Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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(1.1)
Trong : m: Khi lng ca kh, g M: Khi lng mol ca kh, g T: Nhit tuyt i, K ( T = tC +273) R: Hng s kh l tng, ty theo n v ca P v V m c ga tr khc nhau:
Nu trong bnh c mt hn hp kh th mi kh gy nn mt p sut gi l p sut ring phn ca kh v c k hiu l Pi .Tng tt c cc p sut ring phn bng p sut chung P ca hn hp.Nu gi V l th tch chung ca hn hp kh (bng dung tch bnh ng th phng trnh kh kh l tng c dng:
1.1.2 H v mi trng
H: H l i tng cn nghin cu cc tnh cht nhit ng hc. i km vi khi nim h l khi nim mi trng xung quanh, l ton b phn cn li ca v tr bao quanh h. H c phn cch vi mi trng xung quanh bng mt mt thc hay tng tng. C 4 loi h
H c lp l h khng trao i cht v nng lng vi mi trng. H m l h trao i cht v nng lng vi mi trng. H kn l h ch trao i nng lng vi mi trng. H khng trao i nhit vi mi trng c gi l h on nhit.
Thng s trng thi dung l nhng thng s trng thi t l vi lng cht,
PV l mt hm trng thi, n khng ph thuc vo cch bin i t trng thi 1 sang trng thi 2.
Nh th ni nng (U) ca h l mt i lng dung , gi tr ca n ch ph thuc vo trng thi vt l m khng ph thuc vo cch chuyn cht ti trng thi . N l mt hm trng thi. Ni nng ca h ph thuc vo bn cht, lng ca n, p sut, nhit , th tch v thnh phn. i vi kh l tng ni nng ca h ch ph thuc vo nhit .
i vi mt bin i hu hn:
Qv l nhit ng tch, gi tr ca n ch ph thuc vo trng thi u v cui ca h. 1.2.3.2Nhit ng p (P = const) Xt h kn, thc hin c T, P =const, h ch sinh cng c hc:
V d: Cacbon tn ti hai dng th hnh l graphit v kim cng. 298K v di p sut 101,325 kPa, graphit l bin i th hnh bn nht do trng thi chun 298K ca cacbon l graphit.
Nu phn ng c thc hin P = const th nhit phn ng c gi l nhit
phn ng ng p Qp = H.
Nu phn ng c c thc hin V = const th nhit phn ng c gi
= Qp >0 hoc U = Qv > 0. V d phn ng nung vi, .... Quan h gia nhit ng tch v nhit ng p:
1.4.2 Cc h qu
H qu 1: Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng thun bng hiu ng nhit ca phn ng nghch nhng ngc du. 8
H qu 2: Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nhit sinh ca cc cht cui tr i tng nhit sinh ca cc cht u.
T nh ngha ny suy ra: Nhit sinh ca mt n cht bn vng iu kin chun bng khng:
H qu 3: Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nhit chy ca cc cht u tr i tng nhit chy ca cc cht cui.
1.4.3 Cc ng dng
nh lut Hess v cc h qu ca n c mt ng dng rt ln trong ho hc, n cho php tnh hiu ng nhit ca nhiu phn ng trong thc t khng th o c.
V d 1: Khng th o c nhit ca phn ng Cgr + 1/2O2(k) = CO(k) v khi t chy Cgr ngoi CO (k) ra cn to thnh CO2(k) nhng nhit ca cc phn ng sau y o c:
Trng thi u (Cgr + O2) v trng thi cui (CO2(k)) ca c hai cch bin i l nh nhau, do theo nh lut Hess:
xc nh nng lng mng li tinh th NaCl ta dng chu trnh nhit ng Born Haber:
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Hcf l nhit lng trao i vi mi trng khi 1 mol cht chuyn pha. P = const, khi mt cht nguyn cht chuyn pha th trong sut qu trnh chuyn pha, nhit khng thay i.
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Chng 2 NGUYN L TH HAI NHIT NG HC, CHIU V GII HN T DIN BIN CA QU TRNH
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2.1
M U
Trong t nhin, cc qu trnh l hc v ho hc xy ra theo chiu hon ton xc nh. Nhit t truyn t vt nng sang vt lnh hn. Kh t truyn t ni c p sut cao n ni c p sut thp. Cc phn ng ho hc t xy ra, v d: Zn + HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2 Cn cc qu trnh ngc li th khng t xy ra c. Nguyn l th nht cho php tnh nhit ca cc phn ng nhng khng cho php tin on chiu v gii hn ca qu trnh. Nguyn l th hai cho php gii quyt cc vn ny.
