• Understanding Causality - Children do not

reason logically, instead, they reason by

Early Childhood (3-6 years old) transduction. They mentally link two events
Also known as Preschool Year, a period of the especially events close in time, whether or not
life span after infancy and before the child begins. there is logically a causal relationship.
• Understanding of Identities and
Physical Development Categorization
• Appearance and body proportions changes.
– Identity - A thing stays the same even if there
• Generate new bone tissue, ossification is
is change in outer appearance.
associated with bones’ becoming harder and
– Categorization - Identifying similarities and
stronger.
differences.
• Ability for proper body coordination.
• Understanding of Number
Sleep – Cardinality Principle - The last number word
Preschoolers get all or almost all their sleep in used in counting represents the total number of
one long time period. items in a collection.

Sleep Disturbances Immature Aspects of Preoperational

• Night/Sleep Terror (NREM Sleep) Thought
• Sleep Talking/Walking • Centration - Focuses only on one aspect of a
• Nightmares - Related to difficult child situation then neglect others.
temperament • (Lacks) Decenter - Think about several aspects
• Nocturnal Enuresis (Bed Wetting) of a situation at one time.
• Egocentrism - Inability to consider others point
Motor Development of view.
This time period enables Preschoolers to gain
• (Lacks) Conservation - Awareness that 2
basic locomotion skills such as:
objects are equal according to a certain measure
· running · throwing
remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration
· jumping · catching
so long as nothing has been added to or taken
· skipping · kicking
away from either object.
Health and Safety
• Obesity (Hereditary)
Infomation Processing Approach
3 Processes of Memory
• Undernutrition (Stunted ↑W ↓H, Wasted ↓W ↑H)
1. Encoding - Process by which information is
• Food Allergies (Eventually outgrown)
prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval.
• Oral Health (Thumb Sucking, Tooth Decay)
2. Storage - Retention of information in memory
• Death and Injuries (In PH, Pneumonia is a
for future use.
common cause)
– Sensory Memory - Temporary memory house
Advances of Preoperational Thought for incoming sensory information.
• Symbolic Function - Ability to use mental – Working Memory - Short-term storage of
representatives (words, numbers, images) to information a person is actively working on.
which a child has attached meaning. – Long-term Memory - Storehouse of virtually
– Deferred Play - Imitating actions after unlimited capacity that holds information for long
observing. periods of time.
– Pretend Play - Imaginary Play; Uses object to · Phonological Loop - Verbal information.
represent something. · Visuospatial Loop - Visual information.
– Language - Most extensive use of symbol. 3. Retrieval - Process by which information is
• Understanding of Objects in Space - Begins to accessed or recalled from memory storage.
understand the symbols that described physical – Recognition - Ability to identify something
spaces. Children starts to grasp the relationship encountered before.
of pictures, maps, and scale models and the – Recall - Ability to reproduce knowledge from a
object they represent. memory.
 • Types of prereading skills:
– Oral Language Skills - Vocabulary, Syntax,
Forming and Retaining Childhood Narrative Structure
Memories – Specific Phonological Skills - Linking letters
*Early conscious memories are short-lived. with sounds
• Generic Memory - Processes ideas and Types of Preschools
concepts not drawn from personal experiences;
• Montessori Method [Dr. Maria Montessori] -
Memories from general knowledge. Children are free to explore and learn at their
• Episodic Memory - Long-term memory of own pace in a prepared environment.
specific experiences or events linked to a time
• Reggio Emilia Approach [Reggio Emilia] -
and space. Learning is based on child's questions and
• Autobiographical Memory - Memories that have interest. More on arts and expressions.
a special personal meaning to the child and forms
a person's distinct life history. The Developing Self
• Self-concept - Sense of self. Descriptive and
Traditional Psychometric Measures evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and
• Stanford-Binet Scale (SB5) - Individual traits.
intelligence test for ages 2+ to measure fluid
• Social Aspect - Children incorporate into their
reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
self-image their growing understanding of how
visual-spatial processing and working memory.
others see them.
• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale or • Self-esteem - The judgement children make
Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) - Individual intelligence
about their overall worth.
test for children ages 2 1/2 and 7. Verbal and
– Contingent Self-esteem (The Helpless
Performance scores and a combined score. Fluid
Pattern) - Success tend to become demoralized
Reasoning, Receptive vs. Expressive Vocabulary
when they fail. They often attribute their failure to
and Processing Speed.
their deficiencies.
Scaffolding [Vygotsky] - Temporary support (of – Generic Praise - "Good job!"
an adult) to help a child to master a task. – Targeted Praise - "Good job drawing!"

Language Development (3-6 years old) Regulating Emotions

Vocabulary, Grammar, Syntax Emotional self-regulation helps children guide
• Age 3 - Knows and uses 900 to 1,000 words. their behavior and adjust their reposnses to meet
Can use plurals, possessives, and past tenses. societal expectations.
Sentences are short, simple, and declarative. • Social Emotions - Emotions involved in the
• Age 6 - Has expressive vocabulary of 2,600 regulation of social behavior that require self
words and understands 20,000+. awareness and the understanding of other
viewpoints. (Guilt, Shame, Pride)
Pragmatics and Social Skills
• Pragmatics - Practical knowledge of how to use Courage Fear
language and communicate Initiative vs. Guilt (Conflicting feelings about Self)
They want to do more and more things, but they
• Social Speech - Intended to be understood by
also learn that some of the things they want to do
someone.
meet social approval and some do not.
• Private Speech - Talking aloud to one's self.
Normal and common at this age. Gender
• Gender Identity - An awareness developed in
Delayed Language Development
early childhood that one is a male or female.
Boys are likely to be late talkers.
• Gender Roles - Are the behaviors, interests,
Preparation for Literacy attitudes, skills and personality traits that a culture
• Emergent Literacy - Child's existing knowledge considers appropriate for males and females.
of reading and writing before they learn at school. • Gender Typing - Socialization process whereby
children learn appropriate gender roles.
 Forms of Parent Discipline
• Reinforcement and Punishment
• Gender Stereotypes - Generalizations about
– External Reinforcement - Tangible (treats)
male or female behaviors.
and intangible (praises).
• Gender Segregation - Tendency to select
– Internal Reinforcement - Feeling a sense of
playmates of one's own gender.
accomplishment.
Perspectives on Gender Development – Corporal Punishment - Use of physical force
• Biological Approach - Biological differences to inflict pain.
between 2 sexes. (Genetics, anatomical • Inductive Technique/Reasoning - Designed to
functions, hormones, puberty effects) encourage desirable behavior by appealing to a
• Evolutionary Approach [Charles Darwin] - child’s sense of reason and fairness.
Child develops gender roles in preparation for • Power Assertion - Intended to stop or
adult mating and reproductive behavior. (Natural discourage undesirable behavior through physical
and sexual selection) or verbal enforcement of control.
• Psychoanalytic Approach [Sigmund Freud] - • Withdrawal of Love - Disciplinary strategy that
Young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for
values, and behaviors of the parent of the same a child.
sex. (Resolution of unconscious emotional
Parenting Styles [Baumrind]
conflict)
• Cognitive Approach [Lawrence Kohlberg] -
Cognitive Developmental Theory (Self-
categorization)
– Gender Identity - Awareness of one's own
gender.
– Gender Stability - Awareness the gender
doesn't change. Judge gender on superficial
appearances and behaviors.
– Gender Consistency - "A girl remains a girl
even if she has short haircut and plays with
trucks"
• Gender Schema Theory [Sandra Bem, Carol
Lynn Martin, Charles Halverson] - Child Prosocial Behavior
organizes information about what is considered Any voluntary behavior intended to help others.
appropriate for a boy and girl on the basis of – Altruism - help others out without expectation
culture. (Self-categorization based on cultural of external rewards.
information)
• Social Learning Approach [Albert Bandura, Aggression
Walter Mischel] - Child mentally combines • Instrumental Aggression - Used as an
observations of gendered behaviors in society instrument to reach a goal.
and creates behavioral variations. (Observations • Overt Aggression - Aggressive behaviors that
of models, reinforcement) are openly displayed and observable (boys).
