Roman Empire.

- Maintained the empire’s prosperity and stability. - Founded the

415 CE –
Kumaragupta I Nalanda University. - Issued coins celebrating prosperity and
455 CE
victories.

- Successfully repelled invasions by the Huns (Hephthalites). - Last

455 CE –
Skandagupta significant Gupta ruler. - Faced economic challenges and internal
467 CE
decline.

- Decline of the empire due to Hun invasions and weakening

Later Gupta 467 CE –
central authority. - Regional powers emerged, marking the end of
Rulers 550 CE
the Gupta era.

Significance of the Gupta Dynasty:

Golden Age: Known for advancements in arts, literature (Kalidasa), science (Aryabhata,
Varahamihira), and mathematics (concept of zero and decimal system).

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NADHIYA SULTHANA
Decline of Ancient Empires and the Post-Gupta Period
Harsha Empire (606 CE – 647 CE)
• Key Ruler: Harshavardhana
• Unified much of northern India after the fall of the Gupta Empire.
• Capital: Kannauj.
• Patronized Buddhism; Nalanda University flourished.
• Composed Nagananda, a Sanskrit play.
• Fought Pulakeshin II of the Chalukyas but was defeated in the Battle of Narmada.
Decline:
• After Harsha’s death, the empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms.
• Kannauj became a contested region among the Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas.

29
NADHIYA SULTHANA
Early Medieval Period

30
NADHIYA SULTHANA
Pratihara Dynasty (750 CE – 1036 CE)
• Capital: Kannauj, Northern India

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Founder of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. - Established control

c. 730 CE
Nagabhata I over regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Malwa. - Repelled Arab
– 755 CE
invasions from Sindh, consolidating power in North India.

- Expanded the empire’s territory to include parts of Madhya

755 CE –
Vatsaraja Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. - Lost control of Kanauj to
780 CE
the Rashtrakutas.

780 CE – - His reign was marked by internal instability and external threats
Ravavarman
800 CE from the Rashtrakutas.

- Revived the Pratihara dynasty after initial setbacks. - Successfully

800 CE –
Nagabhata II repelled Rashtrakuta invasions and strengthened the dynasty’s
833 CE
power.

- Most significant Pratihara ruler. - Consolidated the empire,

expanding it across northern India from Rajasthan to Madhya
833 CE – Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. - Defeated the Palas of Bengal and the
Mihira Bhoja
885 CE Rashtrakutas, establishing control over large swathes of India. -
Patron of art, culture, and literature, supporting poets and
scholars.

- Oversaw a period of relative stability. - Continued military

885 CE –
Ramabhadra campaigns against the Pala dynasty in the east and the
910 CE
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.

- Continued the expansion and consolidation of the empire. -

910 CE –
Mahendrapala I Engaged in the tripartite struggle with the Rashtrakutas and Palas
944 CE
for control of the region.

944 CE – - Faced attacks from the Gurjara-Chauhans and internal unrest. -

Bhima I
973 CE The empire began to fragment during his reign.

31
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

10th - The empire weakened due to internal strife and external

Decline and
Century invasions from the Ghaznavids. - The dynasty eventually
Fragmentation
CE fragmented into smaller regional powers by the late 10th century.

Pala Dynasty (750 CE – 1174 CE)

• Capital: Pataliputra (modern Patna), Bengal

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Founder of the Pala dynasty. - Elected king by regional chiefs to restore

750 CE –
Gopala stability in Bengal. - Laid the foundation of a strong and prosperous
770 CE
empire.

- Expanded the Pala Empire into Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha. -
Dharma 770 CE – Played a crucial role in the Tripartite Struggle with the Pratiharas and
Pala 810 CE Rashtrakutas for control over Kannauj. - Supported Mahayana Buddhism
and established institutions like Vikramashila University.

- Extended the empire into Assam, Orissa, and Deccan regions. -

810 CE –
Devapala Promoted international Buddhist missions to Southeast Asia and Tibet. -
850 CE
Strengthened the cultural and economic ties of the empire.

- Revived the Pala Empire after a period of decline. - Restored control

988 CE –
Mahipala I over Bengal and parts of Bihar. - Constructed irrigation and fortification
1038 CE
systems to stabilize the kingdom.

1077 CE - Last great ruler of the Pala dynasty. - Consolidated Pala power and
Rampala – 1130 controlled insurgencies in Bengal. - Promoted literary works, including
CE Ramacharitam by Sandhyakar Nandi.

1130 CE
Later Pala - Faced decline due to invasions by the Senas and internal strife. - The
– 1174
Rulers dynasty ended with the rise of the Sena dynasty in Bengal.
CE

Legacy:

32
NADHIYA SULTHANA
The Palas were instrumental in reviving Buddhism in India and spreading it to Southeast Asia
and Tibet. Their patronage of education and art left a lasting cultural imprint, even as the
dynasty declined with the rise of the Sena dynasty in the 12th century.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753 CE – 982 CE)

• Capital: Manyakheta (modern-day Malkhed, Karnataka)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Founder of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty. - Overthrew the Chalukyas of

735 CE –
Dantidurga Badami. - Established the capital at Manyakheta (modern
756 CE
Malkhed).

756 CE – - Commissioned the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, a masterpiece of

Krishna I
774 CE rock-cut architecture. - Expanded the empire into southern India.

- Strengthened Rashtrakuta power by defeating rivals like the

Dhruva 780 CE –
Pallavas and Gangas. - Extended the empire into Northern India,
Dharavarsha 793 CE
challenging the Gurjara-Pratiharas and Palas.

- Expanded the empire significantly, with campaigns in Northern

793 CE –
Govinda III India, Deccan, and Tamil Nadu. - Established Rashtrakuta
814 CE
supremacy in the subcontinent.

- One of the most celebrated Rashtrakuta rulers. - Renowned as a

814 CE – scholar and patron of literature. - Authored Kavirajamarga, a
Amoghavarsha I
878 CE seminal work in Kannada literature. - Shifted focus from military
conquests to cultural and economic development.

- Last significant Rashtrakuta ruler. - Conducted successful

939 CE –
Krishna III campaigns in Tamil Nadu and captured Kanchi. - Strengthened the
967 CE
empire's influence in Southern India.

10th - Decline began due to internal conflicts and pressure from the
Decline (Later
Century Chalukyas of Kalyani. - The dynasty eventually fell to the Western
Rulers)
CE Chalukyas around 982 CE.

