THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget • Lev Vygotsky Abraham Maslow • B.F. Skinner • Erik Erikson • Howard Gardner

Why Study Child & Parenting Development Theories?

Theories help people:

–Organize their ideas about raising children.

– Understand influences on parenting.

– Discover more than one way to interact with children.

–Analyze the benefits and consequences of using more than one theory.

Why Study the Selected Theories?

The selected theories:

– Have been popular and influential.

– Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction.

–Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-rearing.

– Make good common sense.

Child Development

• Definition:

– Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity
and enhances survival. • Periods of development:

– Prenatal period: from conception to birth – Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years – Early childhood: 2-6 years old

– Middle childhood: 6-12 years old

– Adolescence: 12-19 years old

Domains of Development

-Development is described in three domains, but growth in one domain influences the other domains.

•Physical Domain:

–body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor development, perception capacities, physical
health.

•Cognitive Domain:

–thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity,
academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language.
•Social/Emotional Domain: – self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic identity), moral
reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others,
interpersonal skills, and friendships.

6th - 15th centuries (Medieval period)

• Preformationism: children seen as little adults.

• Childhood is not a unique phase.

• Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around 7 years old.

• Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be married, were made into kings, were
imprisoned or hanged as adults.)

16th Century (Reformation period)

• Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed.

• Children were born evil, and must be civilized.

• A goal emerged to raise children effectively.

• Special books were designed for children.

17th Century (Age of Enlightenment)

• John Locke believed in tabula rasa

• Children develop in response to nurturing.

• Forerunner of behaviorism

18th Century (Age of Reason)

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau

– children were noble savages, born with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be interfered
with.

• Rousseau used the idea of stages of development.

• Forerunner of maturationist beliefs

19th Century (Industrial Revolution)

•Charles Darwin

– theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest

•Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals.

•Forerunner of ethology
20th Century

- Theories about children's development expanded around the world.

• Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.

• Laws were passed to protect children,

Psychoanalytical Theories

• Beliefs focus on the formation of personality

• According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives
and social expectations.

Sigmund Freud

• Psychosexual Theory

-Was based on his therapy with troubled adults.

• He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive
drives.

Psychoanalytic Theories:

• Freud’s Psychosexual Theory –Personality has 3 parts –There are 5 stages of psychosexual development

–Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same-sex parent

–Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development

Freudian Stages

Birth to 1½ yrs- (Oral Stage) Infant’s pleasure centers on mouth

1½ to 3 yrs- (Anal Stage) Child’s pleasure focuses on anus

3 to 6 years- (Phallic Stage) Child’s pleasure focuses on genitals

6 yrs to puberty- (Latency Stage) Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills

Puberty onward- (Genital Stage) A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside of
the family

Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Theory)

• Expanded on Freud's theories

• Believed that development is life-long

• Emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the
psychological conflict
Life is a series of stages. Each individual must pass through each stage. The way in which a person handles each of
these stages affects the person’s identity and self-concept. These psychosocial stages are:

1. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)

2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt (2 to 3 years)

3. Initiative vs. guilt (4 to 5 years)

4. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11.5 years)

5. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18 years)

6. Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)

7. Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)

8. Integrity vs. despair (older adulthood)

Psychosocial Theory of Human –Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Industry vs. Inferiority

Initiative vs. Guilt

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Trust vs. Mistrust

Critique of Erik Erikson

• Supporters of this Eriksonian theory, suggest that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are
those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence.

• On the other hand, Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and
only occurring within the age ranges he suggests.

• There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to
happen before other stages can be completed.

Cognitive Theories- Beliefs that describe how children learn

Jean Piaget - 1896-1980

- The behavior of children and the development of their thinking can only be explained by the interaction of nature
(intrinsic development) and nurture (extrinsic environmental factors).
Goal of cognitive development – Biological survival

Cognitive development as biological adaptation – Adaptation of mental constructs from experiences

– Learner as ‘the little scientist’

Knowledge originates from the environment

– Assimilation + accommodation lead to equilibrium

– Cognitive development involves active selection, interpretation, and construction of knowledge

Cognitive Development Theory

- Two processes are essential for development:

–Assimilation

»Learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure

–Accommodation

»Expanding understanding, based on new information

Piaget

Children pass through specific stages as they develop their Cognitive Development skills:

•Sensorimotor – birth - 2 years – infants develop their intellect

•Preoperational – 2-7 years – children begin to think symbolically and imaginatively

•Concrete operational – 7- 12 years – children learn to think logically

•Formal operational – 12 years – adulthood – adults develop critical thinking skills

Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934

• The cultures in which children are raised and the ways in which they interact with people influence their intellectual
development.

• From their cultural environments, children learn values, beliefs, skills, and traditions that they will eventually pass on
to their own children.

• Through cooperative play, children learn to behave according to the rules of their cultures.

• Learning is an active process.

• Learning is constructed.

Main point

• Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.

What is Zone of Proximal Development?

• It is a range of tasks that a child cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner.

• There is a zone of proximal development for each task. When learners are in the zone, they can benefit from the
teacher’s assistance.

• Learners develop at different rates so they may differ in their ability to benefit from instructions.

What is: Scaffolding

• Assistance that allows students to complete tasks that they are not able to complete independently.

• Effective scaffolding is responsive to students’ needs. In classroom, teachers’ provide scaffolding by:

• Breaking content into manageable pieces

• Modeling skills

• Provide practice and examples with prompts • Letting go when students are ready

Biological Theories

Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth

Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell

•Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable

•Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach to child study: using age-related averages of children's
growth and behaviors to define what is normal.

Ethology

•Examines how behavior is determined by a species' need for survival

•Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research

•Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period,” for learning

Konrad Lorenz

•Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting

Attachment Theory

•John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment.

•Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child

John Watson

•Early 20th century, "Father of American Behaviourist theory.”

•Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on the digestive system of dogs.

•Researched classical conditioning

•Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations.

Major elements of behaviorism include:

– Positive and negative reinforcement

– Use of stimulus and response

– Modeling

– Conditioning.