• Relational Aggression - Aimed at damaging or
3 Primary Sources of Social Influences on interfering with another person's relationship,
Gender Development: Family, Peers, Culture reputation, or psychological wellbeing (girls).
Cognitive Levels of Play [Smilansky] Fearfulness
• Functional Play - Locomotor play Likely to be frightened by something that looks
• Constructive Play - Object play scary than by something capable of doing great
• Dramatic Play - Pretend play harm. Can also be tied to negative events directly
• Formal Games with Rules - Organized game experienced.
with rules
 • Chronic Medical Conditions - Physical,
developmental, behavioral, or emotional
Middle & Late Childhood conditions that persist for 3 months or longer.
(7-11 years old) • Diabetes
Physical Development – Type 1 (Inherited) - Insulin deficiency
• Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each year.
– Type 2 (Acquired) - Insulin resistant
• Weights approximately doubles per year.
• Girls retain somewhat more fatty tissues than Concrete Operational Child (7-12 years old)
boys (persists through adulthood). Starting from 7, children can use mental
• Tooth decay remains one of the most common operations, such as reasoning, solving concrete
chronic untreated conditions. problems. Children can think logically because
• Recommended calories per day for a 9-13 years they can take multiple aspects of a situation into
old range from 1,400 to 2,600, depending on account.
gender and activity level. Advances in Selected Cognitive Abilities
Sleep during Middle Childhood
Children ages 6-13 needs 10-hour sleep a day. • Spacial Relationship - School-age children
develop better spatial understanding, enabling
Brain Development
them to interpret maps, estimate travel time,
• Faster and more efficient information processing.
remember routes and landmarks, and navigate
• Enhanced ability to ignore distracting information.
familiar environments.
Motor Development and Physical Activity • Causality - Children's ability to make cause-and-
• Developing Countries: effect judgments improves as their growing
– Children often work, leaving little time for knowledge of the world enhances the quality of
physical play. their reasoning.
• Other Countries: • Categorization
– Children spend less time on sports and outdoor – Seriation - The ability to arrange objects by
activities. dimensions (color/height), is crucial for early
– More time is spent on schooling, homework, numeracy. Success in seriation supports later
and media activities. mathematical achievement, while difficulties with
– Many children participate in organized sports. it can predict future math learning challenges.
• Recess - Activities are mostly informal and social – Transitive Inference - The ability to
in nature. understand the relationship between two objects
– Boys prefer more physically active games. by knowing their relationship to a third object (A <
– Girls engage in games involving verbal B and B < C, then A < C).
expression or counting aloud. – Class Inclusion - The ability to understand the
relationship between a whole and its parts,
Health, Fitness, and Safety
The death rate in these years is the lowest due to including recognizing categories within a whole.
vaccines. • Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
– Inductive Reasoning (Concrete Operations
Body Image and Obesity Stage) - Moves from specific observations about
• Boys are slightly more likely to be overweight
members of a class to general conclusions about
than girls.
the class.
• Concern with body image becomes significant
– Deductive Reasoning (Develops in
early in middle childhood, particularly for girls.
Adolescence) - Moves from a general premise
• Body image concerns in girls may lead to eating
about a class to specific conclusions about
disorders during adolescence.
individual members of the class.
Medical Conditions • Conservation - Children in the concrete
• Acute Medical Conditions - Occasional, short- operational stage grasp the law of conservation
term conditions such as infections, colds, flu, due to their understanding of identity, reversibility,
fever. and the ability to decenter.
 ...intelligence in one area doesn't guarantee high
intelligence in others.
• Number and Mathematics - As children age, · Visual-spatial · Interpersonal
their ability to estimate improves, including mental · Verbal-linguistic · Intrapersonal
math skills, number line estimation, computational · Musical-rhythmic · Naturalistic
estimation, and measurement estimation. · Logical-mathematical · Bodily-kinesthetic
Information Processing Approach Triarchic Theory of Intelligence [Robert
Executive Function - The conscious control of
Sternberg]
thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish
Everyone has these 3 abilities to a greater or
goals or solve problems.
lesser extent.
