International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 11, pp 7756-7760 November 2024

International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews

A Review on Moringa Oleifera Cultivation

Varad Mathapati1, Ms. Nandini Hotkar2 , Dr. Sable V. U3 , Dr. Rani Mehtre4
( UG Student1 , Guide2 , Principal3 , Vice Principal4 )
Department of Pharmacy, Lokmangal college of pharmacy , Wadala

ABSTRACT:

Moringa (Moringa oleifera) is a highly nutritious plant with significant potential for cultivation in diverse agro-ecological zones. This study explores the optimal
cultivation practices and nutrient management strategies necessary for maximizing the growth, yield, and nutritional quality of Moringa. Key factors influencing
Moringa cultivation include soil type, irrigation practices, and the application of organic and inorganic fertilizers. The nutrient profile of Moringa, which is rich in
vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, can be significantly enhanced through appropriate nutrient management, particularly by optimizing nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium levels. The research highlights the adaptability of Moringa to various climates, its low water requirements, and its potential as a sustainable crop in both
subsistence and commercial agriculture. The findings suggest that tailored nutrient management practices can improve both the biomass production and the
nutritional content of Moringa leaves, making it a valuable crop for addressing food security and nutritional deficiencies in many regions.

Review of literature

1. Jiru, D , [Link].(1) Moringa stenopetala, family Moringaceae is a native tree in arid and semi-arid regions inthe southern Rift Valley of Ethiopia
.The local farmers use the species as one of themajor arable tree inter-crop in multi-storey system especially by the Konso people inGamo
Gofa. Moringa stenopetala has a wide range of adaptation from arid to humidclimates with a prospect to be grown in a wide range of land use
classes. The potentialgrowing area fall in a rainfall range from 300-1400 mm per year with soil reaction of 6-7,Mayer (1990). It does not
require fertile soils, in Sudan it performs well on marginal andpoor soils (Jahn, 1986) as reported in Mayer (1990).

2. Kidmose, U , [Link].(4) n order to investigate the variation in β-carotene and vitamin A in commonly consumed vegetables in Asia,
different leafy vegetables were analyzed. The mean β-carotene content varied between 16 and 6630 μg/100 g fresh weight (FW) with the
highest content in drumstick leaves and the lowest content in common cabbage and Garland chrysanthemum leaves. In six tuber and fruit
vegetables, the mean β-carotene content varied between 311 and 15,400 μg/100 g FW with the highest content in a chili pepper variety.
Vitamin A activity varied significantly between the investigated vegetables (1–1280 μg retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/100 g FW). The
retention of β-carotene and formation of cis-isomers were investigated in selected vegetables during stir-frying. Retentions of all-trans-β-
carotene varied between 73% and 98% in sweet bell pepper, sweet potato and tomato that were fried for 12–3min. In sweet potato, 13-cis-β-
carotene was the major cis-isomer of β-carotene, while only minor amounts of 15-cis- and 9-cis-β-carotene were formed. The total amount
of cis-isomers of β-carotene formed during frying depended on the frying time and the size with the highest amount in cubes, that were fried
for 3 min (1070 μg 13-cis-β-carotene/100 g FW). In leafy vegetables, only 13-cis-β-carotene was detected during frying. Extraction of β-
carotene into the frying oil was only observed in low amounts after 3 min frying of sweet potato shreds.

3. Kumar, H. D. [Link].(5) The maintenance of good health rests directly or indirectly on a strong nutritional foundation of plant foods. People
everywhere require adequate amounts of essential macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) and micronutrients such as vitamins and
minerals. Both deficiency and excess of nutrients can be detrimental to health. Whereas many health-related problems of affluent or wealthy
people arise from overconsumption, deficiencies of proteins and other nutrients afflict millions of poor people in developing countries.

4. Imeh U, [Link].(6) Total and free phenolic contents of 16 commonly consumed fruits (comprising 9 apples, 4 pears, and one each of peach,
plum, and kiwi fruit cultivars) were measured by Folin-Ciocalteu assay. Total phenol contents varied from 272 to 475 mg of CtE/100 g of
fresh weight. Of the apple cultivars studied, Braeburn and Empire had the highest and lowest total phenol content, respectively. The apple
cultivars ranked in the following decreasing order: Braeburn > Red Delicious > Crisp Pink > Granny Smith > Royal Gala > Bramley > Golden
Delicious > Fuji > Empire. Among pear cultivars, the order was Forelle > Taylor's > Peckham's > Conference. Peach and plum equally had
high contents. The percentage of conjugated phenolics ranged between 3 (Red Delicious) and 77% (Empire) of the total phenols. Comparison
of different cultivars of the same fruit and between different fruits showed broad variations in both phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant
activity; a weak correlation (R2 = 0.58) was observed between the phenolic content of the fruits and the total antioxidant activity, as estimated
by the FRAP assay.
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Introduction :

Moringa oleifera, commonly known as the drumstick tree, is a highly nutritious and resilient plant, valued for its remarkable adaptability to diverse agro-
ecological zones. Originating from the Himalayan foothills, this versatile tree has a long history of cultivation across the Indian subcontinent, where it
has been utilized for its nutritional, medicinal, and agricultural benefits. Rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, Moringa has garnered
attention as a sustainable solution to combat malnutrition and food insecurity, particularly in resource-limited settings.