33
NADHIYA SULTHANA
Tripartite Struggle:
o The Pratiharas, along with the Palas and Rashtrakutas, engaged in the Tripartite
Struggle over control of Kannauj, which was a symbol of power in North India.
o The Pratiharas were often considered the protectors of northern India from the
Arab invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries, playing a crucial role in preserving
Indian culture and Hinduism.
• Decline: After Mihira Bhoja, the Pratiharas declined due to internal conflict and pressure
from the Palas and Rashtrakutas.

SOUTH INDIA DYNASTY

The Chola Dynasty (9th – 13th Century)
Overview:
• The Chola Empire is one of the most prominent and enduring powers in South Indian
history. Their rule extended across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh, and
even Southeast Asia.
Here’s a detailed table summarizing the Chola Dynasty, their rulers, time periods, and
significance:

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

Vijayalaya c. 850 CE - Founder of the Chola Empire (restored after a decline). - Captured
Chola – 871 CE Thanjavur and laid the foundation for the Chola Empire’s growth.

871 CE – - Expanded the empire by defeating the Pallavas and other rivals. -
Aditya I
907 CE Consolidated Chola control over the Tamil region.

907 CE – - Expanded the empire into Kerala, Sri Lanka, and parts of Andhra
Parantaka I
950 CE Pradesh. - Promoted a resurgence of art, literature, and temple building.

- Established the Chola Empire as a dominant naval and military power. -

Built the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, a UNESCO World
Rajaraja 985 CE –
Heritage site. - Conquered parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. -
Chola I 1014 CE
Introduced administrative reforms and established a centralized
bureaucracy.

34
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, including parts of

1014 CE Southeast Asia (the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and the Chola Navy’s
Rajendra
– 1044 dominance in the Bay of Bengal). - Established Gangaikonda
Chola I
CE Cholapuram as the new capital to commemorate his victory over the
Ganges region. - Conquered the Gangetic Valley, defeating the Palas.

1146 CE
Rajaraja - Faced internal conflicts and weakening of central authority. - Lost
– 1173
Chola II significant territories due to invasions and rebellions.
CE

1246 CE
Rajendra - The last notable ruler of the Chola dynasty. - Faced invasions from the
– 1279
Chola III Delhi Sultanate and internal struggles that weakened the empire.
CE

13th - The Chola Empire fragmented and weakened after the 12th century. -
Decline Century Final collapse in the 13th century with the rise of the Pandya dynasty
CE and the Delhi Sultanate.

The Chera Dynasty (9th – 12th Century)

Overview:
• The Chera Dynasty ruled over parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and they were
contemporaries of the Cholas and Pandyas in the early medieval period. While their
empire was more regional in nature, the Cheras played a critical role in maritime trade,
especially in the spice trade with Arabs, Romans, and later the Chinese.
Key Rulers:

Ruler Time Period Significance

- Known as one of the most famous Chera rulers. - Expanded

c. 2nd
the Chera kingdom and strengthened its control over the
Century BCE
Senguttuvan Tamilakam (southern Tamil region). - Patronized Tamil culture,
– 1st Century
literature, and arts. - Associated with the Silappatikaram, one
BCE
of the earliest Tamil epics.

35
NADHIYA SULTHANA
Ruler Time Period Significance

- Extended the kingdom's influence over the western coastal

1st Century
regions, including parts of modern-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Rajasimha CE – 2nd
- Involved in trade relations with the Roman Empire and the
Century CE
East.

- Engaged in military campaigns to expand territory. - Known

2nd Century for his strong leadership and campaigns against the Pandya
Karikala Chera
CE and Chola kingdoms. - Built and renovated several irrigation
systems, boosting agricultural production.

c. 6th - Contributed to the flourishing of the Chera dynasty. - Known

Kothai
Century CE for patronizing trade and religious institutions in the region.

- Engaged in regional conflicts and secured the Chera dynasty’s

9th Century
Ravi Chera territorial holdings. - Continued the legacy of trade and cultural
CE
patronage.

- Faced pressure from the rising Chola dynasty. - The dynasty's

10th Century
Sundara Chera power declined due to increasing external threats, particularly
CE
from the Cholas.

- The Chera dynasty faced territorial losses to the Cholas and

Decline and 12th Century
later the Pandyas. - The kingdom was eventually absorbed into
Fragmentation CE
the growing Chola Empire by the 12th century CE.

The Pandya Dynasty (6th – 14th Century)

Overview:
• The Pandya Dynasty was one of the earliest and most important Tamil dynasties, based
in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, particularly around Madurai. They were long-time
rivals of the Cholas and played a significant role in the history of South India.
Here’s a detailed table summarizing the Pandya Dynasty, their rulers, time periods, and
significance:

36
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

c. 6th - Founder of the Pandya revival. - Established the Pandya rule

Kadungon Century after the fall of the earlier dynasty. - Defeated the Cholas and
CE consolidated power in the Tamil region.

c. 12th - Re-established Pandya power and expanded the kingdom’s

Maravarman
Century influence. - Conquered parts of Sri Lanka and reinforced Pandya
Sundara Pandya
CE control over the southern Tamil region.

c. 13th - Expanded the Pandya territory further, extending influence into

Jatavarman
Century Kerala and beyond. - Strengthened trade with the Arabs, and
Sundara Pandya
CE became known for their prosperous trade network.

c. 14th - Faced internal conflicts and external invasions. - Was unable to

Rajaraja Pandya Century prevent the fall of the Pandya dynasty to the rising Vijayanagara
CE Empire.

- The Pandya dynasty gradually weakened and fragmented under

14th
Decline and pressure from external forces, especially the Vijayanagara
Century
Fragmentation Empire. - By the mid-14th century, the Pandya kingdom was
CE
effectively absorbed by the Vijayanagara Empire.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The Early Muslim Invasions (711 CE)
Muhammad bin Qasim’s Invasion (711 CE)
• The first significant Muslim invasion into India occurred under the leadership of
Muhammad bin Qasim, a general of the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sindh (modern-day Pakistan) in 711 CE, defeating the
Rajput ruler Raja Dahir at the Battle of Rann of Kutch.
Delhi Sultanate (1206 CE – 1526 CE)
Slave Dynasty (1206 CE – 1290 CE)
• Qutb al-Din Aibak (1206 CE – 1210 CE): The first Sultan of Delhi and founder of the Slave
Dynasty, a former general of Muhammad Ghori.
• Iltutmish (1211 CE – 1236 CE): Consolidated the Sultanate of Delhi, introduced
administrative reforms, and made Delhi the capital of the Sultanate.