Burrhus Friedrich Skinner

• Proposed that children "operate" on their environment, operational conditioning.

• Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for
accomplishments would stimulate further learning.

Theory of Behaviorism B.F Skinner & others

Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean/blank slate”) idea, Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism” --- that
is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled through learning experiences.

• Any behavior can be changed through the use of positive and negative reinforcement.

• Behaviorism is based on cause-and-effect relationships.

Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura

• Stressed how children learn by observation and imitation

• Believed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate

Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation

- Child observes someone admired

- Child imitates behaviour that seems rewarded

Systems Theory- The belief that development can't be explained by a single concept, but rather by a complex system.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (Ecological Systems Theory)

• The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a child's development.

• Both the environment and biology influence the child's development.

• The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

• The microsystem- activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc.

• The mesosystem - relationships among the entities involved in the child's microsystem: parents' interactions with
teachers, a school's interactions with the daycare provider

• The exosystem - social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work settings and policies, extended
family networks, mass media, community resources

•The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources

• The chronosystem - changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like the birth of a sibling and culturally,
like the Iraqi war.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Howard Gardner)

Howard Gardner’s theory

- Howard Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one
or more cultural setting" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).

- Howard Gardner’s theory Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This
new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view that usually recognizes only two intelligences,
verbal and mathematical.

Who is Howard Gardner?

• Howard Gardner is a psychologist and professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education.

• Based on his study of many people, Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences.

• Gardner defines intelligence as “ability to solve problems or to create products which are valued in one or more
cultural settings.”

• According to Gardner, 8 different types of intelligence are displayed by humans.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Consists of the ability to:

• detect patterns

• reason deductively

• think logically

This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

Famous examples: Albert Einstein, John Dewey.

Linguistic Intelligence

• involves having a mastery of language

• This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically.

• It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.

Famous examples: Charles Dickens, Abraham Lincoln, T.S. Eliot, Sir Winston Churchill.

Spatial Intelligence

• gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems.

• This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind
children.

Famous examples: Picasso, Frank Lloyd Wright

Musical Intelligence

• encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.

(Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but these
functions would not be needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)

Famous examples: Mozart, Leonard Bernstein, Ray Charles.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

• is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements.

• This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.

• The ability to use your body skillfully to solve problems, create products or present ideas and emotions.

Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

• An ability obviously displayed for athletic pursuits, dancing, acting, artistically, or in building and construction.

• You can include surgeons in this category but many people who are physically talented–"good with their hands"–
don't recognize that this form of intelligence is of equal value to the other intelligences.

Famous examples: Charlie Chaplin, Michael Jordan.

Interpersonal Intelligence

•The ability to work effectively with others

• to relate to other people

• display empathy and understanding

•notice their motivations and goals

- This is a vital human intelligence displayed by good teachers, facilitators, therapists, politicians, religious leaders and
sales people.

Famous examples: Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, Mother Teresa, Oprah Winfrey.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

The ability for self-analysis and reflection–to be able to:

• quietly contemplate and assess one's accomplishments

• review one's behavior and innermost feelings

• make plans and set goals

• know oneself

- Philosophers, counselors, and many peak performers in all fields of endeavor have this form of intelligence.

Famous examples: Freud, Eleanor Roosevelt, Plato.

Naturalist Intelligence

- designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other
features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). to make distinctions in the natural world and to use this
ability productively–for example in hunting, farming, or biological science.

- Farmers, botanists, conservationists, biologists, environmentalists would all display aspects of the intelligence.

Famous examples: Charles Darwin, Rachel Carson.

Existentialist Intelligence

- ability of human mind to think deeply on life, death and ultimate realities

- Reflective and deep thinking, design abstract theories Scientists, philosophers, theologians

Famous examples: Pope Francis, Confucius, Socrates

Maslow’s Theory- Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until the needs of the current
level have been satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

Physiological Needs (Basic Human Needs)

• Food • Air • Water • Clothing • Sex

Safety Needs (Safety and Security)

• Protection • Stability • Pain Avoidance • Routine/Order

Social Needs (Love and Belonging)

• Affection • Acceptance • Inclusion

Esteem Needs (Esteem)

• Self-Respect • Self-Esteem • Respected by Others

Self-Actualization
• Achieve full potential • Fulfillment

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Moral Development

• Moral development is the gradual development of an individual concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious
values, social attitudes and certain behaviour.

Moral Dilemmas

• Social issues with 2+ solutions

Kohlberg's theory

• This theory is a stage theory.

• In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.

• However, movement through these stages are not natural, that is, people do not automatically move from one stage
to the next as they mature.

• In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with
a given moral dilemma.

• According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own.

• For example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.

Kohlberg’s Six Stages

Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0-9 years

Stage 1 - Obedience andPunishment

- Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning.

- At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.

•Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment

•Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished

•Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has the power to
inflict pain

•Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being

Stage 2 – Naively egotistical

- At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how
they serve individual needs.

- Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.

•Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy

•Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous

•Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need

• Believes that the end justifies the means

• Will do a favor only to get a favor

• Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

Level 2: Conventional Morality 10-15 years

Stage 3 - “Good boy-Good girl" Orientation

This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.

There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

•Finds peer approval very important

•Feels that intensions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds

•Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective

Stage 4 – Law and Social Order

- At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments.

- The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

• Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed

•Respects authority and obeys it without question

•Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority

•Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4

Level 3: Postconventional Morality – 16+

Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract

- At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.

- Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

•Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people

•Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule

•Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual

•Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system
Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles

- Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning.

- At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

•Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs

•Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected

•Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value.

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BIOLOGICAL /PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Objectives:

● trace the course of the prenatal developmental process that you went through.

● explain the most common hazards to prenatal development

● become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.