2.2.1
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Tng qut
xc nh Sbtn, trc ht hnh dung mt qu trnh thun nghch c cng trng thi u v trng thi cui vi qu trnh bt thun nghch, sau tnh S theo cng thc:
2.2.2
2.2.3
ngha hm entropy
Entropy l thc hn n ca h Xt 1 h c lp T = const, h gm 2 bnh c th tch bng nhau, ng 2 kh l tng A v B c pA = pB u thp. Hai bnh c ni vi nhau bng mt dy dn c kho K. M K--> 2 kh khuch tn vo nhau cho n khi c s phn b ng u trong ton b th tch ca 2 bnh. S khuch tn cc kh l tng vo nhau l qu trnh c T = const (Q = 0) --> S > 0 (S2 > S1) --> hn n ca trng thi cui (hn hp 2 kh) c trng bng S 2 ln hn hn n ca trng thi u ( mi kh 1 bnh ring bit) c trng bng S1. Vy trong h c lp, qu trnh t xy ra theo chiu tng hn n ca h (tng entropi, S > 0). Qu trnh ngc li: Mi kh t tch ra khi hn hp kh tr li trng thi u khng th t xy ra. Kt lun Entropi c trng cho hn n: hn n ca h cng ln th S cng ln. Nu s ht trong h cng ln --> hn n cng ln --> S ln. Lin kt gia cc ht trong h cng yu --> hn n cng ln --> S ln. V d
S l hm trng thi v l i lng dung . ngha thng k ca S Trng thi ca mt tp hp bt k c th c c trng bng 2 cch: Bng gi tr ca cc tnh cht o c: T, P,C, ... --> c gi l cc thng s trng thi v m. Nhng c trng nht thi ca cc phn t to nn h c gi l cc thng s vi m. 16
S thng s trng thi vi m ng vi mt trng thi v m c gi l xc sut nhit ng . Nu s phn t trong h tng th S tng --> tng. Gia S v c quan h vi nhau thng qua h thc Bolzomann. H thc Boltzmann (l c s ca nguyn l th ba). S = kln k: hng s Boltzmann Nhn xt: Trong h c lp, qu trnh t din bin theo chiu tng xc sut nhit ng .
2.2.4
Bin thin entropy ca qu trnh gin n ng nhit kh l tng T = const, dn n n mol kh l tng t V1-->V2
Nu P1 > P2 --> S > 0: qu trnh gin n ny t din bin. ==> Cch pht biu khc ca nguyn l th hai: Cc cht kh c th t chuyn di t ni c p sut cao n ni c p sut thp. Bin thin entropy ca cht nguyn cht theo nhit
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un nng n mol 1 cht nguyn cht t nhit T1 --> T2 vi iu kin trong khong nhit cht ny khng thay i trng thi. Trong iu kin P = const
2.3.1
2.3.2
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Nhn xt: Gi tr S cht nguyn cht lun > 0, tr khi xt cho ion trong dung dch, c th c Sion < 0.
2.3.3
V Skh >> Slng, Srn ==> c th cn c vo s mol kh 2 v ca phn ng nh gi ln cng nh l du ca S ca phn ng.
2.4 HM
CHIU CA QU TRNH
H c lp: S 0 --> tiu chun t din bin v gii hn ca qu trnh.
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H khng c lp: gm h + Mi trng --> a v 1 h c lp mi bng cch gp h v mi trng thnh 1 h c lp. ==> tiu chun t din bin v gii hn ca h mi l: S + Smt 0. Smt cha xc nh nhng c th a v cc thng s ca h bng cch tm 1 hm thay th cho c (S + Smt), hm thay th ny gi l hm th nhit ng. Thng gp h: ng nhit, ng p ==> c hm th ng nhit ng p. ng nhit, ng tch ==> c hm th ng nhit ng tch.