Selective Attention - Children has now the • Componential Element - Focuses on efficient
ability to focus on specific information while information processing, problem-solving, solution
ignoring distractions. monitoring, and result evaluation.
• Experiential Element - Involves insightful and
Development of Memory Strategies
• Mnemonic Device - A strategy to avoid memory creative approaches to novel and familiar tasks,
• External Memory Aids - Strategy using comparing new information to existing knowledge
something outside the person. (Writing) and fostering original thinking.
• Rehearsal - A strategy to keep an item in the • Contextual Element - Emphasizes practical
working memory through conscious repetition. skills, environmental adaptation, situational
• Organization - Strategy of categorizing material assessment, and choosing appropriate actions.
to be remembered in order to make it easier to Tacit Knowledge - Also known as street smart,
recall. refers to practical skills and knowledge not
• Elaboration - Strategy of associating the items formally taught but essential for success and
to be remembered with something else. survival in everyday life
• Metamemory - The knowledge of and reflection
about memory process. Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) -
Measures three distinct abilities: analytical,
Psychometric Approach creative, and practical.
• Wechler Intelligence Scale for Children - The
most widely used individual intelligence test for Language and Literacy
children aged 6 to 16 measures verbal and Children's language development shows
performance abilities, assesses strengths, and increasing precision in vocabulary, understanding
helps diagnose specific problems. of multiple word meanings based on context,
• Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT 8) - A increased use of simile and metaphor, and more
popular group intelligence test for kindergarten complex sentence structures with subordinate
through 12th grade tht assesses verbal and clauses.
numerical skills, general knowledge, and
following directions, identifying specific strengths
Influences on School Achievement
• Self-efficacy Belief - Students with high self-
and weaknesses in various reasoning areas.
efficacy believe they can master their schoolwork
Influences on Intelligence and regulate their learning, leading to greater
Brain size and gray matter volume are success and motivation.
moderately correlated with intelligence, with • Gender - Girls generally perform better in school
inherited factors influencing IQ and specific than boys, while boys excel in mental rotations,
connectivity associated with non-verbal with early experiences, biological differences, and
intelligence, especially in girls. cultural expectations influencing these outcomes.
• Parenting Practices - High parental expectations
Theory of Multiple Intelligence [Howard
correlate with children's academic success,
Gardner] possibly due to children adopting similar beliefs
Multiple distinct forms of intelligence exist,
about their abilities.
independent of each other, meaning high...
 • The amount of autonomy parents provide affects
how their children feel about them.
• Socioeconomic Status - Significantly impacts • Parents of school-aged children often use
educational achievement through its influence on inductive discipline techniques.
various family and environmental factors, even • Children experiencing high levels of family conflict
affecting brain development. are more prone to developing internalizing or
• Peer Acceptance - Peer rejection is associated externalizing behaviors.
with poor academic performance, and this
relationship may be reciprocal where those who Children Exposed to High Levels of
do poorly in school seem to show later difficulties. Family Conflict
• Class Size - Many educators argue that smaller • Internalizing Behavior - Directed inward, such
classes do benefit students. as anxiety, fear, and depression.
• Alternative Education Model - Some parents • Externalizing Behavior - Directed outward, such
choose charter schools and home schooling. as aggression, fighting, disobedience, and
• Media Use - Media use can be detrimental if hostility
misused, but when used appropriately, it can be
beneficial. The impact of media depends heavily
Constructive Family Conflict
High-quality parenting can mitigate the negative
on its usage. effects of poverty on children's development, and
Children with Special Needs children tend to perform better in stable family
• Intellectual Disability structures, such as those with continuously
• Learning Disabilities married parents. Joint custody and effective co-
– Dyslexia parenting are also associated with positive
– Dyscalculia outcomes for children.