Life Before Birth - The developmentof the unborn child

Dr. Paul RockwelI

➢ New York physician

➢ witnessed an unborn baby -eight weeks after conception- is during the period that a majority of abortionists
describe as most desirable for performing an abortion

➢ "It is my opinion that if the lawmakers and people realize that this very vigorous life is present, it is possible that
abortion would be found more objectionable than euthanasia"

The Stages of Prenatal Development

01 - Germinal Period

02- Embryonic Period

03- Fetal Period

1. Germinal Period

➢ First 2 weeks after conception

➢ This includes the:

a.) creation of the zygote,

b.) continued cell division and

c.) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall

Development during Germinal period:

a.) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization- the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome unite

b.) 36 hours the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells

c.) 48 hours (2 days) - 2 cells become 4 cells

d.) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells

e.) 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells

f.) 4-5 days- inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus

g.) 6-7 days- blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus

h.) 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall becomes implanted in it (implantation)

1. Germinal Period

➢ the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are formed.

➢ The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo

➢ The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition and
support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics 17th ed. 2004)

02. Embryonic Period

➢ 2-8 weeks after conception

➢ the name of the mass cells, zygote, become embryo.

➢ The following developments take place:

a.) cell differentiation intensifies

b.) life-support systems for the embryo develop and

c.) organs appear

➢ As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed

➢ The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and respiratory systems

➢ The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts - the ectoderm and the mesoderm

➢ The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and
skin parts (nails, hair)
➢ The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive
systems.

➢ This process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development is called organogenesis

➢ As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo to develop rapidly:

- placenta- is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the
mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join

- Umbilical cord - contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta

- Amnio- is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats; All these embryo
life-support systems develop from the fertilized egg and not from the mother's body

03. Fetal period

➢ 2 months to 7 months after conception

➢ Growth and development continue dramatically during this period

a.) 3 months after conception- fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce

- fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head

- the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and
lower limbs

- the genitals can now be identified as male or female

b.) 4 months after conception- the fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces

- growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts

- prenatal reflexes are stronger

- mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time

c) 5 months after conception- the fetus is about 12 inches long

- weighs close to a pound

- structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed

- the fetus is more active

d.) 6 months after conception- the fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half pounds

- eyes and eyelids are completely formed

- a fine layer of head covers the head

- grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur

e.) 7 months after conception- fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f.) 8 and 9 months after conception- fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

-Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects

-Teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word "tera" which means "monster"

➢ Defects

- both parents give recessive gene for the abnormality; also if dominant parent’s DNA has it ○ A birth defect is a
problem that occurs when a baby is developing in utero (in the womb)

- can be minor or severe; may affect appearance, organ function, and physical and mental development

Hazards to prenatal development

1.) Prescription and non-prescription drugs

➢ Antibiotic is an example of a prescription drug that can be harmful

➢ Examples of harmful non-prescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee

➢ Cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with:

- reduced birth weight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002)

- impaired motor development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002)

- impaired-information processing (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002)

- poor attention skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002)

2.) Psychoactive drugs

➢ These include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin

➢ Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm
deliveries and newborns with lower birth weight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee
(Eskanazi et. al, 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

➢ is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy

➢ It includes facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002)

➢ Most of these children are below average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess,
1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002)

3.) Environmental hazards

➢ These include radiation in jobsitesand X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to
heat in saunas and bath tubs

➢ Radiation from X-rays also can affect the developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first
several weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002)

➢ early exposure to lead affects children's mental development. (Markowitz, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002)

➢ Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raise the mothers' body temperature creating fever
that endangers the fetus

➢ The high temperature due to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even fetal death
if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002)

4.) Other maternal factors

➢ Rubella (German measles)

- in 1964-65, it resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neonatal (newborn) deaths

- more than 20,000 affected infants who were born with malformations, including mental retardation, blindness,
deafness and heart problems (Santrock, 2002)

➢ Syphilis

- damages organs after they have formed

- eye lesions, which can cause blindness, and skin lesions

- When syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract can
develop

➢ Stress

- Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and reduced birth weight.

- Other studies have shown that increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.

- It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result in inadequate growth in the fetus

Folic acid

➢ is necessary for pregnant mothers.

➢ can reduce the risk of having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the 'neural tube'.

➢ A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed
nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation.
Chromosomal abnormalities

➢ Chromosomes are coils of DNA that contain segments called genes (units of heredity)

➢ 23 pairs of chromosomes from each parent; Each sex cell (23rd pair) ends up with 23 chromosomes (meiosis)
➢ As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities increase.

➢ The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.

Down syndrome

➢ A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches
30.

➢ By age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost I in 10. The risk is also higher before age
18. (Santrock, 2002)

5.) Paternal factors

➢ Fathers' exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that
lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer.

➢ As in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for certain defects. (Santrock,
2002)

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PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS & TODDLERS UNIT

Cephalocaudal pattern

➢ It is the postnatal growth from conception to five months when the head grows more than the body.

➢ This cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus. Also applies in the first months
after birth.

Cephalocaudal trend

➢ Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs.

➢ The same pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the head are the eyes in the brain.

➢ Grow faster than the lower parts, such as the jaw.

Proximodistal trend

➢ It is the prenatal growth from five months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards.

➢ When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the
center of the body outward.

Height and Weight

➢ It's normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10% of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth.

➢ That is due to the baby's adjustment to neonatal feeding.

➢ Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow up rapidly.

➢ Breast fed babies are typically heavier than bottle fed babies through the six months.
➢ After six months, breast fed babies usually weigh less than bottle fed babies.

➢ In general, an infant's length increases by about 30% in the first five months.

➢ A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year, but slows down in the second year of life.

➢ Low percentages are not a cause of alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady development.

Brain development

Myelination or Myelinization

➢ the process by which the accents are covered and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues
after birth.

➢ increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

Brain development

➢ At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25% of its adult weight. By the 2nd birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult
weight.

➢ Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produce trillions. More connections between neurons than it can possibly use.

➢ The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002)

➢ Enriching the lives of infants who live in impoverished environments can produce positive changes in their
development. (Santrock 2002).

➢ Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in the depressed environment (Cirhetti, 2001, cited
by Santrock 2002)

Motor development

- means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her
surroundings.

- In this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor
skills.

Reflexes

- A reflex is an involuntary or automatic action that your body does in response to something — without you even
having to think about it.