2.4.1
Hm th ng nhit ng p
nh ngha Xt 1 h: T, P = const H thc hin mt bin i no .
ngha vt l ca G
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l phng trnh c bn ca nhit ng hc. Nu qu trnh l thun nghch --> cng l ln nht --> du =.
T v P = const => dT = 0 v dP = 0 c:
2.4.2
Hm th ng nhit ng tch
nh ngha Xt 1 h T, V = const, h thc hin 1 bin i no .
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ngha A
T v V =const => dT = 0 v dV = 0 c:
ngha ca A: Bin thin th ng tch A biu th cng c ch ca qa trnh thun nghch ng nhit ng tch. Tm li tiu chun t din bin v gii hn ca qu trnh l:
Mi lin h gia G v A:
2.4.3
Bin thin th ng p
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=> Qu trnh t din bin theo chiu lm gim G cho ti khi t gi tr Gmin: dG = 0; (G=0) d2G > 0 (G > 0) Th ng p sinh chun ca 1 cht nhit T L s bin thin th ng p ca phn ng to thnh 1 mol cht t cc n cht bn iu kin chun v nhit T ca phn ng.
G < 0: phn ng xy ra theo chiu thun G = 0: qu trnh cn bng G > 0: phn ng xy ra theo chiu nghch
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2.5 CC YU T NH HNG N TH NG P
nh hng ca nhit
Xt h: Ch c bin i thun nghch, khng sinh cng c ch, c P = const.
2.5.1
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2.5.2
nh hng ca p sut
Xt h: Bin i thun nghch, khng sinh cng hu ch, T = const.
i vi cht rn v cht lng --> coi V = const khi P bin i (tr min P ln) nn:
nRT P
2.5.3
ngha vt l ca i
Mt vi tnh cht ca th ho
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=> th ho cng l tiu chun xt chiu v gii hn ca cc qu trnh (phn ng xy ra theo chiu gim th ho).
2.5.4
Mi quan h gia du G v ln H, S v T
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V d
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Chng 3 CN BNG HA HC
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3.1
Khi ly kh NO2 (hoc N2O4) nghin cu --> lun thu c ng thi c kh N2O4 hoc NO2) trong bnh ngay nhit thng do tn ti s chuyn ho gia hai kh trn --> gi phn ng trn l phn ng thun nghch.
Phn ng mt chiu
L phn ng ch xy ra theo mt chiu xc nh. V d: Phn ng phn hu KClO3(xc tc MnO2): KClO3 --> KCl + 3/2O2 c im: Tin hnh ti cng.
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Ti trng thi cn bng thnh phn ca cc ch t khng thay i: cht tham gia phn ng mt i bao nhiu theo phn ng thun th li c sinh ra by nhiu theo phn ng nghch). Trng thi cn bng ch tn ti khi cc iu kin thc hin phn ng (C, t, p) khng i.
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Cc phng trnh (*) (**) v (***) c gi l cc dng khc nhau ca phng trnh ng nhit Vant Hoff
Pi: p sut cc kh trng thi CB. Kp khng c n v. Kp ch ph thuc vo bn cht phn ng v nhit . i vi 1 phn ng xc nh, T = const --> Kp = const --> gi l hng s cn bng ca phn ng. Cc hng s cn bng khc
Ci: nng mol/lit cc cht trng thi cn bng. Kc ph thuc vo bn cht phn ng v nhit . 31
ni: s mol kh i trng thi cn bng. Kn ph thuc vo bn cht cc cht , T v P chung ca h khi cn bng v tng s mol kh ca h khi cn bng.
KN ph thuc vo bn cht cc cht, T v P chung ca h khi cn bng. Mi quan h gia cc hng s cn bng
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Xc nh theo phng php gin tip: Phn tch qu trnh theo 1 chu trnh kn V d 34
thi (P, T, C) ca h --> G 0 => cn bng b ph v, qu trnh s tin hnh theo chiu G < 0 t ti trng thi cn bng mi ng vi cc thng s mi (P, T, C). Xt v mt ng hc, khi phn ng t trng thi cn bng --> vt = vn => v = 0. Khi h t trng thi cn bng, ta thay i 1 trong cc thng s trng thi (P, C, T) => vt vn ==> qu trnh tin hnh theo chiu v > 0 t trng thi cn bng mi ng vi cc thng s mi. ==> gi l s chuyn dch cn bng. nh ngha: S chuyn dch cn bng l s chuyn t trng thi cn bng ny sang trng thi cn bng khc di nh hng ca cc tc ng bn ngoi (P, T, C) ln h.