– Dysgraphia
• ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
Child in the Peer Group
• Peer groups help children learn to balance their
• ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder)
needs and desires with those of others, teaching
Gifted Children them when to compromise and when to assert
These children are identified through a themselves.
combination of academic achievement, creative • Prejudice - Unfavorable attitudes towards
abilities, and subjective evaluations. outsiders.
Representational Systems - Broad and • Discrimination harms children's well-being and
academic performance, highlighting the need for
inclusive self-concepts that integrate various
inclusive environments.
aspects of the self; social self-concept.
Sociometric Popularity
Industry vs. Inferiority (5-13 years old) Measures social standing within a group using
In the event that children are unable to obtain the
positive and negative nominations, revealing
praise of adults or peers in their lives, or lack
social dynamics and popularity status.
motivation and self-esteem, they may develop a
• Positive Nominations - Assess children's
feeling of low self-worth, thus develop a sense of
preferences for playmates, identifying positive
inferiority.
– Maladaptive Tendency: Narrow Virtuosity - social connections and friendships.
Stunt a child's overall development by denying • Negative Nominations - Identify children disliked
them diverse experiences and childhood. by peers, revealing social conflicts and negative
– Malignant Tendency: Inertia - Describes relationships.
stagnation and resistance to change, often · Popular Children - Well-liked.
stemming from feelings of inferiority. · Average Children - Averagely liked and disliked.
· Neglected Children - Isolated but not disliked.
Child in the Family
• Coregulation describes the shared power · Rejected Children - Disliked by peers.
dynamic between children and parents. · Controversial Children - Both popular and disliked.
· Unpopular Children - Have fewer friends.
 Moral Personality
• Moral Identity - When moral notions and moral
Bullying - A repeated, intentional, and
commitments are central to their lives.
aggressive behavior where an individual or a
• Moral Character - Has willpower, desire, and
group of individuals with more power deliberately
integrity to stand up to pressure, overcome
cause harm, discomfort, or distress to someone
distractions and disappointments, and behave
perceived as vulnerable.
morally.
Hostile Attribution Bias • Moral Exemplars - People who have lived
Tendency to perceive others as trying to hurt one exemplary moral lives.
and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense.
– Physical Aggression - Harms others through
physical injury—pushing, hitting, kicking, or
punching others or destroying another's property. Adolescence (12-20 years old)
– Verbal Aggression - Harms others through
Puberty
threats of physical aggression, name calling, or • The process that leads to sexual maturity or
hostile teasing. fertility. Hypothalamus releases elevated levels of
– Relational Aggression - Damages another's Gonadotropin-releasing Hormones (GnRH) which
peer relationships through social exclusion, triggers the rise of Lutenizing Hormone (LH) and
malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
– Proactive Aggression - Also known as • Stages of Puberty:
Instrumental Aggression. When children act to – Adrenarche - Adrenal glands secrete
fulfill a need or desire, unemotionally attack a increasing levels of androgens (Dehydro
person to achieve their goal. Epiandosterone) between ages 6-8, influencing
– Reactive Aggression - Also known as Hostile the growth of pubic, axillary, and facial hair.
Aggression. An angry, defensive response to – Gonadarche - Maturation of sex organs and
provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to triggers a second surge of DHEA production.
hurt another person.
Primary Sex Characteristics
Mental Health Organs necessary for reproduction
· Oppositional Defiant Disorder · Social Phobia or Social Anxiety · Vagina · Penis
· Conduct Disorder · Generalized Anxiety Disorder · Ovaries · Testes
· School Phobia · Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
· Separation Anxiety Disorder · Childhood Depression Secondary Sex Characteristics
Physiological signs of sexual maturation that do
Proactive Factors not directly involve sex organs.
• Good Family Relationship · Widening hips · Increased muscle mass
• Good Cognitive Functioning · Breast development · Broadening shoulders
Stages of Moral Development [Kohlberg] • Spermarche - First ejaculation
• Pre-conventional (3-7 years old) - Moral • Menarche - First menstruation
reasoning based on reward and punishment.