- The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course, automatic, and serve a survival mechanism before they
have the opportunity to learn.

- Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby grows in matures.

The Most Common Reflexes

1. Sucking reflex
- the sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant's mouth

- Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch onto a bottle or breast.

- The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.

2. Rooting reflex

- The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant's cheek is stroked.

- The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding.

3. Grasping reflex

- Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm.

- The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their grip.

4. Curling/Babinski reflex

- When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant responds by curling his or her toes.

- When the outer sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

5. Startle/Moro reflex

- infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads
back.

- Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back in their bodies.

6. Galant reflex

- The gallant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord.

- The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side, which is being stroked.

7. Tonic Neck reflex

- The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens.

- Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.

Gross motor skills

- Dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to browse things off the
cabinet, to chase the ball and walk away from parents.

Motor Skills Development (Gross Motor Skills) 0-6 months

- Holds head steadily

- Moves arms and legs equally to reach the dangling object

- Rolls over
- Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs

- Sits with support

- Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this

Motor Skills Development (Gross Motor Skills) 7 - 12 months

- Sits alone steadily without support

- Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around

- Stands without support

- Stands from a sitting position without any help

- Stands from a standing position with ease

- Bends over easily without falling

- Stands from a bent position without falling

- Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruises)

- Walks with one handheld

Motor Skills Development (Gross Motor Skills) 13 - 18 months

- Walks without support

- Walks backward

- Walks up the stairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step

- Walks down the stairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step

- Jumps in place

- Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g., bed, adult chair or bench, etc.)

- Kicks a ball but with little control of direction

- Throws a ball but with little control of direction

- Throws a ball but with little control of speed

- Runs without tripping or falling

- Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without assistance

- Moves with music when he hears it

- Can move the body to imitate familiar animals

- Can move the body to imitate another person/ TV character

Motor Skills Development (Gross Motor Skills) 19 - 24 months

- Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help

- Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help

- Kicks a ball with control of direction

- Throws a ball with control of direction

- Throws a ball with control of speed

Fine motor skills

- Fine motor skills are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb.

- The development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.

- The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involves activities that involve precise eye-hand coordination.

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS) 0-6 months

- Hands open most of the time

- Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy

- Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects

- Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface

- Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS) 7-12 months

- Pulls toys by the string

- Bangs 2 large blocks together

- Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers

- Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand

- Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preferences established)

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS) 13 - 18 months

- Puts small objects in/out of the container

- Unscrews lids

- Unwraps candy/food

- Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped around the pencil)

- Scribbles spontaneously
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS) 19-24 months

- Colors with strokes going out of the lines

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Infants & Toddlers

Can newborns see?

01- Newborn's vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult visions.

02- By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the 1st birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult
(Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002).

03- Infants look at different things for different lengths of time

04- In an experiment conducted by Robert Frantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants
preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles, rather than a color or brightness

05- Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception has an innate basis (Santrock, 2002)

06- Among the first few things that babies will learn to recognize is their mother's face, as mother feeds and nurses
them

Can newborns hear?

01- The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby

02- When in the womb, the baby hears his or her mother's heart beat, the grumbling of his or her stomach, the
mother's voice and music

03- Infant’s sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adults, which means that the stimulus must be
louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult

Can newborns differentiate odors?

01- In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane Books (1975) “young infants who are breastfed showed a clear
preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when they were six days old

Can newborns hear?

03- This preference did not show and the babies were only two days old

04- This preference did not show and the babies were only two days old; This shows that it requires several days of
experiments to recognize their mothers breast pad odor

Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

03- They do feel pain; Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than
prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002)

Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

03- Babies respond to touch; a newborn automatically sets an object placed to his or her mouth, or a touch of the
cheeks makes the newborn turn his or her head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find
something to suck

03- They do feel pain; Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than
prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002)

Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?

01- In a study conducted with babies, only two hour old, babies made different facial expressions when they tasted
sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988; Farmer cited by Santrock, 2002)

02- When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near term fetus increased swallowing was observed; This
indicates that sensitivity to taste must be present before birth.

Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, or infants capable of intermodal perception?

01- Intermodal perception is the ability to release, connect and integrate information about two or more sensory
modalities such as vision and hearing

Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, or infants capable of intermodal perception?

02- In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early as 3 1/2 months old, infants
looked more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice

Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, or infants capable of intermodal perception?

03- This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various models gets
sharpened considerably through experience.

-------------------------------------------

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT (PRESCHOOLERS)

"A child reminds us that playtime is an essentíal part of our daily routíne."

- anonymous

Preschooler Years

➢ It is commonly known as "the years before formal schooling begins."

➢ It covers 3-5 years of age.

➢ It lays foundation to later development.

Preschoolers

➢ They love to move.

➢ They enjoy being active.

➢ They are also interested to work with their fingers, like with blocks.

➢ They have a more balanced stance than toddlers.

Physical Development of Preschoolers

01- There are significant changes in the physical growth of preschoolers.

02- The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine motor skills.

03- Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.

04- Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for preschoolers.

05- Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of preschoolers.

06- Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the appropriate adaptations made in
the classroom, materials, and activities.

Significant Changes in Physical Growth

01- At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more
slender appearance of a child.

02- The trunk, arms, and legs become longer.

03- The center of gravity refers to the point at which body weight is evenly distributed.

04 - They have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly button. This gives them more ability to
be stable and balanced than the toddler.

05- They move from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a more steady bearing.

06- They no longer "toddle," that wobbly way that toddlers walk.

07- It is the best time to begin learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating.

08- The permanent teeth which will begin to come out by age six are also developing.

Gross Motor Skills

1. Locomotor skills- are those that involve going from one place to another, like walking, running, climbing, skipping,
hopping, creeping, galloping, and dodging.

2. Non-locomotor skills- are those where the child stays in place, like bending, stretching, turning, and swaying.

3. Manipulative Skills- are those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing,
catching, and dribbling.

Preschoolers

➢ are generally physically active.