37
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 • Razia Sultana (1236 CE – 1240 CE): The only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate; known
for her attempts to strengthen the administration but faced opposition and was
eventually overthrown.
Khilji Dynasty (1290 CE – 1320 CE)
• Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (1290 CE – 1296 CE): Founder of the Khilji Dynasty, expanded the
Sultanate's territories.
• Alauddin Khilji (1296 CE – 1316 CE): Known for his military conquests, including the
invasion of Gujarat and the Deccan, as well as his market reforms.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 CE – 1414 CE)
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325 CE – 1351 CE): Famous for his erratic policies, including
the shifting of the capital to Daultabad and the introduction of token currency.
• Feroze Shah Tughlaq (1351 CE – 1388 CE): Known for his public works and the
restoration of several monuments, but his reign marked the beginning of the empire's
decline.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 CE – 1451 CE)
• Khizr Khan (1414 CE – 1421 CE): The founder of the Sayyid dynasty, established his rule
in Delhi after the invasion of Timur.
• Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah (1444 CE – 1451 CE): The last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, his reign
was largely symbolic, and the power of Delhi was in decline.
Lodi Dynasty (1451 CE – 1526 CE)
• Bahlul Lodi (1451 CE – 1489 CE): Founder of the Lodi dynasty, established control over
northern India and laid the foundation for the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Ibrahim Lodi (1517 CE – 1526 CE): The last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, defeated by
Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE), which marked the end of the Delhi
Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire.

Regional Powers
Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE – 1646 CE)
Here’s a detailed summary of the Vijayanagara Empire, its rulers, time period, and significance:

38
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, along with his brother Bukka

Raya I.
1336 CE
Harihara I – 1356 - Established the empire in the Deccan after overthrowing the
CE Kakatiya Dynasty and defeating the Muslim Sultanates in the
region. - Consolidated power and laid the foundation for the
empire’s growth.

- Co-founder and co-ruler with his brother Harihara I.

1356 CE - Strengthened the empire by expanding its territory and centralizing
Bukka Raya I – 1377 administration.
CE
- Promoted Hinduism, art, and culture, ensuring the success of the
Vijayanagara Empire.

- Expanded the empire’s territory further into the Deccan.

1406 CE
- Promoted trade and culture, and supported art, literature, and
Deva Raya I – 1422
education.
CE
- Defeated the Bahmani Sultanate and continued military expansion.

- Continued expansion and military campaigns, including battles

against the Bahmani Sultanate and other rival kingdoms.
1422 CE
- His reign was marked by prosperity and cultural flourishing,
Deva Raya II – 1446
particularly in literature and arts.
CE
- Known for his efficient administration and patronage of Hindu
culture.

- Considered the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire. -

Expanded the empire to its largest territorial extent, including much
of South India and parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana.
1509 CE
Krishna Deva
– 1529 - Known for military conquests, particularly over the Gajapatis and
Raya
CE Bahmani Sultanate.
- A great patron of the arts, literature, and architecture, and
instrumental in the development of the Telugu and Kannada
literature.

39
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Built and renovated many temples, including the famous Vijaya

Vittala Temple at Hampi.

- Struggled with maintaining stability after Krishna Deva Raya’s

1529 CE death. - Faced internal power struggles and external threats,
Achyuta Deva
– 1542 including invasions by the Bijapur Sultanate and Golconda
Raya
CE Sultanate. - Continued the patronage of culture and religion,
although the empire started to weaken.

- A figurehead ruler, with real power held by the Regent Ramaraya.

1542 CE - Ramaraya's aggressive foreign policy led to the empire’s eventual
Sadasiva Raya – 1565 downfall.
CE
- The empire faced internal conflicts, including the rivalry among the
Deccan Sultanates, leading to the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE.

- The empire was decisively defeated in the Battle of Talikota by a

coalition of the Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, and Bidar
Sultanates.
Fall of
Vijayanagara 1565 CE - The capital city of Hampi was sacked, marking the collapse of the
Empire empire.
- The remnants of the empire continued in smaller successor states,
but the Vijayanagara Empire never regained its former glory.

Bahmani Sultanate (1347 CE – 1527 CE)

Time
Ruler Significance
Period

- Founder of the Bahmani Sultanate, established after the decline of

1347 CE the Delhi Sultanate’s influence in South India. - Consolidated power
Ala-ud-Din
– 1358 in the Deccan, defeating the Vijayanagara and other local rulers. -
Bahman Shah
CE Adopted a Persian-style administration and introduced Islamic culture
in the region.

40
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler Significance
Period

1358 CE - Continued the expansion of the sultanate, strengthening the state’s

Muhammad
– 1375 influence in the Deccan. - Faced internal rebellions, but managed to
Shah I
CE stabilize the empire through strategic alliances.

- Expanded the empire through military campaigns in the Deccan. -

1397 CE
Known for his administrative reforms and attempts to foster
Firoz Shah – 1422
economic prosperity. - Introduced important irrigation systems and
CE
reforms in military structure.

1422 CE - Known for his diplomatic relations with the Vijayanagara Empire
Ala-ud-Din
– 1436 and other regional kingdoms. - Faced internal political instability,
Shah II
CE leading to revolts within his court and military.

- A prominent Persian scholar and statesman who served as the vizier

Mahmud 1458 CE
during the reign of the Bahmani rulers. - Revitalized the Bahmani
Gawan – 1481
military and administrative system. - Played a key role in the empire’s
(Regent) CE
peak, with successful campaigns and a strong central administration.

Sultan 1463 CE - His reign marked the decline of central authority, with increased
Muhammad – 1482 factionalism and weakening control over the regions. - Internal
Shah III CE rebellions and external invasions marked his rule.

- His reign saw the further weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate as the
1487 CE
Bijapur Sultanate and Golconda Sultanate began to rise. - The
Ali Barid Shah – 1492
Bahmani kingdom fractured into five smaller independent sultanates
CE
after his death.

- The empire fragmented into five independent sultanates: Bijapur,

Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar. - The weakening of the
1492 CE
Decline and central authority and increasing internal conflicts led to the collapse
– 1527
Fall of the Bahmani Sultanate. - The rival Sultanates of the Deccan
CE
continued to play a major role in the region until the rise of the
Mughal Empire.

