TOPIC 20 MAGNETIC FIELDS

KEY AREAS TO STUDY

AREA 1 Concept of a magnetic field

Candidates should be able to:
1 understand that a magnetic field is an example of a field of force produced either by
moving charges or by permanent magnets
2 represent a magnetic field by field lines

AREA 2 Force on a current-carrying conductor

Candidates should be able to:
1 understand that a force might act on a current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field
2 recall and use the equation F = B IL sin θ, with directions as interpreted by Fleming’s
left-hand rule
3 define magnetic flux density as the force acting per unit current per unit length on a
wire placed at right-angles to the magnetic field

AREA 3 Force on a moving charge

Candidates should be able to:
1 determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field
2 recall and use F= BQv sin θ
3 understand the origin of the Hall voltage and derive and use the expression:
VH = BI / (ntq), where t = thickness
4 understand the use of a Hall probe to measure magnetic flux density
5 describe the motion of a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the particle
6 explain how electric and magnetic fields can be used in velocity selection

20.4 Magnetic fields due to currents

Candidates should be able to:
1 sketch magnetic field patterns due to the currents in a long straight wire, a flat circular
coil and a long solenoid
2 understand that the magnetic field due to the current in a solenoid is increased by a
ferrous core
3 explain the origin of the forces between current-carrying conductors and determine
the direction of the Forces

20.5 Electromagnetic induction

Candidates should be able to:
1 define magnetic flux as the product of the magnetic flux density and the cross-
sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux density
2 recall and use F = BA
3 understand and use the concept of magnetic flux linkage 4 understand and explain
experiments that demonstrate:

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  that a changing magnetic flux can induce an e.m.f. in a circuit
 that the induced e.m.f. is in such a direction as to oppose the change producing it
 the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. 5 recall and use Faraday’s
and Lenz’s laws of electromagnetic induction

20.1 CONCEPT OF A MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnetic compass is dependent on the fact that a freely suspended magnet will
come to rest pointing north–south. The ends of the magnet are said to be poles.
The pole pointing to the north is referred to as the north-seeking pole (the north pole or
N-pole) and the other, the south-seeking pole (the south pole or S-pole). It is now
known that a compass behaves in this way because the Earth is itself a magnet.
Magnets exert forces on each other. These forces of either attraction or repulsion are
used in many children’s toys, in door catches and ‘fridge magnets’. The effects of the
forces may be summarized in the law of magnets.

Definition
A magnet is a piece of metal that has the ability to attract other metals.

Examples of metals:
- Permanent bar magnet.
- Horse-shoe metal.

Law of magnetism

States that Like poles repel while Unlike poles attract.

The law of magnets implies that around any magnet, there is a region where a magnetic
pole will experience a force.

This region is known as a magnetic field.

Properties of a magnet
❖ Like poles repel and unlike poles attract
❖ When freely suspended it rest in the north- south direction with the north facing geographic
north.
❖ Magnetic field lines run from north to south

❖ Magnetic force of attraction and repulsion is greatest at the poles.

Definition

A magnetic field is a region of space where a magnetic pole experiences a force.

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The magnetic field:
A magnetic Field is a region or space in which:
a) a magnetic dipole (magnet) experiences a force.
b) a current carrying conductor experiences a force or a moving charge experiences a force
c) an emf is induced in a moving conductor

REPRESENTATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

Field lines are used to represent the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field. The
strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the density of the field lines. The direction of
the magnetic field is represented by the magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are taken
to pass through the magnet, emerging from the North Pole and returning via the South Pole.
The lines are continuous and do not cross each other.

Magnetic fields are not visible but they may be represented by lines of magnetic force or
magnetic field lines.

We will return later in this topic to a fuller understanding of how the density or relative
spacing of the field lines can be related to a quantity called magnetic ‘flux’.

A simple way of imagining magnetic field lines is to think of one such line as the
direction in which a free magnetic north pole would move if placed in the field.

Magnetic field lines may be plotted using a small compass (a plotting compass) or by
the use of iron filings and a compass (Figure 20.1).

The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet are shown in Figure 20.2.