➢ Their level of activity is highest around three and becomes a little less as the they get older.
➢ They should be provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use their large muscles.

Fine Motor Skills

01- picking, squeezing, pounding, opening things, holding, and using a writing implement

02- self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, combing, and brushing.

Preschoolers' Artistic Development

This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages
of drawing in early childhood:

Scribbling stage

➢ This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later become circular markings.

➢ Soon, discrete shapes are drawn.

➢ The child may start to name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.

Preschematic stage

➢ Children at this stage tend to give the same names to their drawings several times.

➢ Drawings usually comprise of a prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands, and even facial
features are included.

Schematic stage

➢ More elaborate scenes are depicted.

➢ Children usually draw from experience and exposure.

➢ Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun and sky, and people.

➢ Initially, they may appear floating in the air but eventually, drawings appear to follow a ground line.

Preschoolers

➢ drew the same drawing maybe a hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing.

➢ Drawing affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of the fine motor skills involved.

➢ Their representations or drawings do not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills.

➢ Their drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world around them.

Preschoolers Nutrition and Sleep

● It is important for preschoolers to get a sufficient amount of rest and sleep.

● Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day.

● It is when they are asleep that vital biological processes that affect physical and cognitive development take place.

● During sleep, especially in the dream state (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are released.

● Blood supply to the muscles is likewise increased helping preschoolers regain energy.

● While dreaming, increased brain activity is also attained.

What Preschoolers Can Do: (Physical Skills)

Gross Motor: 36 - 48 months

01- Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot

02- Skips (with alternating feet)

03- Jumps and turns

04- Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds

05- Throws a ball overhead with control of direction

06- Throws a ball overhead with control of speed

07- Kicks a ball with control of speed

Fine Motor: 36 - 48 months

01- Consistently turns pages of a picture or storybook one page at a time

02- looking at pictures with interest

03- Purposefully copies diagonal lines

04- Purposefully bisects a cross

05- Purposefully copies a square

06- Purposefully copies a triangle

07- Cuts with scissors following a line

Fine Motor: 49 - 60 months

01- Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes

02- Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, etc.) without prompts

What Preschoolers Can Do: (Physical Skills)

03- Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms

04- Colors with strokes staying within the lines

Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills) 36 - 48 months

01 Pours from the pitcher without spillage

02- Feeds self-using spoon without spillage

03- Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces

04- Puts on socks independently

49 - 60 months

01- Feeds self-using fingers without spillage

02- Prepares own food

Personal Care and Hygiene (Self-Help Skills)

03- Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying

04- Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement

05- Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told

06- Washes and dries face independently without having to be told

07- Takes a bath independently without having to be told

The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and Development of the Preschooler

Tips: For all preschoolers

- Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking.

- Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and bean bags.

- Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and lines on the classroom floor or playground.

- Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft mats.

- Keen observation and monitoring are, of course, expected to keep them safe from injury.

- Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for bedtime is ideal.

- Model good eating habits to preschoolers.

- Encourage more fruits, vegetables, water, and fresh juices, rather than processed foods, sugary snacks, and sodas.

Tips: For three-year-olds

- Encourage the development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttons or old beads to string on a shoelace.

- Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.
- Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither like a snake, and run like a deer.

- Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking "whať" children are drawing.

- Three-year-olds may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process of drawing.

- Provide a variety of art experiences.

- Make play-dough.

- Create collages from magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint.

- Encourage children to experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yarn.

- Teach children to mix different colors with paint.

Tips: For four-year-olds

- Encourage physical development.

- Play follow the leader.

- Pretend to walk like various animals.

- Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing, leaping, balancing, and running across
stepping stones.

- Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.

Tips: For five-year-olds

- Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing "Follow the Leader" with skipping, galloping, and
hopping.

- Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk dances and games, provide balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted
rope suspended from a sturdy frame.

- Teach sack-walking and "twist-em,” or freeze games to provide an outlet for their drive for physical activity.

- Play games that can teach right and left directions, like “Hokey-Pokey,” “Looby-Loo,” and “Simon Says.”

- Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.

------------------------------------------------------

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

01- Primary school children undergo many different changes as they go physical development.

02- This could be caused by different factors, both natural and environmental.

03- Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady.
04- During this stage, physical development involves:

➢ having good muscle control and coordination

➢ developing eye-hand coordination

➢ having good personal hygiene

➢ being aware of good safety habits

05- In this developmental stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their primary years
Grades 1 to 3.

Primary Schoolers

01- These children are extremely active.

02- Because most of the activities in traditional schools are sedentary, they often release their unusual amount of
energy in some forms of nervous habits including fidgeting, nail-biting, and pencil chewing.

Primary Schoolers

01- Primary-school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical and mental exertions both at home and in
school.

02- Hence, activities should be alternated between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet activities.

Height and Weight

● This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the changes in their bodies.

● An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and girls will introduce them to many
different activities that they can

Height and Weight

● Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year.

● Most children will have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation
and location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to

● A child's legs are longer and more proportioned to the body than they were before.

● A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how such changes in the body will take place:

Factors that indicate how much a child grows

1. Genes

2. Food

3. Climate

4. Exercise
5. Medical Condition

6. Diseases/ Illnesses

Bones and Muscles

01- Childhood years are the peak bone producing years - bones grow longer and broader.

02- This is the best time for parents and teachers to educate children on good dietary and exercise habits to help them
have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives.

03- Replacement of primary teeth, also known as baby teeth, with permanent teeth, occurs around ages 6 to 7 years
and up until age 12, most children will have all their primary teeth replaced.

04- Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially influence the increase of bone mass
during childhood.

05- Because children's bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer minerals than
adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in strengthening bones and muscles.

06- Some may still have difficulty holding a pencil properly or coloring inside the lines.

07- We have to limit writing time, since children may develop a negative attitude towards writing.

08- Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage.

09 - Most activities which use heavy pressure will be very difficult for growing bones, muscles and ligaments.

10- If students are engaging in too much strenuous activities to test their strengths, teachers may suggest or provide
more coordinated physical activities or competition or rotate players during sports or games.

