Magnetism

In a region of Asia Minor known as

Magnesia, rocks were formed that could
attract each other. These rocks were called
“magnets” after their place of discovery.

In the 19th century, a crucial discovery was

that electric currents produce magnetic
effects (magnetic fields) like magnets do.
Any magnet, whether it is in the shape of a bar
or a horseshoe, has two ends or faces, called
poles, which is where the magnetic effect is
strongest.

Chinese were making use of a bar magnet

suspended from a fine thread for navigation by
the 11th century and perhaps earlier. This is
the principle of a compass.
A compass needle is simply a bar
magnet which is supported at its center
of gravity so that it can rotate freely.
The pole of a freely suspended magnet
that points toward geographic north is
called the north pole of the magnet.
The other pole points toward the south
and is called the south pole.
Two magnets, when brought
together, each exerts a force on the
other. The force can be either
attractive or repulsive and can be
felt even when the magnets don’t
touch each other. The attraction/
repulsion of poles are reminiscent
of the forces between electric
charges: like poles repel, and unlike
poles attract.
But magnetic poles and electric
charges are very different. One
important difference is that a
positive or negative electric charges
can easily be isolated while the
isolation of a single magnetic pole
has never been observed. Physicists
have searched for isolated single
magnetic poles (monopoles), but
no magnetic monopole has ever
been observed.
An object that contains iron but is
not itself magnetized (that is, it
shows no tendency to point north or
south) is attracted by either pole of
a permanent magnet. We can say
that that a bar magnet sets up a
magnetic field in the space around it
and a second body (nail) responds to
that field.
A compass needle tends to align with the
magnetic field lines as shown in the figure. The
magnetic field lines can be drawn, as for
electric field lines, so that
A. The direction of the magnetic field is tangent
to a field line at any point.
B. The number of lines per unit area is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.
The direction of the magnetic field at a given
point can be defined as the direction that the
north pole of a compass needle would point if
placed at that point.
Thus, the lines always points out
from the north pole toward the
south pole of a magnet and
magnetic field lines continue
inside a magnet and create
closed loops, unlike electric field
lines that begin on positive
charges and end on negative
charges.
The Earth’s magnetic field is shown in
the figure. The pattern of the field
lines is as if there were an imaginary
bar magnet inside the Earth. Since the
north pole (N) of a compass needle
points north, the Earth’s magnetic pole
which is in the geographic north is
magnetically a south pole. Even so,
Earth’s pole in the north is still often
called the “north magnetic pole” or
“geomagnetic north” simply because it
is in the north.
The Earth’s magnetic poles do not
coincide with the geographic poles,
which are on the Earth’s axis of
rotation. Also, the magnetic poles are
moving many kilometres a year at
present. For example, the magnetic
north pole is in Canadian Arctic,
about 900 km from the geographic
north pole, or the “true north” and is
moving to another spot, still within
the vicinity of the true north.
Using a map and compass in the
wilderness: first, you need to
align the compass case with the
map (as shown in the figure) so
the needle will point away from
the true north exactly the number
of degrees of declination as
stated on the map.
Uniform Magnetic Field
The simplest magnetic field situation is
when the field lines are in uniform – the
magnitude and direction doesn’t change from
one point to another. A perfectly uniform field
over a large area is not easy to produce. But the
field between two flat parallel pole pieces of a
magnet is nearly uniform if the area of the pole
faces is large enough compared to their
separation distance. At the edges, the field
“fringes” out and the magnetic field lines are no
longer quite parallel and uniform.
Electric Currents Produce Magnetic Field
During 18th century, many scientist
sought to find a connection between
electricity and magnetism. And in 1820,
Hans Christian Oersted (1777 - 1851)
found that when a compass needle is
placed near an electric magnetic wire, the
needle deflects as soon as the wire is
connected to a battery and the wire
carries an electric current. He showed
that an electric current produces
magnetic field.
A compass needle placed near a
straight section of current-carrying
wire experiences a force, causing to
align tangent to a circle around the
wire. Thus, the magnetic field lines
produced by a current in a straight
wire are in the form of circles with the
wire at their center.
There is a simple way to remember
the direction of the magnetic field
lines. It is called a right-hand rule.
In a long straight current-carrying
wire, the right-hand rule, for this
case only, is grasp the wire with your
right hand so that your thumb
points in the direction of the
conventional current; then your