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For any magnetic field:
» the magnetic field lines start at a north pole and end at a south pole
» the arrow on each line shows the direction in which a free magnetic north pole would
move if placed at that point on the line
» the magnetic field lines are smooth curves which never touch or cross
» the strength of the magnetic field is indicated by the closeness of the lines – the closer
the lines, the stronger the magnetic field.

Magnetic field pattern between north pole and south pole

Magnetic field pattern between same poles

Magnetic effect of an electric current

It is noticed that a compass will deflect when brought near to a wire carrying an electric
current. It is now known that all electric currents produce magnetic fields.
The size and shape of the magnetic field depends on the size of the current and the
shape (configuration) of the conductor through which the current is travelling.
The shape of the fields will be considered.

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Hence, a fuller understanding of a magnetic field is that:
A magnetic field is a region of space where a force is experienced either by moving
charges or by permanent magnets.

20.2 Magnetic force due to a current carrying conductor in the magnetic field

Electric currents cause magnetic fields around them, therefore when placed in a magnetic
field the two magnetic fields interact and produce a force. The two forces can move wires and
turn coils which carry electric current.

Factors affecting magnitude and direction of force

(i) Current ( ∝ 𝐼 ) . Increase in current increases the force
(ii) Length of wire in the field ( ∝ 𝐿 )
(iii) Strength of magnet/magnetic flux density ( ∝ 𝐵 )
(iv) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Where 𝜃 is the angle between the conductor and the magnetic field.

Magnetic flux density,B

This is the force acting on a 1m long conductor carrying current of 1A in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic field. When 𝜃 = 90°
 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛90 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿

The unit of B is the Tesla (T)

Definition
The Tesla is the magnetic flux density in a magnetic field when a force of 1N acts on a
conductor of length 1m, carrying a current of 1A, in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
field.

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The motor effect
The interaction of the magnetic fields produced by two magnets causes forces of
attraction or repulsion between the two.
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor. If a
conductor is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet and a current is passed
through the conductor, the magnetic fields of the current-carrying conductor and the
magnet will interact, causing forces between them. This is illustrated in the figure below.

The existence of the force may be demonstrated with the apparatus shown in Figure
below

The strip of aluminium foil is held loosely between the poles of a horseshoe magnet so
that the foil is at right angles to the magnetic field.
When the current is switched on, the foil jumps and becomes taut, showing that a force
is acting on it.
The direction of the force, known as the electromagnetic force, depends on the
directions of the magnetic field and of the current.
This phenomenon, when a current-carrying conductor is at an angle to a magnetic field,
is called the motor effect and is used in motors.
The direction of the force relative to the directions of the current and the magnetic field
may be predicted using Fleming’s left-hand rule. This is illustrated in Figure 20.10.

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If the first two fingers and thumb of the left hand are held at right angles to one another
with the First finger in the direction of the Field and the seCond finger in the direction of
the Current, then the thuMb gives the direction of the force or Motion.

20.3 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE

An electric current is charge in motion.
Since charge is always associated with particles, then the current in a conductor is a
movement of charged particles.
If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it may experience a force
depending on the angle between the field and the conductor.
The force arises from the force on the individual moving charged particles in the
conductor.
It has been shown that a conductor of length L carrying a current I at an angle θ to a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B experiences a force F given by

F = BIL sin θ
If there are n charged particles in a length L of the conductor, each carrying a charge
q, that pass a point in the conductor in time t, then the current I in the conductor is given
by

This force is the force on n charged particles.

Therefore,

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The force on a particle of charge q moving at speed v at an angle θ to a uniform
magnetic field of flux density B is given by
F = Bqv sin θ.
The direction of the force will be given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Consider a positively charged particle of mass m carrying charge q and moving with
velocity v as shown in Figure below.

The particle enters a uniform magnetic field of flux density B which is normal to the
direction of motion of the particle. As the particle enters the field, it will experience a
force normal to its direction. This force will not change the speed of the particle but it will
change its direction of motion. As the particle moves through the field, the force will
remain constant, since the speed has not changed, and it will always be normal to the
direction of motion. The particle will, therefore, move in an arc of a circle of radius r.