1. Avoiding Punishment (Obedience)
Physical and Mental Health
• A sedentary lifestyle may result in increased risk
2. Self-interest (Reward)
of poor mental health, obesity, Type 2 diabetes,
and an increased likelihood of heart disease and
• Conventional (8-13 years old) - Moral reasoning
based on external ethics. cancer in adulthood.
3. Good Boy Attitude (Approval) • Being female is a risk factor for depression.
4. Law and Order Morality (Justice) • Young people who consider or attempt suicide
tend to have histories of emotional illness.
• Post-conventional (Adulthood) - Moral Body Images
reasoning based on personal ethics. • Anorexia Nervosa - Individuals with anorexia
5. Social Contract (Fairness) have a fear gaining weight and are severely
6. Principle (Universal) underweight.
 • Fidelity - Sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of
belonging to loved ones, friends, or companions.
• Bulimia Nervosa - Individuals with bulimia
engage in binge eating followed by purging • Commitment - A personal investment in an
behaviors to compensate for the food consumed. occupation or ideology.
• Binge-eating Disorder: Individuals with binge- • Maladaptive Tendency: Fanaticism - Believes
eating disorder experience frequent episodes of that his "ways" are the only ways.
binge eating without purging behaviors. • Malignant Tendency: Repudiation - They reject
Formal Operations the adult world and, even more so, the need to
Adolescents can now use symbols to represent define their identity.
other symbols, hidden messages, imagine • Sexual Identity - Seeing oneself as a sexual
possibilities, create hypotheses. being, recognizing one's sexual orientation, and
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning forming romantic or sexual attachments.
A methodical, scientific approach to problem- • Sexual Orientation - Whether the person is
solving characterizes formal operational thinking. attracted to person of other sex (Heterosexual),
It involves developing, considering, and testing same sex (Homosexual), or of both sexes
hypotheses, attributed to brain maturation and (Bisexual).
environmental opportunities by Piaget. • Transgender - Biological sex at birth and gender
identity are not the same.
Self-consciousness • Transsexual - people who seek medical
• Imaginary Audience - Believes that everyone is
assistance to permanently transition to their
thinking about the same thing they are thinking
preferred gender.
about themselves.
• Personal Fable - Believes that they are special, Two major concerns about adolescent sexual
their experience is unique, and they are not activity are the risks of contracting STIs and
subject to the rules that govern the rest of the pregnancy.
world.
Sexually Transmitted Infections – Diseases
Moral Development spread by sexual contact.
• Heinz's Dilemma - The cancer patient and the · Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) or Genital Warts
greedy drug dealer, most famous example of · Chlamydia and Gonorrhea
Kohlberg ’s approach of moral development. · Genital Herpes
• Kohlberg added a 7th stage to his existing 6 · Hepatitis B
Stages of Moral Development. · Trichomoniasis
– 7th Stage: Cosmic - Considers the universal · Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
impact of actions on the world. [Mother Teresa] · Gonorrhea
· Syphilis
Educational and Vocational Issues
• Boys do better in activities that involve visual and Three Levels of Peer Groupings
spatial functions helpful in math and science. • Dyadic - One-on-one
• Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing • Cliques - Structured group of friends who do
and language usage. things together.
• Crowd - Based on reputation, image, or identity.
The Search for Identity
Identity - coherent conception of the self, made Friendship
up of goals, values, and beliefs to which the • Friendships during this stage tend to become
person is solidly committed. more reciprocal.
• Girl friendships are more intimate.
Identity vs. Identity/Role Confusion (14-20 years old)
A period of conscious decision-making and a Juvenile Delinquency - Illegal behavior or law-
process of grappling with what to believe and who breaking deed by an adolescent.
to be.
 Mental Health Problem
• Alcoholism
Young Adulthood (20-40 years old) • Drug Use and Abuse
The transitional period between adolescence and • Depression
adulthood.
Perspective on Adult Cognition
When Does a Person Becomes an Adult? • Reflective Thinking [John Dewey] - Adult
• Accepting responsibility for one's self. logical thinking involves continuous, evidence-
• Making independent decisions. based evaluation of information and beliefs,
• Becoming financially independent. fostering critical thinking and complex intellectual
systems.
