Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky

Abraham Maslow • B.F. Skinner •

Erik Erickson • Howard Gardner
 Theories of Curriculum ECCE
• The Early Years Learning Framework
describes the curriculum as “all the
interactions, experiences, activities,
routines and events, planned and
unplanned, that occur in an
environment designed to foster
children's learning and development”
 Why Study Child & Parenting
Development Theories?
Theories help people:
– Organize their ideas about raising children.
– Understand influences on parenting.
– Discover more than one way to interact with
children.
– Analyze the benefits and consequences of
using more than one theory.
– Drsign the curriculum for ECCE
 Why Study the Selected
Theories?
The selected theories:
– Have been popular and influential.

– Represent different approaches to parent-

child interaction.

– Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-

rearing.

– Make good common sense.

 Child Development
• Definition:
– Change in the child that occurs over time.
Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves
toward greater complexity and enhances survival.
• Periods of development:
– Prenatal period: from conception to birth
– Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
– Early childhood: 2-6 years old
– Middle childhood: 6-12 years old
– Adolescence: 12-19 years old
 Domains of Development
• Physical Domain:
– body size, body proportions, appearance, brain
development, motor development, perception capacities,
physical health.
• Cognitive Domain:
– thought processes and intellectual abilities including
attention, memory, problem solving, imagination,
creativity, academic and everyday knowledge,
metacognition, and language.
• Social/Emotional Domain:
– self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual
identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning,
understanding and expression of emotions, self-
regulation, temperament, understanding others,
interpersonal skills, and friendships

Spiritual Domain
 6th - 15th centuries
Medieval period
• Preformationism: children seen as little adults.
• Childhood is not a unique phase.
• Children were cared for until they could begin caring for
themselves, around 7 years old.
• Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing,
worked at adult jobs, could be
married, were made into
kings, were imprisoned or
hanged as adults.)
 16th Century
Reformation period

• Puritan religion influenced how children were

viewed.
• Children were born evil, and must be civilized.
• A goal emerged to raise children effectively.
• Special books were designed for children.
 17th Century
Age of Enlightenment
• John Locke believed in tabula rasa

• Children develop in response to

nurturing.

• Forerunner of behaviorism

www.cooperativeindividualism.org/ locke-john.jpg
 18th Century
Age of Reason
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
– children were noble savages, born with an innate
sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be
interfered with.

• Rousseau used the idea of stages of

development.

• Forerunner of maturationist beliefs

19th Century
Industrial Revolution
• Charles Darwin
– theories of natural selection and survival of the
fittest

• Darwin made parallels between

human prenatal growth and other
animals.

• Forerunner of ethology
20th Century
Theories about children's development expanded
around the world.

• Childhood was seen as worthy of special

attention.

• Laws were passed to protect children,

Psychoanalytical
Theories
Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to
this approach, children move through various stages,
confronting conflicts between biological drives and social
expectations.
Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual Theory
• Was based on his therapy
with troubled adults.
• He emphasized that a
child's personality is
formed by the ways which
his parents managed his
sexual and aggressive
drives.
Psychoanalytic Theories:
• Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
– Personality has 3 parts
– There are 5 stages of psychosexual
development
– Oedipus complex allows child to identify
with same-sex parent
– Fixation is an unresolved
conflict during a stage of
development
 Freudian Stages
Birth to 1½ to 3 3 to 6 6 yrs to Puberty
1½ yrs yrs years puberty onward
Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Latency Genital
Stage Stage Stage
Infant’s Child’s
pleasure pleasure Child’s Child A time of
centers on focuses on pleasure represses sexual
mouth anus focuses on sexual reawakening;
genitals interest source of
and develops sexual
social and pleasure
intellectual becomes
skills someone
outside of the
family

Figure 2.1
 Erik Erikson
Psychosocial Theory
• Expanded on Freud's theories.
• Believed that development is life-
long.
• Emphasized that at each stage, the
child acquires attitudes and skills
resulting from the successful
negotiation of the psychological
conflict.
Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each
stage. The way in which a person handles each of these stages
affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial
stages are:
1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)
2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)
3. Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)
4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11 years)
5. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)
6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)

Psychosocial Theory of Human

Development – Erik Erikson
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human
Development
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Generativity vs. Stagnation

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Industry vs. Inferiority

Initiative vs. Guilt

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Trust vs. Mistrust

 Critique of Erik Erikson
• Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best
equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who
have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.