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Examples
1. A conductor of length 10cm carrying a current of 5A is placed in magnetic field of flux
density 0.2T. calculate the force on the conductor when placed;
(i) At right angle to the field
(ii) At 300 to the field
(iii) Parallel to the field

Solution
(i) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 0.2𝑥5𝑥0.1𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝑵

(ii) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 0.2𝑥5𝑥0.1𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝐹 = 0.087𝑁

(iii) 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 0.2𝑥5𝑥0.1𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛0
𝑭 = 𝟎𝑵

Specific charge of the electron:

The fine-beam tube
Specific charge is the name given to the ratio of the charge q on a particle and its mass
m.
specific charge = q/m

As already mentioned, specific charge can give us information about a particle and, if
the charge on the particle is known, then the mass of the particle can be determined.
The charge on the electron is 1.60 × 10-19C.

Determination of the specific charge on the electron enables us to obtain a value for its
mass.
We have seen above that a particle of mass m and charge q moving with speed v at
right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density B experiences a force F given by

F = Bqv

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The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and is always normal to
the velocity, giving rise to circular motion
Bqv = mv2/r
Re-arranging the terms,
q/m = v/Br

The ratio charge/mass (e/me) for an electron – its specific charge – may be determined
using a fine-beam tube, as shown in Figure below

The path of electrons is made visible by having low-pressure gas in the tube and, thus,
the radius of the orbit may be measured.
By accelerating the electrons through a known potential difference V, their speed v on
entry into the region of the magnetic field may be calculated using

The magnetic field is provided by a pair of current-carrying coils (Helmholtz coils, see
Figure 20.27).

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Velocity selection of charged particles
We have seen that when particles of mass m and charge +q enter an electric field of
field strength E, there is a force F on the particle given by
FE= qEE

If the velocity of the particles before entry into the field is v and is at right angles to the
field lines, the particles will follow a parabolic path as they pass through the field.

Now suppose that a uniform magnetic field acts in the same region as the electric field.
If this field acts downwards into the plane of the page, then, by Fleming’s left-hand rule,
a force will act on the charged particle in the direction opposite to the force due to the
electric field.
The magnitude FE of this force is given by

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 HALL EFFECTS
This is the setting up of an 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 transversely across a conductor when a perpendicular
magnetic field is applied.
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field has a small potential difference across its
sides at right angles to the field.
Consider a thin slice of a conductor which is normal to a magnetic field, as illustrated in
Figure

20.19.

If the metal is placed in a magnetic field B, at right angles to the face ADCO of the slab and
directed out of paper, a force 𝐵𝑒 then acts on each electron in the direction from CD to AO.
(Fleming’s left hand rule).
Therefore electrons accumulate along then side AO of the metal making AO negatively
charged and DC positively charged.

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Hence a 𝑝. 𝑑 or 𝑒𝑚𝑓 which opposes the electron flow is set up.
A equilibrium: 𝐸𝑒 = 𝐵𝑒𝑉

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Definition
Hall voltage is the maximum p.d set up across a conductor when a perpendicular magnetic
field is applied.

Measurement of magnetic flux density using hall probe

❖ A semiconductor slice is connected across a source of d.c voltage and a voltmeter aacross
the slice as shown above
❖ The slice is now placed in the test magnetic field such that the face ABCD is perpendicular
to the field.
❖ The voltmeter reading V is noted. The slice is now placed into a magnetic field whose flux
density 𝐵0 is known
❖ The voltmeter reading 𝑉0 is noted
❖ The test flux density is now calculated from:

20.4 MAGNETIC FIELDS DUE TO CURRENT

(i) Magnetic flux density at a point a distance r from a long straight wire carrying
current
The magnetic field due to a long straight wire may be plotted using the apparatus
illustrated in Figure 20.21. Note that the current must be quite large. Iron filings are
sprinkled on to the horizontal board and a plotting compass is used to determine the
direction of the field.

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(ii) Magnetic flux density at the center of a circular coil of N turns each of turns
each of radius R and carrying a current I.

Figure 20.22 shows the field pattern due to a long straight current-carrying wire.
The lines are concentric circles centred on the middle of the wire. The separation of the
lines increases with distance from the wire, indicating that the field is decreasing in
strength. The direction of the magnetic field may be found using the right-hand rule as
illustrated in Figure 20.23.

(iii) Magnetic flux density along the axis of a long solenoid of n turns per
meter, each carrying a current I.
A solenoid may be thought of as being made up of many flat coils placed
side-by side. The magnetic field pattern of a long solenoid (that is, a coil
which is long in comparison with its diameter) is shown in Figure 20.25.