Before Mid-20th Century • Post Formal Thought - Mature thinking
• Young man would marry after high school, secure
integrates subjective experience and intuition with
a stable job, and start a family.
logic, accommodating ambiguity, contradiction,
• Young woman's route to adulthood was marriage,
and compromise; it's flexible, relativistic, and
typically occurring as soon as she found a
recognizes multiple valid perspectives.
suitable partner.
• LifeSpan Model of Cognitive Development
Health Status and Issues [Schaie] - Examines cognitive use in social
• Genes influence health, but behavior plays a contexts, with goals evolving from acquiring
major role. information ("What do I need to know?") to
• Environmental factors can cause alterations in integrating knowledge ("How do I use what I
gene functions with lifelong effects. know?") and finally to seeking relevant knowledge
• Habits formed during young adulthood often ("What should I know?").
become ingrained and can predict later health. – Acquisitive - Knowledge acquisition for its
• Highest poverty rate. own sake.
• Lowest level of health insurance. – Achieving - Applying knowledge to personal
• No regular access to healthcare. goals.
– Responsible - Solving problems related to
Behavioral Influences responsibilities.
· Diet and Nutrition · Stress
– Executive - Leading societal systems or
· Obesity and Overweight · Sleep
movements.
· Eating Disorders · Smoking
– Reorganizational - Shifting focus to
· Physical Activity · Alcohol Use
meaningful pursuits.
Indirect Influences in Health – Reintegrative - Selective effort allocation.
• Socioeconomic Status and Race/Ethnicity: – Legacy-Creating - Leaving behind a legacy for
Higher-income individuals report better health loved ones.
and longer lifespans than lower-income • Insight and Know-how [Sternberg] - Tacit
individuals. knowledge—uncodified, practical intelligence—is
• Relationships and Health: crucial for success and includes self-
– Social Integration management, task management, and
– Social Support interpersonal skills.
• Emotional Intelligence [Peter Solovey, John
Sexual and Reproductive Issues Mayer] - Emotional intelligence is the ability to
• Sexual Behavior and Attitudes
understand and manage emotions, both your own
• STIs / STDs
and others, to achieve goals.
• Menstrual Disorders:
– Premenstrual Syndrome Patterns and Tasks - Emerging adulthood is a
– Dysmenorrhea period of experimentation before assuming adult
• Infertility roles and responsibilities for many young people
today.
 – Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults who
developed a strong sense of self during
Path to Adulthood - Paths vary widely,
adolescence are better equipped to form intimate
influenced by factors like gender, academic
relationship in early adulthood.
ability, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, – Men - Initiation of relationships.
with some individuals prioritizing family early, – Women - More related to the stability of
others focusing on work, and still others delaying relationships.
traditional milestones to pursue education or – Typical Developmental Tasks of Young
careers. Adults:
Identity Development - Emerging adulthood · Leaving the childhood home.
provides a space for identity exploration and · Developing new and more intimate
experimentation with roles and lifestyles, allowing friendships and romantic relationships.
young people to escape developmental · Developing self-reliance and independence.
pressures. • Timing-of-Events Model - Adult psychosocial
– Recentering - Involves a three-stage process development is shaped by the timing and
where power and responsibility gradually shift occurrence of life events; on-time events
from the family to the independent young adult. generally lead to smoother development, while
Stage 1: Increased expectations for self-reliance deviations can cause stress. The typical timing of
while still embedded in the family of origin. these events varies across cultures and
Stage 2 (Independent Exploratory): Individual generations.
maintains connections but is no longer embedded • Trait Models OCEAN [Costa and McCrae] -
in the family. These models emphasize mental, emotional,
Stage 3 (Independent Committed): By age 30, temperamental, and behavioral traits, focusing on
achieves independence from family while their measurement and examination.
committing to a career, partner, and possibly · Openness
· Conscientiousness
children. · Extravertion
· Agreeableness
Contemporary Moratorium - While an identity · Neuroticism
crisis leading to achievement is ideal, many • Typological Model [Jack Block]:
young adults passively accept their identity – Ego-Resilient - Well-adjusted, self-confident,
(diffusion) or adopt their parents' values independent, and cooperative.