Motor Development

01- Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies. Most children have a good
sense of balance.

02- They like testing their muscle strength and skills.

03- They enjoy doing real-life tasks and activities.

04- They pretend and fantasize less often because they are more in tune with everything that is happening around
them.

05-Children during this stage love to move a lot they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance.

06- They can manage zippers and buttons.

07- Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can ow perform activities like catching a ball with one
hand and tying their shoelaces.

08- Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi manual (requiring the use of two hands) activities
becomes easier.

09- Children's graphic activities, such as writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still developing.
10- They can print their names and simple designs, letters, and shapes.

11- They hold pencils, crayons, correctly with supervision.

12- Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility, and power.

Definitions of the different motor skills

Coordination ➢ is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a particular
result (Stickland, 2000).

➢ The more complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.

➢ Children develop eye-hand and eye foot coordination when they play games and sports.

Balance ➢ is the child's ability to maintain equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions.

➢ is a basic skill needed especially in this stage when children are very active.

Static balance ➢ is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one foot.

Dynamic balance ➢ is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006).

Speed ➢ is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time

Agility ➢ is one's ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.

Power ➢ is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.

All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games, and sports. The development of these skills may
spell the difference between success and failure in future endeavours of the child.

Our Mission and Vision

-Large-scale body movements are key in this stage

-Most of the time, boys develop motor skills slightly faster than girls except for skills involving balance and precise
movements.

Fine Motor Skills

- Zip zippers and lace shoes

- Able to learn piano or violin

- Control pencil with the finger and thumb. The movement comes from the elbow.

- Write and draw with more control, but writing looks choppy and uneven. Letters are getting smaller. Uppercase
letters are somewhat mastered, but lowercase letters continue to be challenging through grade, especially letters with
slants and curves.

Gross Motor Skills

- Hop
- Skip on alternating feet

- Jump rope

- Walk on a balance beam

- Throwing, catching, and kicking become smoother

- Begin to participate in organized games (e.g. hopscotch) and ports (e.g. basketball)

- Skate, ski, bike, and other specialized skills with training

Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

01. Obesity- This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers, since it seems it's becoming a
trend. According to the World Health Organization Western Pacific Region, "... the Philippines is not spared from this
scenario, and the results of national nutrition surveys are showing slow but increasing childhood overweight and
obesity rates.

- Prevalence of overweight among children 5 - 10 years old has risen from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1% in 2013."

Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related consequences.

- Evidence also shows that overweight and obese children are likely to stay obese well into their adulthood and are
more prone to develop non-communicable diseases like diabetes and some cardiovascular diseases at a much younger
age.

02. Childhood Nutrition- Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This has been proven to have
serious effect on the physical and mental development of children. For most Filipino children, poverty is the chief
reason why they do not get the nutrients and energy required for their age.

- School-age children's diet should include a good supply of vitamins, minerals and protein found in most fruits and
vegetables to combat the trend of eating out and eating too much which puts children at risk of increased consumption
of soft drinks, sugary and salty snacks like crackers and chips.

03. Sleep- Primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day (including daytime naps). Sometimes, due
to their schedule in school, midday naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because of this, children may need to go to
bed earlier rather than nap.

- Children's increased sports affiliation, extra-curricular activities, TV, internet, computers and sometimes, intake of
caffeinated products could result to difficulty in falling asleep, disruptions in their sleep and sometimes even
nightmares.

- Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioural problems such as hyperactivity and cognitive
problems which may impact their ability to concentrate in school.

Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically healthy is to:

01- provide them with good nutrition

02- involve them in coordinated and age-appropriate physical activities.

Health-care providers, teachers and parents must do the following:

01. Encourage children to join or enroll them in related programs during summer or their free time, if children show
interest in a particular activity or sport.

02. Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by providing healthier options and accessible
healthier products.

03. Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in designing classroom activities.

04. Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promote motor skills but also improves strength and
endurance, builds healthy bones and muscles, and increases positive emotions.

05. Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine.

06. Make children's bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep computers and TV out of the bedroom.

----------------------------------------------------

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

Introduction

● Physical changes during this stage are fairly unpredictable among children in this age group.

● The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially with their increasing familiarity with
school work and other possible activities provide them with a greater opportunity to develop their motor skill
functioning.

Intermediate schoolers

01- They have more control over their bodies than they have when they were in primary school.

02- They become more active and have greater liberty to choose the hobbies or sports that they want to get involved
in.

03- Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry - they get so busy with their school work,
interacting with their friends, exploring other possible activities, but this period of physical development seems to take
on a leisurely pace.

04- This may also be the stage when puberty may begin.

05- Puberty is the period in which the body undergoes physical changes and becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

Early Puberty

- On average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity, although these
developments may be determined by how close a child is to puberty.

● Puberty may begin early.

● Budding breasts for girls is the initial sign of puberty.

● Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late as 13.
● Puberty changes start when the brain triggers the production of sex hormones.

● Here are some changes that may happen to both girls and boys during early puberty:

BREAST (BOYS)

- May also have swelling on their chest but tends to go away within a year or two.

BREAST (GIRLS)

● Small lumps from behind the nipple may occur, which sometimes could be painful but eventually, the pain goes away.

● It is normal for one breast to develop more slowly than the other.

GENITALS (BOYS)

● Subtle increase in testicle size

● Penis and scrotum start to grow.

● Semen may be released when he is awake or even during sleep.

GENITALS (GIRLS)

● The vulva starts to increase a bit.

● The vagina gets longer.

● The uterus gets bigger.

HAIR GROWTH (BOYS)

● Hair will start to grow and become thicker.

● New hair will also grow in the armpits and pubic area around the genitals.

● May start developing chest and facial hair.

HAIR GROWTH (GIRLS)

● Hair will start to grow in the armpits and pubic areas.

Height, Weight and Muscle Development

● During late childhood, a child's weight on average may be 2.3 to 3.2 kilograms per year.

● Weight increase was mainly due to the increase in the size of skeletal and muscular systems as well as several organs.