The demand for Moringa has grown globally due to its economic potential and various applications in the food, medicine, and cosmetics industries. As a
low-maintenance crop with low water requirements and high adaptability, Moringa is well-suited to withstand a range of climatic conditions, from tropical
to semi-arid regions, making it an ideal crop for sustainable agriculture.

This review explores the optimal cultivation practices for Moringa oleifera, including site selection, soil preparation, irrigation, and nutrient management,
to maximize both yield and nutritional content. The article also examines pest and disease management, post-harvest handling, genetic diversity, and
recent advancements in Moringa breeding. By analyzing these factors, the review underscores Moringa's role in promoting food security, enhancing rural
incomes, and contributing to environmental conservation efforts.

Origin and Geographical Distribution of Moringa oleifera in India :

Moringa oleifera, commonly known as the drumstick tree, is believed to have originated in the foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern India. The tree
has a long history of cultivation in the Indian subcontinent, where it has been traditionally used for its nutritional, medicinal, and agricultural benefits.

In India, Moringa is widely distributed across various states due to its adaptability to different climatic conditions. It is predominantly grown in the
southern states, including Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala, where it thrives in tropical and subtropical climates. These regions are
known for large-scale Moringa cultivation, both for local consumption and export.

Moringa is also found in central and northern India, in states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. In these areas, it is often
cultivated in smaller quantities, typically in home gardens or as a part of agroforestry systems. The tree's ability to tolerate drought conditions makes it
particularly well-suited to semi-arid regions, such as those found in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Overall, the distribution of Moringa oleifera in India reflects the tree's versatility and resilience, allowing it to be cultivated in a wide range of
environments, from coastal regions to dry interiors, contributing significantly to local diets and economies.9

Cultivation and Production Process of Moringa oleifera :

A. Site Selection and Soil Preparation

Climate Requirements: Moringa oleifera thrives in tropical and subtropical climates with temperatures ranging between 25-35°C. It can tolerate light
frost but is generally not frost-hardy.

Soil: The tree prefers well-drained loamy or sandy soils with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. However, it can also grow in slightly

acidic or alkaline soils. Moringa is drought

-resistant and can grow in poor soils but will yield better in fertile soils.

Land Preparation: The land should be cleared of weeds and debris, and the soil should be tilled to a depth of about 30 cm to improve aeration and root
penetration. Adding organic matter, such as compost or manure, can enhance soil fertility.10

B. Propagation

Seed Propagation: Moringa seeds are the most common method of propagation. Seeds should be soaked in water for 24 hours before planting to enhance
germination. Seeds can be directly sown into the soil or started in seedbeds or containers.
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Cutting Propagation: Alternatively, Moringa can be propagated using cuttings. Healthy, mature branches about 1-1.5 meters long are cut and planted
directly into the soil. This method is faster than seed propagation but requires more initial care.

C. Planting

Spacing: For leaf production, plants are spaced closer, typically 15-30 cm apart in rows that are 1 meter apart. For drumstick production (pods), wider
spacing of 2-3 meters between plants is recommended to allow for sufficient growth and air circulation.

Planting Depth: Seeds should be planted 2-3 cm deep. If using cuttings, they should be buried 1/3 of their length into the soil.

D. Irrigation

Water Requirements: Moringa is drought-tolerant but requires regular watering, especially during the establishment phase and dry seasons. Drip irrigation
is ideal, as it provides consistent moisture without waterlogging the soil.5

Irrigation Schedule: For newly planted seeds or cuttings, daily watering is essential until the plants are established (about two weeks). After that, watering
can be reduced to once or twice a week, depending on rainfall and soil moisture levels.

E. Fertilization and Nutrient Management

Organic Fertilizers: Moringa responds well to organic fertilizers like compost and manure, which can be applied during soil preparation and as top
dressing during the growing season.

Inorganic Fertilizers: Balanced NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) fertilizers can be applied to boost growth. A typical recommendation is to apply
60 kg of N, 20 kg of P2O5, and 40 kg of K2O per hectare. Fertilizer application should be done at planting and at intervals during the growing season.

Micronutrients: Moringa may also benefit from micronutrient applications, particularly zinc and boron, which support healthy growth and pod production.