3.3.2 nh hng ca nhit ti s chuyn dch cn bng. Phng trnh ng p Vant Hoff
Xt phn ng: aA + bB <=> cC + dD P = const
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Khi nhit tng --> Kp tng --> cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu thun (chiu thu nhit). nhit). Nu T gim --> Kp gim ==> cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu nghch (chiu to
Khi nhit tng --> Kp gim --> cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu nghch (chiu thu nhit). Nu T gim --> Kp gim ==> cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu thun (chiu to nhit). Nhn xt: Kt qu ca s chuyn dch cn bng l chng li s thay i bn ngoi: Khi nhit tng th cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu lm gim nhit ca h l chiu thu nhit c HT > 0. Khi nhit gim th cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu lm tng nhit ca h l chiu to nhit c HT < 0. T phng trnh Vant Hoff suy ra:
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V Kp khng ph thuc vo P --> thay i P th Kp = const nn: Nu n > 0: khi tng P --> KN gim ( gi Kp = const) => chuyn dch cn bng theo chiu nghch (lm gim s mol kh) v ngc li. Nu n < 0: khi tng P --> KN tng ( gi Kp = const) => chuyn dch cn bng theo chiu thun (lm gim s mol kh) v ngc li khi P gim --> KN gim --> cn bng dch chuyn theo chiu nghch (lm tng s mol kh). Nu n = 0 => P khng nh hng ti s chuyn dch cn bng. Nhn xt: Kt qu ca s chuyn dch cn bng l chng li s thay i bn ngoi: Nu P tng => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu P gim (gim s mol kh < 0). Nu P gim => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu tng P (tng s mol kh n > 0). n
Nu tng CA, CB => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu tng CC, CD ( gi = const) => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu thun lm gim CA, CB.
KC
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Nu gim CA, CB => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu gim CC, CD ( gi = const) => cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu nghch lm tng CA, CB.
KC
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4.1
MT S KHI NIM
Pha
Pha () l phn ng th ca h c thnh phn, tnh cht l hc, tnh cht ho hc ging nhau mi im ca phn ng th v c b mt phn chia vi cc phn khc ca h. Pha ch gm 1 cht gi l pha nguyn cht (pha n) cn pha gm 2 cht tr ln --> gi l pha phc tp. H gm 1 pha --> h ng th. H 2 pha -> h d th. V d: H gm H2O + H2O lng + H2O hi => gm 3 pha: rn, lng, hi. H gm CaCO3(r), CaO(r),CO2(k) --> 3 pha: 2 pha rn + 1 pha kh
Cu t
Cu t l phn hp thnh ca h c th c tch ra khi h v tn ti c bn ngoi h. S cu t trong h k hiu l R V d: dung dch NaCl gm 2 cu t l NaCl v H2O --> R = 2
S cu t c lp K
S cu t c lp (K) l s ti thiu cc cu t xc nh thnh phn ca tt c cc pha trong h. Nu cc cu t khng phn ng vi nhau v nu pha c thnh phn khc nhau th K = R (trong h khng c phng trnh lin h nng cc cu t) V d: dung dch NaCl => R=K=2. Nu cc cu t tng tc vi nhau v nm cn bngvi nhau --> chng khng cn c lp vi nhau na --> K = R-q 39
q: s h thc lin h gia cc nng (q c th l phng trnh hng s cn bng, iu kin u v nng ca cc cu t). V d: H gm 3 cu t HCl, Cl2, H2 u l cc cht kh c tng tc, nm cn bng vi nhau: 2HCl(k) <=> H2(k) + Cl2(k).
=> bit c nng ca 2 cu t s bit c nng ca cu t cn li. Vy h c: R = 3, q = 1, ==> K = R-q = 2 Nu gi thit ban u h ch c HCl (hoc cho t l mol H2:Cl2 ban u) => q = 2 => K=1.