fingers will encircle the wire in the
direction of the magnetic field.
 In a conductor ring that has electric current on it, the
magnetic field shown is not uniform – the field has
different in magnitude and direction at different points.
 To represent an electric current or magnetic field
directions that is pointing toward us or out of the page, we
use the symbol ⨀. For those quantities going into the page
or going away from us, we use the symbol ⨂. The symbol
⨀ is meant to resemble the tip of an arrow pointing
directly toward the reader while ⨂ resembles the tail of an
arrow going away from you.
Example (Concept): Rotating B
A straight wire carries a current
directly toward you. In what
direction are the magnetic field lines
surrounding the wire? Clockwise or
counterclockwise relative to you?
Careful experiments prove that the magnetic field due
to the current in a long straight current-carrying wire is
directly proportional to the current in the wire and
inversely proportional to the distance from the wire or
the radius of the magnetic field.
𝐼
𝐵∝
𝑟
This relation is valid as long as r, the
perpendicular distance to the wire,
is much less than the distance to the
ends of the wire.
 𝜇𝑜
The proportionality constant is written as , thus
2𝜋
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋 𝑟
The value of the constant 𝜇𝑜 , which is called the
permeability of free space, is 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 ×
10−7 T. m/A.
Example: Electric to Magnetic
An electric wire in the wall of a building
carries a current of 25 A vertically upward.
What is the magnetic field due to this current
at a point P due north of the wire?
Solution:
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 (4𝜋 × 10−7 T. m/A)(25𝐴)
𝐵= =
2𝜋 𝑟 2𝜋 0.10𝑚
𝐵 = 5.0 × 10−5 T
By the right-hand rule, the magnetic field’s direction is ⨂ at
point P, tangent to the loop motion of the magnetic field.
Example: A Stronger Magnetic Field
Two parallel straight wires 10.0 cm apart carry current in
opposite directions. Currents 𝐼1 = 5.0 𝐴 is out of the page, and
𝐼2 = 7.0 𝐴 is into the page. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field halfway between the two wires.
Solution:
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 (4𝜋 × 10−7 T. m/A)(5.0𝐴)
𝐵1 = = = 2.0 × 10−5 T
2𝜋 𝑟 2𝜋 0.050𝑚
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 (4𝜋 × 10−7 T. m/A)(7.0𝐴)
𝐵2 = = = 2.8 × 10−5 T
2𝜋 𝑟 2𝜋 0.050𝑚
𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 = 4.8 × 10−5 𝑇
Magnetic Field of a Circular
Current Loop
The magnetic field strength
at the center of a circular loop is
given with the formula
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑟
Where r is the radius of the
circle. This equation is very similar
to that for a straight wire, but it is
valid only at the center of a
circular loop of wire.
Force on an Electric Current in a Wire under
an External Magnetic Field
Experiments show that the
direction of the force is
always perpendicular to the
direction of the current and
to the direction of the
magnetic field.
 The direction of the
force is given by another
right-hand rule, as illustrated.
For the magnitude of
the force, it is found
experimentally that it is
directly proportional to the
current in the wire, and to
the length of wire exposed
to the magnetic field.
The force also depends
on the angle between
the current direction
and the magnetic field,
being proportional to
sin 𝜃.
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃
Example: Current between Poles
A wire carrying a 30-A current has a
length of 12 cm between the pole
faces of a magnet at an angle of 60o.
The magnetic field is approximately
uniform at 0.90 T. We ignore the field
beyond the pole pieces. What is the
magnitude of the force on the wire?
Example: Magnetic Balance
A rectangular loop of wire hangs
vertically as shown in the figure. A magnetic
field is directed horizontally, perpendicular to
the wire, and points out of the page at all
points. The magnetic field is very nearly
uniform along the horizontal portion of wire
ab (length = 10 cm) which is near the center
of the gap of a large magnet producing the
field. The top portion of the wire loop is free
of the field. The loop hangs from a balance
which measures a downward force (in
addition to the gravitational force) of F =
3.48 x 10-2 N when the wire carries a current
of 0.245 A. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic field?
Force Between Two Parallel
Wires
Consider two long parallel
wires separated by a distance
d, as shown. They carry
current I1 and I2, respectively.
Each current produces a
magnetic field that is “felt” by
the other, so each must exert
a force on the other.
For wire 1,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1
𝐵1 =
2𝜋 𝑑

The force F2 (force acting on

wire 2) exerted by B1 on a
length l2 of wire 2 is
𝐹2 = 𝐼2 𝐵1 𝑙2
Then,
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹2 = 𝑙2
2𝜋 𝑑
If we use the first right-
hand rule, we see that
the magnetic field at
wire 2 is pointing
towards the board (⨂).
Then, using the second
right-hand rule, the
force exerted on wire 2
will be to the left.
If the two currents are in
opposite direction with each
other, the force is repulsive.