Rajput Kingdoms

41
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- The Rajput clans were initially part of a feudal system in

6th northern India. - They rose to prominence after the fall of the
Early Rajput Century – Gupta Empire, establishing numerous kingdoms in northern and
Dynasties 12th western India. - Known for their warrior culture, Rajputs were
Century often involved in military campaigns, both against invaders and
regional rivals.

3rd - Many Rajput dynasties claim descent from the Gupta Empire
Gupta Dynasty Century – and were instrumental in the continuation of Hindu traditions in
(as ancestors) 6th the post-Gupta period. - Though the Guptas themselves were
Century not Rajputs, their successors were largely Rajput clans.

- A prominent Rajput dynasty in northern India, particularly

7th
known for resisting Arab invasions during the early Islamic
Pratihara Century –
period. - The Pratiharas controlled Malwa, Rajasthan, and parts
Dynasty (early) 11th
of Gujarat, and played a key role in the political landscape of
Century
northern India.

- The Chauhan dynasty, especially under Prithviraj Chauhan,

was one of the most notable Rajput rulers. - Prithviraj Chauhan’s
11th
battles against Muhammad Ghori are legendary, particularly the
Century –
Chauhans First Battle of Tarain (1191) and the Second Battle of Tarain
12th
(1192), where despite winning the first battle, Prithviraj was
Century
defeated in the second. - His loss paved the way for Muslim rule
in northern India.

- One of the most prominent Rajput families, the Sisodia Rajputs

of Mewar in Rajasthan. - Rana Kumbha and Rana Sanga are
14th
notable rulers, known for their resistance against the Mughal
Sisodias of Century –
Empire. - Rana Sanga’s defeat by Babur at the Battle of Khanwa
Mewar 16th
(1527) weakened Rajput resistance against the Mughals, but
Century
Mewar continued to resist Mughal control for several more
decades.

- The Rathore Rajputs established their kingdom in Marwar

14th
(modern-day Rajasthan) under Rao Jodha. - The Jodhpur
Rathores of Century –
kingdom was a major center of Rajput power in western India. -
Marwar 18th
The Rathores had frequent conflicts with the Mughals but
Century
managed to maintain their autonomy.

42
NADHIYA SULTHANA
 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- During the Mughal Empire, many Rajput rulers initially resisted

Mughal expansion but later became allies or part of the Mughal
16th
court. - Maharana Pratap of Mewar, known for his fierce
Rajputs in the Century –
resistance against Akbar, is a legendary figure in Rajput history. -
Mughal Period 18th
Over time, Rajput rulers such as those of Jaipur and Jodhpur
Century
became part of the Mughal administration, serving as military
commanders and holding significant regional influence.

- With the advent of British colonial rule, many Rajput kingdoms

continued to exist as princely states within the British Empire. -
19th The Rajputs were often part of the British military, serving as
Rajputs Under
Century – officers in the Indian Army. - The Rajput aristocracy lost much of
British Rule
1947 their political power with Indian independence in 1947 but
continued to hold symbolic and cultural significance in
Rajasthan.

Key Rajput Rulers and their Contributions:

• Maharana Pratap (Mewar):
o Maharana Pratap is considered one of the greatest Rajput rulers, renowned for
his resistance to Akbar. His most famous battle is the Battle of Haldighati (1576),
where he fought against Akbar’s forces, despite being outnumbered. His legacy
as a symbol of Rajput honor and valor remains strong.
• Prithviraj Chauhan (Chauhans):
o Known for his battles against Muhammad Ghori, Prithviraj Chauhan remains a
historical figure symbolizing Rajput resilience. His defeat at the Second Battle of
Tarain (1192) marked the decline of Rajput power in the north, leading to the
rise of Muslim rule in India.
• Rana Kumbha (Mewar):
o Rana Kumbha was a significant military leader, noted for his victories against the
Delhi Sultanate and other regional powers. He also commissioned the
construction of many forts and temples, establishing Mewar as a stronghold of
Rajput culture.

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Mughal Empire (1526 CE – 1707 CE)

• Babur (1526 CE – 1530 CE): Founder of the Mughal Empire in India after his victory in
the First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE) against Ibrahim Lodi.
• Humayun (1530 CE – 1540 CE, 1555 CE – 1556 CE): Babur’s son, briefly lost the empire
to Sher Shah Suri before regaining it.
• Akbar (1556 CE – 1605 CE): One of the greatest Mughal emperors, known for his
religious tolerance, military campaigns, and consolidation of the empire.
• Jahangir (1605 CE – 1627 CE): Akbar’s son, known for his support of the arts and the
continuation of Akbar's policies.
• Shah Jahan (1628 CE – 1658 CE): Famous for building the Taj Mahal and further
strengthening the Mughal empire.

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 • Aurangzeb (1658 CE – 1707 CE): The last strong Mughal emperor, known for his religious
orthodoxy, expansion of the empire, and the imposition of stricter policies.

Rise of Regional Powers

Maratha Empire (1674 CE – 1818 CE)

Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- Founder of the Maratha Empire, Shivaji Maharaj established a

strong, independent Maratha state in western India. - Known for
1674 CE his military innovations, guerrilla warfare tactics, and the
Chhatrapati Shivaji
– 1680 construction of a powerful navy. - He expanded the Maratha
Maharaj
CE kingdom and resisted Mughal expansion in the Deccan and
Western India. - His coronation in 1674 was a significant event
that marked the Maratha Empire's rise.

- Son of Shivaji Maharaj, Sambhaji continued his father’s legacy,

defending the Maratha Empire from Mughal invasions. - His
1681 CE
Chhatrapati reign was marked by his resistance against Aurangzeb, the
– 1689
Sambhaji Maharaj Mughal Emperor, who invaded the Deccan to crush the
CE
Marathas. - Captured and executed by Aurangzeb, his death
became a symbol of Maratha resilience.

- Brother of Sambhaji, Rajaram continued the fight against the

Mughals after Sambhaji’s death. - He established the Maratha
1689 CE
Chhatrapati capital at Ginjee and carried out guerrilla campaigns to keep
– 1700
Rajaram Maharaj Maratha resistance alive. - Known for his intelligence and
CE
leadership, Rajaram ensured the survival of the Maratha Empire
during difficult times.