(foreclosure), rather than actively exploring it. – Overcontrolled - Shy, anxious, and
withdrawn, often prone to depression.
Developing Adult Relationships with Parents -
– Undercontrolled - Active, impulsive, and
Positive early adolescent parent-child
easily distracted.
relationships predict better adult relationships and
higher self-worth, while strained relationships, Foundations of Intimate Relationship
particularly those involving parental conflict, can • Friendship - Some individuals successfully
negatively impact the child's well-being. maintain high-quality long-distance friendships.
Young adults have the largest friendship
Failure to Launch - Young adults remaining at
networks, but these are often less stable. Women
home often do so due to economic necessity, not
tend to have more intimate friendships than men,
a refusal to grow up, though this can still threaten
and both the number of friends and time spent
their autonomy and independence.
with them generally decrease over time.
Personality Development – Fictive Kin - Close, supportive friends that are
• Normative Stage Model - While culturally treated as family members despite lack of blood
relative, normative psychosocial changes follow a relations.
basic age-related sequence common to most • Love - Triangular Theory of Love [Sternberg].
within a population. Patterns of love hinged on the balance among
three elements:
 ...men. While fathers are typically less involved
than mothers, the amount of time they spend with
– Intimacy - The emotional aspect involving self-
children has increased.
disclosure that fosters connection and trust.
• Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction - Marital
– Passion - The motivational aspect driven by
satisfaction usually declines during child-rearing
physiological arousal and sexual desire.
years, especially with more children, with mothers
– Commitment - The cognitive decision to love
of infants feeling the effects most. However,
and remain with a partner.
some studies suggest that parents may
experience greater happiness and meaning in life
than nonparents.

Dual Income Family

Having two working parents can positively impact
physical and mental health and strengthen
relationships. However, juggling multiple roles
can be challenging, leading to time and energy
demands, work-family conflict, potential rivalry,
and feelings of anxiety and guilt, particularly for
women with young children.
Marital and Nonmarital Lifestyles
• Marriage - Religiousness often correlates with
When Do Marriage End?
· Lack of Emotional Support · Premarital Cohabitation
earlier marriage. Extramarital affairs are more · Infidelity
· Lack of Career Support
prevalent among younger men. Personality traits · Spousal Abuse
(high neuroticism, low
agreeableness/conscientiousness) predict
Long-term Effects of Divorce
• Divorce negatively impacts the uninvolved
infidelity. Married couples report less sex but
partner, especially women, financially and
higher emotional satisfaction than single or
emotionally, unless the marriage was highly
cohabiting couples.
conflicted.
• Cohabitation - Unmarried couples in sexual
• Children of divorced parents are more likely to be
relationships often live together, and young adults
pessimistic about their own marriage.
increasingly view cohabitation as acceptable.
• A positive coparenting relationship following a
• Single - Adults may remain single due to not
divorce can be protective for both children and
finding the right partner, personal choice,
parents.
economic instability, career goals, self-fulfillment,
desire for sexual freedom, or fear of divorce. Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
• Homosexual Relationship - Acceptance of • Criticism - Attacking the character of a partner to
same-sex marriage is linked to political and the core.
religious views, increasing among younger • Defensiveness - Self-protection, shifting, and
generations. While similar to heterosexual retaliation to ward off a perceived attack.
relationships, same-sex marriages often face • Stonewalling - Withdrawal, shutting down,
instability due to fewer institutional supports. turning away to a partner.
• Contempt - Treating a partner with ridicule and
Parenthood disrespect. A predictor of divorce.
In industrial societies, people generally have
fewer children due to prioritizing education and
career establishment, as well as concerns about
the financial burden and challenges of balancing
parenthood with work.
• Men and Women's Involvement in Parenthood
- Despite working outside the home, women
generally spend more time on childcare than... Good luck (⁠´⁠∩⁠｡⁠•⁠⁠ᵕ⁠⁠•⁠｡⁠∩⁠`⁠)