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The field lines are parallel and equally spaced over the centre section of the solenoid,
indicating that the field is uniform. The field lines spread out towards the ends. The
strength of the magnetic field at each end is one-half that at the centre. The direction of
the magnetic field in a flat coil and in a solenoid may be found using the right-hand
grip rule, as illustrated in Figure 20.26.

Grasp the coil or solenoid in the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of
the conventional current. The thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field.
The magnetic north end of the coil or solenoid is the end from which the lines of
magnetic force are emerging. Note the similarities and, more importantly, the
differences between this rule and the right-hand rule for the long straight wire (Figure
20.23).
Uniform magnetic fields are of importance in the study of charged particles, such as
when using a velocity selector (see Topic 20.3) or when using a fine-beam tube to
determine the ratio e/m.

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A uniform field is produced in a solenoid but this field is inside the solenoid and
consequently, it may be difficult to make observations and to take measurements. This
problem is overcome by using Helmholtz coils. These are two identical flat coils,
with the same current in each. The coils are positioned so that their planes are parallel
and separated by a distance equal to the radius of either coil. The coils and their
resultant magnetic field are illustrated in Figure 20.27.

Examples
1. A solenoid of 2000 turns, 75cm long and carrying a current of 2.5A. Calculate the magnetic
flux
density at;
(i) Center of the solenoid
(ii) End solenoid

Magnetic force in a current carrying straight conductor

Explain why a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.

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❖ Consider a single straight wire carrying current at right angles to a uniform magnetic field.
❖ Current in the wire produces a magnetic field around the wire.
❖ The external magnetic field interacts with the field due to the current.
❖ The resultant magnetic field is stronger below the wire than above .
❖ The force due to the resultant magnetic field acts on the wire.

Magnetic field due to two straight wires carrying current in the same direction

A force on each wire acts from a region of strong field hence straight parallel wires carrying
current to the same direction attract i.e. “like currents attract”

Magnetic field due to straight wires carrying current in the opposite direction

Straight parallel wires carrying current to the opposite direction repel.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTOR

(Magnitude of the force between two wires carrying current).

Consider like currents.

Example

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Electromagnets and their uses
The strength of the magnetic field due to a flat coil or a solenoid may be increased by
winding the coil on a bar of soft iron.
The bar is said to be the core of the coil. The iron is referred to as being ‘soft’ because
it can be magnetised and demagnetised easily. With such a core (ferrous core), the
strength of the magnetic field may be increased by up to 1000 times.

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With ferrous alloys (iron alloyed with cobalt or nickel), the field may be 104 times
stronger. Magnets such as these are called electromagnets.
Electromagnets have many uses because, unlike a permanent magnet, the magnetic
field can be switched off by switching off the current in the coil.

20.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a conductor wire moves across a magnetic field such that it cuts the magnetic field lines,
an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 / current is induced in the wire.
This process is called electromagnetic induction.

Definition
Electromagnetic induction is a process of generating an 𝑒𝑚𝑓/ current is induced in a conductor
when flux linking it changes.

MAGNETIC FLUX ( )
Magnetic flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and projection of the area normal
to the magnetic field.
Consider an area A, the normal of which makes an angle, with the uniform magnetic field of
flux density B.

The component of B along the normal to the area is 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 .

The magnetic flux through the area,
𝛷 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
For N turns of the coil, total flux/(magnetic flux linkage) 𝛷 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
If the magnetic field is perpendicular to the area A, then 𝜃 = 0
magnetic flux 𝛷 = 𝐴𝐵cos𝜃 ,
Thus 𝛷 = 𝐴𝐵
The unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
Definition
Weber: is the flux linking a circuit when the induced e.m.f is 1V and the flux is uniformly
reduced to zero in one second.

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 Laws of electromagnetic induction

Lenz’s law: The induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 acts in such a direction as to oppose the change in the flux
causing it.

Illustration of Lenz’s law

❖ When a magnet is suddenly pushed with its south pole towards a coil connected on a
galvanometer, the galvanometer shows a deflection showing that current has been induced in
the coil.

❖ On removal of the magnet from the coil, the galvanometer again deflects but in opposite
direction.