- Grandson of Shivaji, Shahu Maharaj was released from Mughal

captivity and ascended the throne of the Maratha Empire. - His
1707 CE
Chhatrapati Shahu reign saw the consolidation of Maratha power and the creation
– 1749
Maharaj of a centralised Maratha state. - Under his rule, the Maratha
CE
Empire reached its zenith in terms of territorial expansion and
military power.

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 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- First Peshwa (Prime Minister) of the Maratha Empire, Balaji

1714 CE Vishwanath played a crucial role in stabilizing the empire and
Balaji Vishwanath – 1720 strengthening the position of the Peshwas. - He formalized the
CE system of the Peshwa as the de facto ruler of the Maratha
Empire.

- One of the greatest military leaders in Maratha history, Baji Rao

I expanded the empire’s territory through successful campaigns
1720 CE across India. - He was instrumental in the expansion of the
Baji Rao I – 1740 Maratha Empire into central and northern India, including the
CE Delhi Sultanate. - His military prowess made him a legend, and
his aggressive expansion strategies earned him the title “Balaji
Rao the Great.”

- Peshwa during a crucial period of the Maratha Empire, Nana

1740 CE Saheb managed the empire during its most aggressive expansion
Balaji Baji Rao
– 1761 phase. - His administration was marked by the growing power of
(Nana Saheb)
CE the Maratha Confederacy, but his reign also saw internal
divisions and conflicts with other regional powers.

- Shahu II's reign witnessed a decline in central authority and the

1749 CE
Chhatrapati Shahu rise of Maratha regional states and confederacy. - His reign was
– 1808
II more symbolic, with power largely in the hands of the Peshwas,
CE
leading to internal challenges and weakening central control.

- Last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, Baji Rao II’s reign was
marked by the decline of Maratha power due to internal
1796 CE
divisions and growing British influence. - His defeat by the British
Baji Rao II – 1808
in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) effectively ended
CE
the Maratha Empire as a political power, leading to British
dominance in India.

- After the fall of the Peshwa, the Maratha territories were

fragmented into regional powers, including Gwalior, Indore,
Maratha 1808 CE
Holkar, and Scindia. - The Marathas fought three major wars
Confederacy (Post- – 1818
against the British (Anglo-Maratha Wars), culminating in their
Peshwa Period) CE
defeat in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818), which
marked the end of Maratha political power.

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Sikh Empire (1799 CE – 1849 CE)
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799 CE – 1839 CE): The founder of the Sikh Empire, he unified
the Sikh factions and established a powerful kingdom in the Punjab region. Ranjit Singh’s
rule marked a golden age for the Sikhs, as he successfully resisted the British and
maintained the independence of the region.
• Post-Ranjit Singh (1839 CE – 1849 CE): After Ranjit Singh's death, the Sikh Empire
declined, leading to the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849), after which Punjab was
annexed by the British.

Kingdom of Mysore (1399 CE – 1799 CE)

Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- Founder of the Wodeyar dynasty in Mysore. - Established

1399 CE
the Wodeyar family as rulers of the Mysore region after the
Yaduraya Wodeyar – 1423
decline of the Vijayanagara Empire. - His reign marked the
CE
beginning of the Mysore Kingdom under Hindu rule.

- Known for consolidating the rule of the Wodeyars and

1423 CE
strengthening the kingdom’s influence. - His reign helped
Chamaraja Wodeyar – 1450
expand the kingdom's territory in southern Karnataka, laying
CE
the foundation for its future growth.

- A significant ruler in the Wodeyar dynasty who helped in re-

1578 CE
establishing Mysore as an independent kingdom after the fall
Raja Wodeyar – 1617
of the Vijayanagara Empire. - He is credited with revitalizing
CE
the Wodeyar rule after a period of weakness.

- Played a pivotal role in expanding and strengthening the

1673 CE
Chikka Devaraja Mysore kingdom. - His reign is noted for improvements in
– 1704
Wodeyar governance, administration, and a rise in prosperity. He also
CE
made alliances with the Mughals.

1714 CE - During his reign, the kingdom of Mysore saw stability, but it
Krishna Raja Wodeyar
– 1732 was also marked by growing influence from the Nizam of
II
CE Hyderabad and Maratha interference in Mysore’s affairs.

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 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

1734 CE - His reign saw the increasing dominance of the Marathas in

Narasimha Raja
– 1739 Mysore's politics. - Though a brief reign, it marked the growing
Wodeyar
CE external pressures on the Mysore kingdom.

- A former military commander under the Wodeyars, Hyder Ali

rose to power and became the de facto ruler of Mysore. - He
1761 CE
expanded the kingdom significantly, fighting against both the
Hyder Ali – 1782
Marathas and British East India Company. - Founded the
CE
Hyder Ali dynasty and strengthened the military and
administrative framework of Mysore.

- The son of Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan is one of the most

significant figures in Indian history, known for his fierce
resistance against British colonial expansion. - He modernized
1782 CE
the Mysore military and established advanced industries. -
Tipu Sultan – 1799
Tipu Sultan's efforts to build alliances with France and other
CE
foreign powers to resist British rule earned him international
fame. - His death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
marked the fall of Mysore as an independent kingdom.

- After the death of Tipu Sultan, the British took control of

Post-Tipu Sultan 1799 CE
Mysore but restored the Wodeyar dynasty as a client
(Wodeyar – 1831
kingdom. - Krishna Raja Wodeyar III became the nominal ruler
Restoration) CE
under British suzerainty.

- After Tipu Sultan's death, the British restored the Wodeyar

1799 CE family to power, although the kingdom was now under British
Krishna Raja Wodeyar
– 1831 control. - He ruled during a period of limited autonomy for
III
CE Mysore, with much of the authority being exercised by the
British resident.

- The Wodeyars continued to rule as a princely state under

1881 CE British suzerainty, though with more autonomy in internal
Chamaraja Wodeyar X – 1894 affairs. - The kingdom made significant strides in
CE modernization during this period, with the establishment of
railways and education systems.

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 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- The most significant ruler of Mysore during the British Raj, he

1894 CE worked on many modernization reforms, such as improving
Krishna Raja Wodeyar
– 1940 infrastructure, public health, and education. - He was
IV
CE instrumental in the development of Mysore as a major
industrial and cultural hub.

- The last Mysore Maharaja, he ruled the kingdom during its

1940 CE
Jayachamarajendra transition into an independent Indian state. - Mysore merged
– 1950
Wodeyar with India after independence in 1947, and the monarchy was
CE
abolished in 1950.