● An average of 2 1/2 inches in height and an average of an inch in head circumference each year

● Children during this stage may experience growth spurts – sudden boosts in height and weight, which are usually
accompanied by an increase in appetite and food intake.

● Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys, and face follow a normal curve of
development for both girls and boys.
● Other structures like the brain, intestines, and other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time, thus,
affecting growth patterns.

● An increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth occurs during adolescence.

● The body fat increase occurs earlier and is greater in quantity.

● Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of height than girls.

● These are all normal parts of development.

● These differences in body composition become more significant during adolescence.

Motor Skills

● During this stage, movements of the muscles and bones become more coordinated.

● At the age of 10 or 11 years, most children will have learned to play sport like swimming, basketball, volleyball, and
running.

● These physical skills become a source of pleasure and a great achievement for the children.

● In activities that use large muscle activities, boys tend to be more nimble than girls.

● Although a significant increase in physical activity may occur in this stage, children in their late childhood are far from
being physically mature.

● They become overwhelmed when sitting or standing too long than when running, jumping, or playing actively.

● This is because they need time to refine their skills so they prefer active rather than passive movements.

● At age 8, children show greater coordination in writing.

● Their fine motor skills develop gradually which may be evidenced by the size of the letters and numbers.

● Font size becomes smaller and is more even. They may even produce good quality crafts or have greater control in
playing instruments like the piano or guitar. In these skills, girls usually surpass the boys.

Insecurities

- At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical appearance.

- Girls especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide to eat less.

- Boys may become aware of their stature and muscle size and strength.

- Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very conscious about their dealings with
these children.

- Appropriate activities must be designed so that children will be guided in the right direction.

- Children must be given opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that: promote healthy growth,
give them a feeling of accomplishment, and reduce the risk of certain diseases.

Some points to consider for healthcare providers, teachers, and parents.

● Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical exercises and sports.

● Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able to discover the ones they are
interested in.

● Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to address any insecurities and social concerns.

● Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits, provides them with healthier food choices.

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PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL LEARNERS

- identified the psychological consequences of early and late physical maturation in adolescence. drawn implications of
these physical development concepts to high school teaching-learning, and parenting.

- is a stage of human development that coincides with puberty, ra biological development occurring at the average age
of 11 for girls and 12 for boys.

Adolescence- there are factors, however, which contribute to early puberty and delayed puberty. These factors include
heredity, diet, exercise, and socio-environmental influence.

- Early and late maturation in adolescence accompanies the cognitive and socio-emotional development of adolescents.

- is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes. The period of adolescence begins
with the biological changes of puberty.

The specific ages adolescence period

1. early adolescence characterized by puberty may come at the ages of 11 and 12 01

2. middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16 02

3. late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.

Physical development with puberty marking the major transition manifested by changes in:

1. physical appearance

2. rapid rate of growth (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth spurts

3. resultant feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes 03

4. alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship possibly accompanying puberty.

The specific ages adolescence period

1. early adolescence characterized by puberty may come at the ages of 11 and 12

2. middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16
3. late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20

Physical development with puberty marking the major transition manifested by changes in:

1. physical appearance

2. rapid rate of growth (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth spurts

3. resultant feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes

4. alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescentrelationship possibly accompanying puberty.

Puberty Changes

1. Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body size and weight.

2. hormone flooding during adolescence causes an acceleration known as growth spurts. 02

3. Growth spurts include a change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk length).

4. Spurt in height is ascribed to trunk growth rather than leg growth.

5. In girls, the growth spurts generally begin at age 10 reaching their peak at age 11 and-a-half, while slow continual
growth occurs for several more years.

6. For boys, growth spurts begin at age 12 reaching a peak at age 14, and decline at age 15 and a half, while slow
continual growth continues on for several more years.

5. Among girls, 98% of adult height is generally reached at age 16, while boys do so at age 17. 05

6. Growth in height is conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The muscles also grow in terms of size and strength.

7. Similar growth spurts occur for weight, muscle size, head and face maturation, and the reproductive organs.

8. All muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth of the spurts during adolescence. 08

Factors affecting development

1. The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex.

2. Hormones are powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells.

3. Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the entire process of sexual maturation.

The process sexual maturation

01. secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the base of the brain near the geometric center of
the head

02. Gonads which are the ovaries for the female and the testis for the male are then stimulated by the gonadotropic
hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones

03. this stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of estrogen in the female ovary.

The process sexual maturation (Male)

01. spermarche enlargement of the testis gland that produces sperm in the scrotum, growth of the penis, a male organ
for copulation

02. capacity for the ejaculation of male sperm

03. Voice change. Occurring late in puberty the lowering of the voice caused by enlargement of the larynx and double
lengthening of the vocal cords is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent development.

04. facial hair development or beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair.

The process sexual maturation (Female)

01. estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, the appearance of pubic hair, widening of the hips,
and menarche of first menstruation.

02. The elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of puberty in girls, accompanied by the growth of the
uterus and vagina.

03. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning age 11 until age 13.

04. There are ethnic differences such as African American and European American girls exhibiting secondary sex
activities as early as 8 and 9 years; menarche as early as 11 and 12 years, respectively.

The secular trend

- The secular trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical maturation during this century.

- In the 1800s, girls in industrial societies had their first menstrual period at age 15-17 and age later in repressed
societies.

- Today boys reach their maximum height at age 18-20 and 13-14 for girls, but adult height 100 years ago was at 23-25
for boys and 19-20 for girls.

- The secular trend is ascribed to varied factors, such as the interaction of genetic and environmental influences,
improved health care and living conditions, and control of infectious diseases.

- Better nutrition is a major factor since this provides more protein and calories for human from conception upwards.

- Observably, the secular trend in industrial countries appears to be leveling off while the experience of secular trends is
just starting in peasant economies of the world.

Sexual identity- Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation with sexual fantasies and realities of
incorporating sexuality with one's identity as quoted by Santrock (2005) from one's identity (Christopher, 2001)

- Adolescents are concerned about their body image, sexual attractiveness, how to do sex and the future of their sexual
lives.