F. Pest and Disease Management

Common Pests: Moringa is relatively pest-resistant, but common pests include caterpillars, aphids, and fruit flies. Regular monitoring and the use of
organic pesticides or neem oil can help manage these pests.

Diseases: Moringa can be susceptible to root rot, powdery mildew, and bacterial blight. Proper spacing, good drainage, and the use of disease-resistant
varieties can help prevent these issues.5

G. Harvesting

Leaves: Moringa leaves can be harvested 2-3 months after planting and then regularly every 35-45 days. Harvesting is done by cutting the branches 1-2
feet above the ground, which encourages new growth and branching.

Pods: Drumsticks (pods) are harvested when they are about 6-9 months old, depending on the variety and growing conditions. The pods should be
harvested when they are tender and green for vegetable use, or left to mature for seed production.

Flowers: Moringa flowers can also be harvested for use in teas or as a vegetable. Flowers are usually harvested before full bloom.

H. Post-Harvest Handling

Leaves: After harvesting, Moringa leaves should be washed, sorted, and air-dried or shade-dried to preserve their nutritional content. The dried leaves
can be crushed into powder for storage or sale.

Pods: Drumsticks should be washed and stored in a cool, dry place. For long-term storage, they can be frozen or dried.

Seeds: Mature pods are dried in the sun, and seeds are extracted for oil extraction or planting.

I. Yield and Economic ConsiderationsYield: Moringa can yield 2-3 tons of fresh leaves per hectare per harvest, with multiple harvests per year. Pod yield
varies but can range from 50-70 tons per hectare annually under optimal conditions.

Economic Benefits: Moringa is a highly profitable crop due to its fast growth, multiple harvests, and demand in various markets, including food, medicine,
and cosmetics. It is also valued for its role in agroforestry and as a sustainable crop in marginal lands.2

J. Sustainability and Environmental Impact

Soil Improvement: Moringa contributes to soil improvement by providing organic matter and enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.

Agroforestry: Moringa can be integrated into agroforestry systems, providing shade and shelter for other crops and contributing to biodiversity.

Environmental Benefits: The tree's ability to grow in arid and semi-arid conditions makes it valuable for combating desertification and soil erosion.
Additionally, Moringa is often used in reforestation projects due to its fast growth and resilience.9
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Genetic and Breeding of Moringa oleifera:

A. Genetic Diversity of Moringa oleifera

• Natural Diversity: Moringa oleifera exhibits considerable genetic diversity due to its wide geographical distribution and adaptability to
different environmental conditions. This diversity is reflected in variations in morphological traits such as leaf size, pod length, flowering time, and seed
characteristics, as well as in biochemical attributes like oil content and nutritional composition.

• Germplasm Collections: Several research institutions and agricultural organizations maintain germplasm collections of Moringa oleifera to
conserve its genetic diversity. These collections are critical for breeding programs aimed at improving desirable traits such as yield, nutritional content,
and resistance to pests and diseases.

B. Breeding Objectives

• Improving Yield: One of the primary goals of Moringa breeding is to enhance leaf, pod, and seed yields. This involves selecting -yielding
varieties that can produce more biomass or larger quantities of pods and seeds per plant.

• Nutritional Enhancement: Another key objective is to improve the nutritional quality of Moringa leaves and seeds. Breeding efforts focus
on increasing the concentrations of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants in the leaves, as well as enhancing the oil content and
fatty acid composition of the seeds.

• Disease and Pest Resistance: Developing Moringa varieties that are resistant to common pests and diseases is crucial for ensuring sustainable
production. Breeding for resistance to root rot, powdery mildew, and insect pests can reduce the need for chemical interventions and promote organic
cultivation practices.

• Adaptation to Environmental Conditions: Moringa is grown in diverse climates, from arid regions to tropical areas. Breeding programs
aim to develop varieties that are more tolerant to environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, and temperature extremes.

• Early Maturity and Extended Harvest Periods: Breeding for early flowering and maturity is important for regions with shorter growing
seasons. Additionally, selecting varieties with extended harvest periods can allow for continuous production throughout the year.

C. Breeding Techniques

Conventional Breeding:

Selection: Traditional selection methods involve identifying and propagating superior individuals from natural or cultivated populations. This process
includes selecting plants with desirable traits, such as high yield or breeding.7

Hybridization: Cross-breeding between genetically diverse individuals or varieties is used to combine desirable traits from both parents. Controlled
pollination techniques are employed to create hybrids with improved characteristics, such as higher nutritional content or better adaptability to specific
environments.

Mass Selection and Recurrent Selection: These are common techniques in Moringa breeding, where a large population is grown, and individuals with
superior traits are selected and interbred over several generations. This method helps in concentrating favourable alleles in the breeding population.

Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): Molecular markers linked to specific traits (e.g., disease resistance, high oil content) are used to screen and select
plants in the early stages of breeding. MAS accelerates the breeding process by allowing breeders to identify desirable traits at the seedling stage.4

Genetic Engineering: Though not yet widely applied to Moringa, genetic engineering could potentially introduce or enhance specific traits, such as
drought resistance or increased nutritional content. Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 could be used for precise genome editing in the future.

Polyploidy Breeding: Inducing polyploidy (having more than two sets of chromosomes) can lead to larger and more robust plants with higher yields.
This technique Modern Breeding Techniques: like colchicine to double the chromosome number.6

D. Challenges in Moringa Breeding

• Limited Genetic Research: Despite its importance, Moringa oleifera has not been extensively studied at the genetic level compared to other
crops. This limits the availability of genetic markers and information on the plant’s genome, which is crucial for advanced breeding techniques.

• Inbreeding Depression: Since Moringa is often propagated by seeds from a limited gene pool, inbreeding can lead to reduced Vigor and
yield. Breeding programs must manage genetic diversity to avoid inbreeding depression and maintain the health of the population.

• Long Generation Time: Moringa trees can take several years to mature, which slows down the breeding process. This long generation time
makes it challenging to achieve rapid genetic improvements through conventional breeding methods3.
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E. Recent Advances and Future Directions

• Genomic Studies: Recent advances in genomics are beginning to shed light on the genetic makeup of Moringa oleifera. Whole-genome
sequencing and transcriptome analysis are helping identify genes responsible for important traits, paving the way for more targeted breeding strategies.

• Participatory Breeding: Engaging local farmers in the breeding process can lead to the development of varieties that are better suited to
specific local conditions and cultural preferences. This approach also helps in the conservation of traditional knowledge and practices.12

• Climate-Resilient Varieties: With the increasing impact of climate change, there is a growing focus on breeding Moringa conditions. This
includes developing drought-tolerant, heat-resistant, and salt-tolerant varieties.

• Nutritional Biofortification: Breeding programs are increasingly focused on biofortifying Moringa with higher levels of essential nutrients
such as iron, zinc, and vitamin A. This could enhance its role in addressing malnutrition, particularly in developing countries.

F. Conservation of Genetic Resources

• Ex Situ Conservation: Moringa germplasm is conserved in seed banks and botanical gardens around the world. These collections are vital
for maintaining genetic diversity and providing resources for future breeding efforts.

• In Situ Conservation: Conservation of Moringa in its natural habitat is also important to preserve wild relatives and landraces that may
possess unique traits not found in cultivated varieties1.

References:

1. Jiru, D.; Sonder, K.; Alemayehu, L.; Mekonen, Y.; Anjulo, A. Leaf yield and nutritive value of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera
accessions

2. Rajangam, J.; Azahakia Manavalan, R.S.; Thangaraj, T.; Vijayakumar, A.; Muthukrishan, N. Status of production and utilisation of Moringa
in Southern India.

3. Caceres A, Saravia A, Rizzo S, Zabala L, De Leon E, Nave F. 1992. Pharmacologic properties of Moringa oleifera. 2: Screening for
antispasmodic, antiinflammatory and diuretic activity. J Ethnopharmacol 36: 233-7.

4. Anwar F, Bhanger MI. 2003. Analytical characterization of Moringa oleifera seed oil grown in temperate regions of Pakistan. J Agric Food
Chem 51: 6558-63.

5. Oduro W, Ellis O, Owusu D. 2008. Nutritional potential of two leafy vegetables: Moringa oleifera and Ipomoea batatas leaves. Sci Res Essay
3(2):57–60.

6. Thurber MD, Fahey Jed W. 2009. Adoption of Moringa oleifera to combat under-nutrition viewed through the lens of the “diffusion of
innovations” theory. Ecol Food Nutr 48(3): 212- 25.

7. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. 1962. The Wealth of India- A dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products. New
Delhi. p 425-9

8. Fuglie LJ (2001). The Miracle Tree. Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition For The Tropics. CWS, Dakar, Senegal p.115.

9. Udupa SL, AL Udupa, et al. (1994) Studies on the anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties of Moringa oleifera and Aegle marmelos.
Fitoterapia 65(2): 119-123.

10. Villasenor IM, P Finch, CY Lim-Sylianco, F Dayrit (1989) Structure of a mutagen from roasted seeds of Moringa oleifera. Carcinogenesis
10: 1085-1087.

11. Tahiliani P, A Kar (2000) Role of Moringa oleifera leaf extract in the regulation of thyroid hormone status in adult male and female rats.
Pharmacological Research 41(3):319-323.

12. Subadra S, J Monica, et al. (1997) Retention and storage stability of beta-carotene in dehydrated drumstick leaves (Moringa oleifera).
International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 48(6): 373-379