Nizam of Hyderabad (1724 CE – 1948 CE)

Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- The founder of the Asaf Jahi dynasty and the first Nizam of
Mir Qamar-ud-Din 1724 CE Hyderabad. - Appointed as the Subedar (Governor) of the
Khan (Nizam-ul- – 1748 Deccan by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. - He established the
Mulk) CE Hyderabad state as an independent kingdom following the
decline of Mughal power.

- The second Nizam of Hyderabad, who significantly expanded

1748 CE the kingdom's territory. - Took over the administration after the
Nizam Ali Khan
– 1803 death of his father, and had to defend the kingdom from
(Nizam II)
CE Maratha incursions. - His reign saw Hyderabad’s rise as one of
the most powerful states in South India.

- Nizam III had a more symbolic role with reduced political

1803 CE power, as the kingdom was increasingly influenced by British
Sikandar Jah
– 1829 policies. - The British East India Company became the de facto
(Nizam III)
CE power in Hyderabad during this period, though the Nizam
remained the figurehead of the state.

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 Time
Ruler/Kingdom Significance
Period

- Nizam IV, also known as Afzal-ud-Daula, was the ruler during

1829 CE the time of Maratha pressure. - His reign saw the beginning of
Afzal-ud-Daula
– 1837 significant British influence in the governance of Hyderabad. -
(Nizam IV)
CE The Nizam sought the protection of the British East India
Company during his rule.

- A highly significant Nizam, Mahbub Ali Pasha is remembered

for his administrative reforms and contributions to the
1869 CE modernization of Hyderabad. - He introduced the first railways
Mir Mahbub Ali
– 1911 and telecommunication systems in the state. - A patron of the
Pasha (Nizam VI)
CE arts, he promoted cultural and architectural developments in
the kingdom, including the construction of the Chowmohallah
Palace and the Osman Sagar reservoir.

- The last and the most famous Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, was
the ruler during the Indian Independence Movement. - He is
1911 CE known for his immense wealth, being one of the richest men in
Mir Osman Ali
– 1948 the world at the time. - Though the Nizam tried to remain
Khan (Nizam VII)
CE independent during India’s partition, he eventually acceded to
the Indian Union in 1948 after the Police Action (also known as
Operation Polo) which led to Hyderabad's integration into India.

- Following Hyderabad’s annexation into the Indian Union in

1948, the Nizam’s princely state was formally dissolved. - The
Post-Nizam Nizam retained certain privileges but lost all political power, and
1948 CE
(Integration into Hyderabad became part of the Indian state of Telangana. - The
onward
India) legacy of the Nizams remains visible in Hyderabad, particularly
through its architecture, cultural contributions, and historical
significance.

Hyderabad’s Integration into India:

o The Nizam of Hyderabad initially resisted joining the newly formed Indian Union
after independence in 1947, opting for independence instead. However, this led
to tensions with the Indian government.
o - In September 1948, the Indian Army launched Operation Polo (also called the
Police Action), which swiftly defeated the Nizam's forces and integrated
Hyderabad into India.

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 o - Following this, the Nizam was allowed to retain certain privileges as a
ceremonial head of the state, but his political authority was completely removed.

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MODERN INDIA
European Invasions to India
The European invasions of India began in the late 15th century with the arrival of the
Portuguese and later other European powers, such as the Dutch, French, and British. These
invasions were driven by the desire for control over trade routes, particularly the lucrative spice
trade, and the exploration of new territories. Here is a detailed timeline of the major European
powers and their involvement in India.

1. Portuguese Invasion (1498 CE – 1961 CE)

Arrival of Vasco da Gama (1498 CE)
• The first direct European contact with India was made in 1498 CE when Vasco da Gama,
a Portuguese explorer, reached the Malabar Coast (modern-day Kerala) after navigating
around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa.
• Vasco da Gama’s arrival opened the sea route to India, marking the beginning of the
Portuguese colonial empire in Asia.
Portuguese Control in India (1500 CE – 1668 CE)
• The Portuguese established their first colony in India at Goa in 1510, under the
leadership of Afonso de Albuquerque. Goa became the capital of the Portuguese State
of India.
• The Portuguese controlled the key trade routes between India and Europe, particularly
the spice trade, and established a monopoly over it.
• Portuguese influence lasted until the 17th century, when they were gradually displaced
by the Dutch and British.

2. Dutch Invasion and Trade (1600 CE – 1800 CE)

Dutch East India Company (1602 CE)
• The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established in 1602 CE to compete with the
Portuguese in the Indian Ocean trade. The Dutch were particularly interested in
controlling the spice trade.
Dutch Presence in India
• The Dutch established colonies in several parts of India, such as Surat and Cochin, and
controlled key trading posts along the western coast of India.

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 • The Dutch influence was strong in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and parts of South India, but they
were unable to rival the growing power of the British and Portuguese in India. They
began to decline by the 18th century.

3. British Invasion and Establishment of the British Raj (1600 CE – 1947 CE)
The British East India Company (1600 CE)
• The British East India Company (EIC) was granted a Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I
in 1600 CE, marking the beginning of British involvement in India.
• Initially, the British focused on trade with India, and in 1612 CE, the company secured
permission to establish a trading post in Surat (Gujarat).
• The British were later joined by other European powers, and they fought wars to
establish their dominance.
Early British Influence (1700s CE)
• The Battle of Plassey (1757 CE): The turning point for British dominance in India. Under
Robert Clive, the British East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of
Bengal. This victory gave the British control over Bengal, one of the richest regions in
India.
• Following Plassey, the British East India Company expanded its control over Bihar and
Orissa, establishing their dominance in eastern India.
Expansion of British Power
• By the late 18th century, the British East India Company had established significant
control over most of India through military victories (such as the Anglo-Mysore Wars
and Anglo-Maratha Wars) and diplomatic alliances.
• Lord Clive, Warren Hastings, and Lord Cornwallis were key figures who helped
consolidate British control during the late 18th century.
The British Raj (1858 CE – 1947 CE)
• The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny) was a major uprising against British rule,
but it was ultimately crushed. This rebellion marked the end of the British East India
Company's rule in India, and in 1858 CE, the British government took direct control of
India, marking the beginning of the British Raj.
• India became a formal part of the British Empire, with a Viceroy representing the British
Crown in India.