- Most adolescents manage to develop a mature sexual identity but a number go through it with much confusion.

How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?

-An adolescent's sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests, and styles of behavior (Bugwell &
Rosenthal, 1996).
- Some adolescents are very anxious about sex and sexually active. Others are only a bit anxious about sex and are
sexually inactive.

Sexual orientation is a person's tendency to be attracted to people of the same sex (homosexual orientation), of the
opposite sex (heterosexual orientation), or of both sexes (bisexual orientation).

- In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is the period when most gays/lesbians and transgenders begin to recognize
and make sense of their feelings.

Troiden’s Model for the Development of Homosexual Identity (1989):

01- SENSITIZATION

Occurs before puberty, feels different for some reasons from peers; Results to making adjustments and view self in an
atypical manner

● marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions;

● If the individual is unable to maintain or reclaim a congruent identity at thi stage, movement to next stage occurs

● Feelings of differentness are usually associated with “gender” rather than “sex” at this age.

● Children usually experience teasing or negative labeling for cross-gender traits (“sissies” or “tomboys”, etc.)

02- IDENTITY CONFUSION

● In adolescence, as individuals begin to label some behaviors as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual

● Feelings of differentness becoming more associated with sexuality

● when the youth is overwhelmed with feelings of inner turmoil regarding sexual orientation

● Results to stagnation as a closeted individual or movement towards acceptance of self

● If individual is unable to maintain or reclaim a congruent identity at this stage, movement to the next stage occurs

● Individuals begin to feel that there maynot be an identity category for them.

● Feelings of sexuality are difficult to accept as they may be dissimilar to those felt by majority of peers.

● Teasing and harassment may continue.

Strategy to cope with confusion may take one or more of four different forms:

● Denial – Simply deny feelings and impulses.

● Avoidance – Staying away situations and people where these feeling may come up.

● Repair – Active work to try and appear Straight to self and others.

● Compartmentalization – Maintaining level that it is only my sexuality.

● Acceptance – Integrate feelings and impulses as being part of the self. This is the most difficult stage.
03- IDENTITY ASSUMPTION

● Occurs in early adulthood; Less feelings of social and personal isolation

● Results to greater integration of the self with sexual identity

● identity assumption when adolescents come out of the family and assume a self-definition as gay, lesbian or bisexual

Need for even more congruence and a feeling of wholeness

● Stability in family and friends is important in this stage as individuals begin to experiment in Being Out.

● Typical problems at this stage are isolation and rejection and abandonment from family/friends

● AIDS has had the effect of delaying identity integration because of the irrational fear associated between AIDS and
being Gay, Lesbian or Bisexual.

● Management of stigma is important at this stage and may be accomplished in one or more of three ways:

● Capitulation – Believes the negative stereotypes, but still claims membership of the community.

● Passing – Selective concealment of one’s identity.

● Alignment – Immersion of the self in the Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual communities.

04- COMMITMENT & INTEGRATION

● Occurs anytime in life after the first three stages have been experienced;

● Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual becoming a way of being rather than only a description of one’s sexual behavior

● Results to intimate love commitment and ability to identity oneself as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual to other individuals

Movement to Next Stage: New situations, people, or stress due to trauma.

● Individuals experience a feeling of greater happiness and self-satisfaction.

● Management of stigma not handled through passing but by greater integration of one’s sexuality with one’s identity.

THESE STAGES ARE CROSSED AND RE-CROSSED MANY TIMES THROUGHOUT ONE’S LIFE.

● Movement, experiences, and age of onset in these stages can differ depending on whether one is Gay, Lesbian, or
Bisexual.

● There is a growing transgender movement that this model does not necessarily encompass.

● This is a continual and cyclical model

How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?

- Coming to terms with a positive LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) identity is usually difficult for a variety
of reasons including family, race, and religious cultures.

- Risks to the homosexual adolescent are real amid a heteronormative environment and LGBTs may suffer ostracism,
hurtful jokes, and even violence.

Self Esteem

- A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescence is self-esteem.

- Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity.

- Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire across all genders and ages to maintain protect and
enhance self-esteem.

- There is no significant drop in self-esteem over the period of adolescence.

- Baseline self-esteem is stable across adolescence, but barometric (unstable) self-esteem may fluctuate rapidly to
cause severe distress and anxiety.

- Girls enjoy self-esteem through supportive relationship with friends or others who can provide social and moral
support.

- In contrast, boys are more prone to assert independence in defining their relationships, deriving self-esteem from
their ability to successfully influence others.

- The lack of romantic competence failure to meet the affection of the opposite sex can be a major contributor to low
self-esteem in adolescent boys.

- In Meier’s (2009) study, the end of a romantic relationship can affect both boys and girls, but girls are twice as likely
to experience depression, while boys are three to four times more likely to commit suicide.

Implications for child care, education, and parenting

- To meet the physical development of adolescent children, parents need to be aware of manifestations of behavioral
patterns that require closer communication, guidance, and support.

- The teen is especially addicted to modern gadgets for music listening, video games, mobile phone communication,
and social media posting.

- These activities cause shorter sleeping time that may contribute to increased levels of daytime drowsiness, sleeping
problems and depression.

- In school, teachers need to be aware of the possible drop in self-esteem among adolescent learners.

- The teacher's support is crucial to protect adolescent learners against severe distress and anxiety over their school
work and social relationships.

Adolescents and Nutrition

01- It is necessary for adolescents to have sufficient amounts of Vitamins: B12, calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin, and
Vitamin D
02- The vegetarian fad can be disastrous to adolescents who need vitamins, minerals, and protein which purely
vegetable diets cannot provide.

Body image and the adolescent

03- Consciousness about body image is strong during the adolescent period.

04- It is important that adolescents feel confident about how they look, but the physical features of the human body
(facial looks, body size, the color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage which must be respected.

Good habits

➢ cleanliness and grooming

➢ proper wearing of clothes according to current styles

➢ erect body posture

➢ eye contact while communicating, and

➢ decorum (good form and confidence) and decency