• On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to

whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only
occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as
to whether people only search for identity during the
adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other
stages can be completed.
Cognitive Theories

Beliefs that describe how children learn

 Jean Piaget - 1896-1980
The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be
explained by the interaction of nature (intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic
environmental factors).
Goal of cognitive development
– Biological survival
Cognitive development as biological adaptation
– Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences
– Learner as ‘the little scientist’
Knowledge originates from the environment
– Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium
– Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and
construction of knowledge
Cognitive Development Theory
Two processes are essential for development:
– Assimilation
» Learning to understand events or objects,
based on existing structure.
– Accommodation
» Expanding understanding,
based on new information.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

 Piaget
Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development
skills:
• Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect
• Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively
• Concrete operational – 7-12 years – children learn to think logically
• Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills
Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934
The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in
which they interact with people influence their intellectual
development. From their cultural environments, children
learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will
eventually pass on to their own children. Through
cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the
rules of their cultures. Learning is an active process.
Learning is constructed.

Main points
• Development is primarily driven by
language, social context and adult
guidance.
 What is Zone of Proximal Development?
It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can
accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner.

There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When

learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the teacher’s
assistance.

Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability

to benefit from instructions.
 What is: Scaffolding
Assistance that allows students to complete tasks
that they are not able to complete independently.

Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’

needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide
scaffolding by:

• Breaking content into manageable pieces

• Modeling skills
• Provide practice and examples with prompts
• Letting go when students are ready
Biological Theories

Belief that heredity and innate biological

processes govern growth
 Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall
and Arnold Gesell

• Believed there is a predetermined biological

timetable.

• Hall and Gesell were proponents of the

normative approach to child study: using age-
related averages of children's growth and
behaviors to define what is normal.
 Ethology
• Examines how behavior is determined by a
species' need for survival.
• Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.
• Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive
period,” for learning
 Konrad Lorenz

• Ethologist, known
for his research
on imprinting.
Attachment Theory

• John Bowlby applied ethological principles to

his theory of attachment.
• Attachment between an infant and her
caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.
 Behavioral and Social
Learning Theories

Beliefs that describe the importance of the

environment and nurturing in the growth of a child
John Watson
• Early 20th century, "Father of
American Behaviorist theory.”
• Based his work on Pavlov's
experiments on the digestive system
of dogs.
• Researched classical conditioning
• Children are passive beings who can
be molded by controlling the
stimulus-response associations.
 B. F. Skinner

• Proposed that children "operate" on their

environment, operational conditioning.

• Believed that learning could be broken down

into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate
rewards for accomplishments would stimulate
further learning.
 Theory of Behaviorism-
B.F Skinner & others
Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea, Skinner
theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that is, an
empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning
experiences.

Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive

and negative reinforcement. Behaviorism is based on cause-
and-effect relationships.
Major elements of behaviorism
include:
– Positive and negative reinforcement
– Use of stimulus and response
– Modeling
– Conditioning.
 Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura
• Stressed how
children learn
by observation
and imitation.
• Believed that
children gradually become more selective in
what they imitate.
 Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation

Child Child imitates

observes behavior
someone that seems
admired rewarded
 Systems Theory

The belief that development can't be explained by

a single concept, but rather by a complex system.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory
• The varied systems of the
environment and the interrelationships
among the systems shape a child's
development.
• Both the environment and biology
influence the child's development.
• The environment affects the child and
the child influences the environment.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
• The microsystem - activities and
interactions in the child's immediate
surroundings: parents, school, friends,
etc.
• The mesosystem - relationships among
the entities involved in the child's
microsystem: parents' interactions with
teachers, a school's interactions with the
daycare provider
• The exosystem - social institutions
which affect children indirectly: the
parents' work settings and policies,
extended family networks, mass media,
community resources
• The macrosystem - broader cultural
values, laws and governmental resources
• The chronosystem - changes which
occur during a child's life, both
personally, like the birth of a sibling and
culturally, like the Iraqi war.
Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner
 Howard Gardner’s theory
Howard Gardner defines intelligence as
"the capacity to solve problems or to
fashion products that are valued in one or
more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch,
1989). Using biological as well as cultural
research, he formulated a list of seven
intelligences. This new outlook on
intelligence differs greatly from the
traditional view that usually recognizes only
two intelligences, verbal and mathematical.
Who is Howard Gardner?
• Howard Gardner is a psychologist and
Professor at Harvard University's
Graduate School of Education.
• Based on his study of many people,
Gardner developed the theory of
multiple intelligences.
• Gardner defines intelligence as “ability
to solve problems or to create products
which are valued in one or more
cultural settings.”
• According to Gardner, 8 different
types of intelligence are displayed
by humans.
Gardner’s Intelligences:
 Logical-Mathematical
Intelligence
consists of the ability to:
• detect patterns
• reason deductively
• think logically

This intelligence is most often associated with

scientific and mathematical thinking.
Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.
 Linguistic Intelligence
• involves having a mastery of
language
• This intelligence includes the
ability to effectively manipulate
language to express oneself
rhetorically or poetically.
• It also allows one to use language
as a means to remember information.
Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir
Winston Churchill.
 Spatial Intelligence
• gives one the ability to manipulate
and create mental images in order
to solve problems.
• This intelligence is not limited to
visual domains--Gardner notes
that spatial intelligence is also
formed in blind children.
Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright
 Musical Intelligence
• encompasses the capability to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.

(Auditory functions are required for a person to

develop this intelligence in relation to pitch
and tone, but these functions would not be
needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)
Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
• is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's
own bodily movements.
• This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and
physical activity are unrelated.
• The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create
products or present ideas and emotions.
• An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing,
acting, artistically, or in building and construction.
• You can include surgeons in this category but many people who
are physically talented–"good with their hands"–don't recognize
that this form of intelligence is of equal value to the other
intelligences.

Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

 Interpersonal Intelligence
• The ability to work effectively with others
• to relate to other people
• display empathy and understanding
• notice their motivations and goals.

This is a vital human intelligence displayed by good

teachers, facilitators, therapists, politicians,
religious leaders and sales people.
Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence
The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able to:
• quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments
• review one's behavior and innermost feelings
• make plans and set goals
• know oneself

Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields

of endeavor have this form of intelligence.

Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

 Naturalist intelligence
designates the human ability to discriminate
among living things (plants, animals) as
well as sensitivity to other features of the
natural world (clouds, rock configurations).
to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this ability
productively–for example in hunting, farming, or biological science.

Farmers, botanists, conservationists,

biologists, environmentalists would all
display aspects of the intelligence.
Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.
 Can we be more than one?
Yes!
• Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that
the eight intelligences very rarely operate independently.
• Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement
each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems.

For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he/she has 
• strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and variations of the music 
• bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to
complete the movements successfully
• interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move
his audience through his movements
 Maslow’s Theory

Maslow’s theory maintains that a

person does not feel a higher need
until the needs of the current level
have been satisfied. Maslow's basic
needs are as follows:
 Basic Human Needs
• Food
• Air
• Water
• Clothing
• Sex
Physiological Needs
 Safety and Security
• Protection
• Stability
• Pain Avoidance
• Routine/Order
Safety Needs
 Love and Belonging
• Affection
• Acceptance
Social Needs • Inclusion
 Esteem
Esteem Needs Self-Respect
•
• Self-Esteem
• Respected by
Others
Self-Actualization

• Achieve full
potential
• Fulfillment