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4. French Invasion and Influence (1664 CE – 1763 CE)
French East India Company (1664 CE)
• The French established their own trading company, the French East India Company, in
1664, and began trading in India by establishing a base at Pondicherry in 1674.
French-Indian Wars (1740s – 1763 CE)
• The French competed with the British for dominance in India during the Carnatic Wars
(1746-1763), a series of conflicts fought mainly in southern India.
• The most notable figures in these wars were Dupleix (French) and Robert Clive (British).
Although the French had a strong foothold in India, the British eventually emerged
victorious.
Decline of French Power in India
• By the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the Treaty of Paris (1763) was signed,
and the French were forced to cede most of their Indian territories to the British,
retaining only Pondicherry and a few other small areas.

5. Other European Invasions (1600 CE – 1800 CE)

The Danish (1616 CE – 1869 CE)
• The Danish East India Company established trading posts in India, such as Tranquebar
(in modern Tamil Nadu) in 1620. However, Danish influence in India was limited
compared to other European powers, and they never posed a significant challenge to
the British.
The Swedish and Portuguese
• The Swedes had brief commercial interests in India, notably in the Nicobar Islands and
parts of South India, but their impact was minimal.
• The Portuguese maintained their influence in parts of India such as Goa, which
remained under Portuguese control until 1961 CE, long after other European powers had
left.

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Early British Rule and Expansion (1757 – 1857)
1757 – Battle of Plassey
• The Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) marks the beginning of British political control in
India. Robert Clive of the British East India Company defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula of
Bengal, establishing British dominance in Bengal and opening the way for further
expansion in India.
1764 – Battle of Buxar
• The Battle of Buxar (October 22, 1764) solidified British control over much of northern
India. The British defeated the combined forces of the Mughal Emperor, Shuja-ud-Daula
(Nawab of Oudh), and Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal), gaining control over Bengal and
other key regions.
1773 – Regulating Act
• The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed by the British Parliament to regulate the affairs
of the British East India Company in India. It established a Governor-General of India
(position held by Warren Hastings) to oversee the Company's rule.
1799 – Fall of Tipu Sultan
• The British defeated Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
(1798–1799). Tipu Sultan was killed in 1799 at the siege of Srirangapatna, marking the
end of Mysore's resistance to British rule.
1800-1857 – British Expansion and Control
• Throughout the 19th century, the British expanded their control over India through a
series of wars with regional powers, such as the Marathas (Anglo-Maratha Wars) and
the Sikh Empire (Anglo-Sikh Wars).
• The Doctrine of Lapse introduced by Lord Dalhousie further consolidated British power
by annexing several princely states, such as Satara, Jhansi, and Nagpur.

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Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the British Raj (1857 – 1947)

1857 – Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny)

The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Indian
Independence, was a significant and turning point in Indian history.

Aspect Details

Date 1857 – 1858

Primarily in northern and central India, with major uprisings in Delhi, Kanpur,
Location
Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, and Meerut.

- Mangal Pandey (often regarded as the first to spark the rebellion)

- Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
Key Leaders - Nana Saheb Peshwa
- Begum Hazrat Mahal
- Tantia Tope

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NADHIYA SULTHANA
Aspect Details

- General Colin Campbell

British
- Sir Henry Havelock
Leaders
- Lord Canning (the Governor-General of India at the time)

The rebellion was a result of multiple grievances, such as:

- Military dissatisfaction (Sepoy soldiers felt aggrieved by the British)
- Cultural and religious insensitivity of the British towards Indian traditions.
Main Cause
- The introduction of the Enfield rifle and its cartridge, rumored to be greased
with animal fat (cow and pig fat), which offended Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
- Economic exploitation by the British, causing widespread poverty.

- The rebellion was crushed by the British by mid-1858.

- End of the Mughal Empire with the exile of Bahadur Shah II (the last Mughal
Outcome Emperor).
- Establishment of direct British rule in India (replacing the British East India
Company with the British Raj).

Chronological Order of Events in the 1857 Rebellion

Date Event

- Mangal Pandey, a sepoy, revolts at Barrackpore near Kolkata. He attacks his

February
officers and is executed on April 8. His actions are considered one of the early
1857
sparks of the rebellion.

- The Sepoy Mutiny officially begins in Meerut with soldiers refusing to use the
March 29,
greased cartridges that contain cow and pig fat, considered offensive to Hindus
1857
and Muslims.

May 10, - The rebellion spreads to Delhi. Sepoys march to Delhi, and the last Mughal
1857 Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, is declared the figurehead of the rebellion.

May 11, - Delhi is captured by the sepoys, and they begin to organize their forces under
1857 Bahadur Shah II’s leadership.

- Rebellion spreads across North and Central India: - Kanpur: The sepoys led by
May-June Nana Saheb mutiny, attacking British officers. - Lucknow: Led by Begum Hazrat
1857 Mahal, the rebellion intensifies. - Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai begins to play a major
role in organizing the defense of her kingdom.

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Date Event

- Delhi is attacked by the British forces. Bahadur Shah II is defeated, and the
June 6, 1857 British regain control of the city. Bahadur Shah II is captured and exiled to
Rangoon.

- Kanpur is the site of fierce fighting. The British force under General Havelock
July-August recaptures the city, but the rebels, led by Nana Saheb, continue to resist. The
1857 Cawnpore massacre takes place, where hundreds of British women and children
are killed by the rebels.

September - Lucknow: The British, under Sir Henry Havelock, recapture the city from the
1857 rebels, but Begum Hazrat Mahal and her supporters continue to resist.

October - Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi joins the rebellion and leads a large force against the
1857 British. Gwalior falls to rebel forces.

January - Tantia Tope leads a major uprising in Central India and carries out a guerrilla
1858 campaign. He forms an alliance with Rani Lakshmibai to oppose British forces.

- The British force under General Colin Campbell marches towards Jhansi. Rani
March 1858 Lakshmibai defends her kingdom but is eventually defeated. She dies in battle at
Gwalior.

- Tantia Tope is captured by the British and executed, marking the effective end of
June 1858
the rebellion.

- Official End of the Rebellion: The British government formally declares the end
July 1858
of the rebellion, but sporadic uprisings continue in some areas.

1858 – British Raj Established

• Following the suppression of the rebellion, the British Parliament passed the
Government of India Act 1858, ending the rule of the British East India Company and
establishing direct control over India by the British Crown. Queen Victoria was declared
Empress of India in 1876.
1885 – Indian National Congress Founded
• The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume with
the goal of obtaining a greater role for Indians in the colonial government. Initially, the
INC sought reforms, not full independence.