Lenz’s law and conservation of energy

❖ When a magnet is suddenly pushed into a coil, current is induced in the coil and flows in
such a direction that makes A a south pole.
❖ So work done by the external agent in moving the magnet and cause current to flow is the
one converted to electrical energy, heat in the circuit and mechanical energy which deflects
the pointer hence energy is conserved.

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Faraday’s law:
It states that the magnitude of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate
of change of magnetic flux linking it.

Demonstration of Faraday’s experiments

❖ As the switch K is closed, G shows a sudden temporary deflection showing that current is
induced in a secondary coil. This is because the current in the primary coil increases from zero
to a certain steady value, increasing the magnetic field and hence the number of field lines
through the secondary.
❖ When K remains closed, G indicates no deflection, no emf is induced when the magnetic
field lines through the secondary remain constant. As K is opened, G shows a sudden
temporary deflection in the opposite direction. This is because the decrease in the primary
current causes the field lines though the secondary to decrease.
Therefore G only deflects when the current in the primary is changing and hence the magnetic
flux through the secondary is changing.

Examples
1. A narrow coil of 60 turns and area 8𝑐𝑚2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density
B of 0.4T so that the flux links the turns normally. If the flux is reduced to zero in 0.25s, find;
a. Initial flux through the coil
b. Initial flux linkage c. Induced e.m.f

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2. An air cored long solenoid of 500 circular turns per metre and radius 8.0 cm has a
secondary coil of 20 turns tightly wound round its middle. The current in the solenoid is 2.0 A.
Find the e. m. f induced in the coil when the current in the solenoid is reduced to zero in 10-2 s.
Solution

3. The uniform flux density between the poles of a magnet is 0.075T. A small coil of
area of cross-section 4.8cm 2 has 200 turns and is placed with its plane at right angles to
the magnetic field. The coil is withdrawn from the field in a time of 0.24s.
Determine:
a the magnetic flux through the coil when it is between the poles of the magnet
b the change in magnetic flux linkage when the coil is removed from the field
c the average e.m.f. induced in the coil whilst it is being withdrawn.

Applications of electromagnetic induction

Eddy current damping

The generation of an electric current in a conductor by doing mechanical work may be
shown by spinning a metal disc in a magnetic field, as illustrated in Figure 20.36.

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An e.m.f. is induced between the rim of the disc and the axle.
The apparatus illustrated is the basis of a means by which a direct e.m.f. may be
generated.
The disc is seen to slow down much more rapidly with the magnet in place than when it
has been removed. As the disc spins, it cuts through the flux lines of the magnet. This
cutting becomes more obvious if the radius of the disc is considered.
As the radius rotates, it will cut flux. An e.m.f will be induced in the disc but, because
the rate of cutting of flux varies from one part of the disc to another, the e.m.f. will have
different magnitudes in different regions of the disc.
The disc is metal and, therefore, electrons will move between regions within the disc
that have different e.m.f values. Currents are induced in the disc. Since these currents
vary in magnitude and direction, they are called eddy currents.
The eddy currents cause heating in the disc and the dissipation of the energy of rotation
of the disc is referred to as eddy current damping.

Emf induced between two coil

A current-carrying solenoid or coil is known to have a magnetic field.
Consider the apparatus illustrated in Figure 20.37.

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As the current in coil A is being switched on, the magnetic field in this coil grows. The
magnetic field links with the turns on coil B and, as a result, there is a change in flux
linkage in coil B and an e.m.f. is induced in this coil. Coil B forms part of a complete
circuit and hence there is a current in coil B. The direction of this current can be
determined using Lenz’s law.
The change which brought about the induction of a current was a growth in the
magnetic flux in coil A. The induced current in coil B will give rise to a magnetic field in
coil B and this field will, by Lenz’s law, try to oppose the growth of the field in coil A.
Consequently, since the field in coil A is vertically upwards (the right-hand grip rule), the
field in coil B will be vertically downwards and the induced current will be in an
anticlockwise direction through the meter.

Induced current
This a current obtained without use of a battery and the e.m.f which produces that current is
called induced e.m.f

Direction of induced current in a straight wire

To predict the direction of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 (current), we use Fleming’s right hand rule or dynamo
rule.

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