Thus, parallel currents in the

same directions attract
each other, whereas
parallel currents in opposite
directions repel.
Example: Magnetic Reaction Forces
The two wires of a 2.0-m-long
appliance cord are 3.0 mm apart
and carry a current of 8.0 A DC.
Calculate the force one wire exerts
on the other.
Example: Floating Device
A horizontal wire
carries a current I1 = 80 A
dc. A second parallel
wire 20 cm below it must
carry how much current
so that it doesn’t fall due
to gravity? The lower wire
has a mass of 0.12g per
meter of length.
Force on Electric Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field

Since a current in a wire

consists of moving electric
charges, we also expect
that freely moving charged
particles (not in a wire)
would also experience a
force when passing through
a magnetic field.
 If N such particles of charge q during time t in
𝑁𝑞
passing through a magnetic field, current is 𝐼 = .
𝑡
The speed of the particle during the travel while
𝑙
exposed in the magnetic field with a distance l, 𝑣 = .
𝑡
Then, the force on these N particles is
𝑁𝑞
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 = (𝑣𝑡)𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑁𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
Thus, for a single particle, the force felt by it is
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
It is again given by another right-hand rule for
electric charges:
•Outstretched fingers =
direction of the velocity
•Bending the finger =
direction of the magnetic
field
•Outstretched thumb =
direction of the force
This is true only for positively
charged particles.
Example: Magnetic Aura
A negative charge –Q is placed at
rest near a magnet. Will the charge
begin to move? Will it feel a force?
What if the charge were positive, +Q?
Explain.
Example: This B Force is so Strong – says the Proton
A proton having a speed of 5.0 x 106 m/s in a
magnetic field feels a force of 8.0 x 10-14 N toward
the west when it moves vertically upward. When
moving horizontally in a
northerly direction, it feels
zero force. Determine the
magnitude and direction
of the magnetic field in
this region.
The path of a charged
particle moving in a plane
perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field is a circle.
Because the force is always
perpendicular to the
velocity, the magnitude of
the velocity does not
change – the electron
moves at constant speed.
Thus, the particle undergoes a
constant centripetal
𝑣2
acceleration 𝑎 = in a
𝑟
uniform magnetic field. The
electron moves clockwise as
shown in the figure. If positive
particle is the one exposed in
the same field, it would move
counterclockwise.
Example: B Ferris Wheel
An electron travels
at 2.0 x 10 m/s in a
7

plane perpendicular to
a uniform 0.010-T
magnetic field. What is
the radius of the
circular path?
Example (Concept):
What is the path of a charged particle in
a uniform magnetic field if its velocity is not
perpendicular to the magnetic field?
AURORA BOREALIS
(Northern Lights)
It is due to charged ions
approaching the Earth from
the Sun (the “solar wind”)
and enters the atmosphere
mainly near the poles. As a
particle approaches the
North pole, the magnetic
field is stronger and the
radius of the helical path
becomes smaller.
 The high concentration
of charged particles ionizes
the air, and as the electrons
recombine with atoms, light
is emitted which is the
aurora.
Auroras are especially
spectacular during periods
of high sunspot activity
when the solar wind brings
more charged particles
toward the Earth.
Solenoid
It is a long coil of wire consisting
of many loops (or turns) of wire.
The magnetic field of a solenoid can be
fairly large because it is the sum of the
fields due to the current in each loop.
*A solenoid acts like a magnet; one end
can be considered the north pole and
the other the south pole, depending on
the direction of the current in the
loops.
 The magnetic field
inside a tightly wrapped
solenoid with N turns of
wire in a length l, each
carrying a current, is
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑵
𝑩=
𝒍
If a piece of iron is place inside a solenoid, the
magnetic field is increased greatly because the
iron becomes a magnet. Thus, the resulting
magnetic field is the sum of that due to the
current and that due to the iron, and can be
hundreds or thousands of times that due to
the current alone. Such an iron-core solenoid is
called an electromagnet.
Another useful device consists of a solenoid into which
a rod of iron is partially inserted. This combination is
also referred to as a solenoid.
Doorbell
-when the circuit is closed by pushing the button,
the coil effectively becomes a magnet and exerts a
force on the iron rod.