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NADHIYA SULTHANA
The Indian National Congress (INC) is one of the oldest and most significant political parties in
India. It played a central role in the country’s struggle for independence from British rule and
has shaped India's political landscape in post-independence periods as well.
Key Details of the Indian National Congress (INC)

Aspect Details

Founded December 28, 1885, in Bombay (now Mumbai).

- Allan Octavian Hume (a British civil servant) - Dadabhai Naoroji - Surendranath

Founders
Banerjee - WC Bonnerjee, and other prominent leaders.

Initial - Initially, the INC aimed to promote moderate reforms within the British colonial
Objective system and sought to give Indians a greater role in the administration of India.

1. Moderate Phase (1885-1905): Led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal

Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee, who pushed for constitutional
reforms and better representation of Indians in the British government.
2. Extremist Phase (1905-1917): Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai,
Major and Bipin Chandra Pal took a more aggressive stance, calling for self-rule (Swaraj)
Phases and opposing British colonial policies.
3. Gandhian Era (1919-1947): Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the INC
adopted non-violent resistance and launched mass movements like the Non-
Cooperation Movement, Salt March, Quit India Movement, and more, pushing for
complete independence.

1905 – Partition of Bengal

• The British partitioned Bengal in 1905 to divide the Hindu-majority region from the
Muslim-majority areas. This move sparked widespread protests, leading to the Swadeshi
Movement, a call for the boycott of British goods.
1906 – Muslim League
1915 – Mahatma Gandhi Returns to India
• Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915. He became a central
figure in the Indian independence movement, advocating for non-violent resistance
(Satyagraha) and civil disobedience.

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1916 - Lucknow Pact

• The INC, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and the All-India Muslim League, led by
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, reach an agreement (the Lucknow Pact), aiming to unite Hindus
and Muslims for constitutional reforms under British rule.
1917 - Home Rule Movement

• Led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant, the movement demands self-rule
(Swaraj) for Indians within the British Empire. The movement gains widespread support
and galvanizes public opinion for greater political rights.
• Rowlatt Act: The British government passes the Rowlatt Act, allowing for the arrest and
imprisonment of Indians without trial. The act is opposed by the INC, leading to
widespread protests.
1919 – Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• On April 13, 1919, British troops under General Dyer opened fire on a peaceful
gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, killing hundreds of unarmed civilians. This
massacre galvanized Indian resistance to British rule.
1919 - Non-Cooperation Movement
• Non-Cooperation Movement: After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Mahatma Gandhi
leads the Non-Cooperation Movement, urging Indians to boycott British goods, schools,
and courts, and to refuse to cooperate with the colonial government.
1920 -Chauri Chaura Incident
• Chauri Chaura Incident: The Non-Cooperation Movement faces setbacks when a mob
kills 22 policemen in Chauri Chaura, leading Gandhi to call off the movement.
1930 – Salt March
• Mahatma Gandhi led the Salt March (Dandi March) from March 12 to April 6, 1930, to
protest the British monopoly on salt. This act of civil disobedience mobilized millions of
Indians against British rule.

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1931 – Gandhi – Irwin Pact
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Gandhi negotiates with the British government, resulting in an
agreement to end the Salt March protests and allow some political concessions, though
it is not a full resolution of the demands.
1932 – Poona Pact
• Poona Pact: A political agreement between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar regarding
the representation of the Depressed Classes (Dalits) in legislative bodies. Gandhi initially
fasts in protest against separate electorates for Dalits but eventually agrees to joint
electorates with reserved seats for Dalits.

1935 - Government of India Act

• Government of India Act 1935: This act grants some limited self-governance to India,
but the INC rejects it, as it does not meet their demand for full independence.

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1942 – Quit India Movement
• In response to British refusal to grant India independence during World War II, Gandhi
launched the Quit India Movement on August 8, 1942, demanding an immediate end to
British rule. The movement was met with widespread arrests but marked a turning point
in India's struggle for independence.
1946 - Cabinet Mission
• Cabinet Mission: The British government sends the Cabinet Mission to India to discuss
the future of the country. The INC, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, agrees to the mission's
proposals for a federal structure but demands full independence.

Independence and Partition (1947)

1947 – Indian Independence and Partition
• On August 15, 1947, India gained independence from Britain, with Jawaharlal Nehru
becoming the first Prime Minister of India.
• India was partitioned into two separate countries: India (Hindu-majority) and Pakistan
(Muslim-majority). The partition caused massive migration and violence, leading to the
deaths of hundreds of thousands.

Post-Independence Period (1947 – Present)

1947 – Adoption of the Indian Constitution
• On January 26, 1950, India adopted its own Constitution and became a Republic. Dr.
B.R. Ambedkar is credited as the principal architect of the Indian Constitution.
1950s – 1960s – Early Years of Independence
• Jawaharlal Nehru, as Prime Minister, focused on modernizing India’s economy through
industrialization, agriculture reforms, and building a non-aligned foreign policy during
the Cold War.
• India's first General Election was held in 1951-52, leading to a democratic process that
continued through the decades.
1965 – India-Pakistan War
• In 1965, India fought another war with Pakistan over the Kashmir region. The war ended
in a stalemate with both sides agreeing to a ceasefire brokered by the United Nations.

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1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War
• In 1971, India fought Pakistan in support of the Bangladesh Liberation War, leading to
the creation of the independent nation of Bangladesh.
1975 – Emergency Period
• Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, declared a State of Emergency from 1975 to
1977, suspending civil liberties and curbing political opposition. The move was
controversial and led to widespread protests.
1991 – Economic Liberalization
• In 1991, India underwent a series of economic reforms under Prime Minister Narasimha
Rao and his Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, moving towards a liberalized economy.
This marked a shift from the previous state-controlled economic policies and opened
India to global markets.
2000s – Growth and Challenges
• India emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It also faced
challenges such as communal tensions, terrorist attacks (e.g., 2001 Indian Parliament
attack, 26/11 Mumbai attacks in 2008), and the growing gap between rich and poor.
2014 – Rise of Narendra Modi
• In 2014, Narendra Modi became Prime Minister of India after the Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP) won a historic victory. Modi's government has focused on economic reforms,
technological advancement, and foreign policy assertiveness.
2020s – Ongoing Challenges
• India faces challenges such as poverty, corruption, religious intolerance, and climate
change, while also positioning itself as an emerging global power. The COVID-19
pandemic has also had a significant impact on India, with the country battling the health
and economic crises.

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