Bc t do ca h C
Bc t do ca h (C) l s ti thiu cc thng s trng thi cng (P, T, C) xc nh trng thi cn bng ca 1 h (l s thng s trng thi cng c th thay i 1cch c lp m khng lm bin aei s pha ca h). V d: H2O(l) <=> H2O(k) ==> cn bng c 2 pha ==> C = 1 v + C th thay i 1 trong 2 thng s P hoc T m khng lm thay i s pha ca h. + Hoc: mt nhit xc nh th P hi H2O nm cn bng vi H2O lng l xc nh, tc l ch cn bit 1 trong 2 thng s T hoc P th xc nh c trng thi cn bng ca h.
Cn bng pha
Cn bng trong cc h d th, cc cu t khng phn ng ho hc vi nhau nhng xy ra cc qu trnh bin aei pha ca cc cu t => cn bng pha.
4.2
=> Mi cu t c ( -1) phng trnh lin h ==> R cu t c c R( -1) phng trnh lin h gia cc thng s. Nu c thm q phng trnh lin h nng cc cu t, v d: khi c phn ng ho hc gia cc cu t th s phng trnh lin h cc thng s trng thi cng ca h l: R( -1) + q Bc t do ca h = Cc thng s trng thi s phng trnh lin h gia cc thng s. 41
Nhn xt + Khi K tng => C tng, tng v C gim. + Bc t do C 0 => K + 2 + Nu trong iu kin ng nhit hoc ng p th: C =K - + 1 (Nu phng trnh c n = 0 => P khng nh hng ti phn ng --> dng phng trnh ny). + Nu h va ng nhit va ng p th C = K- V d 1: Xt h 1 cu t (R = K = 1), v d nc nguyn cht. - Nu trng thi hi => = 1 => C = K- +2 = 1-1+2 = 2 => trng thi ca hi nc c xc nh bi 2 thng s trng thi cng l T v P. - Nu hi nc nm cn bng vi nc lng th = 2 => C = 1-2+2 = 1 => trng thi ca h gm H2O lng v hi c xc nh bi 1 trong 2 thng s l T hoc P (v 1 nhit xc nh th P ca hi nc l xc nh) V d 2: Xt h gm: Mg(OH)2(r) <=> MgO(r) + H2O(k) =2 pha rn + 1 pha kh = 3 pha C = R-q+2 = 3-1-3+2 = 1 => c php thay i 1 trong 2 thng s l T hoc P m khng lm thay i s pha ca h hoc trng thi cn bng c xc nh bng 1 trong 2 thng s T hoc
PH 2O ( h ) .
4.3
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=> C= K- +2 =1-2+2 =1 (R = K-1) trng thi cn bng gia hai pha c c trng bi hoc T hoc P, tc l nu 1 trong 2 thng s trng thi l P hoc T bin i th thng s kia phi bin i theo: p = f(T) hoc T = f(P). C th l: - P = const => cht nguyn cht nng chy, si hoc chuyn trng thi tinh th 1 nhit nht nh, c gi l nhit chuyn pha Tcf, nhit ny khng b bin i trong sut qu trnh chuyn pha. Khi p sut thay i => Tcf thay i theo. V d: P = 1atm, nc nguyn cht ng c 0C v si 100C P = 2atm, nc nguyn cht ng c 0,0076C v si 120C - T = const, hi nm cn bng vi lng v rn c P nht nh gi l P hi bo ho (hi c goi l hi bo ho). Cc ng cong biu th s ph thuc ca Phi bo ho ca pha rn vo nhit , ca pha lng vo nhit v nhit nng chy vo P ct nhau ti 1 im gi l im ba, im ba ny ba pha rn lng hi (R, L, H) nm cn bng vi nhau:
Khi C=1-3+2 =0 => v tr im ba khng ph thuc vo T v P m ch ph thuc vo bn cht cht nghin cu.
4.3.2 nh hng ca p sut n nhit nng chy, si v chuyn dng tinh th ca cht nguyn cht
V h 1 cu t nn th ha ng nht vi th ng p mol (Gi = i ). Khi T, P khng i iu kin cn bng gia hai pha v l:
V h c C = 1 nn nu mt thng s bin i, v d p sut bin i mt lng dP th mun hai pha tn ti cn bng, nhit cng phi bin i mt lng dT. Khi th ng p mol phi bin i:
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5.1
H PHN TN
nh ngha
L h gm 2 hay nhiu cht trong cht ny c phn b trong cht kia di dng nhng ht rt nh. - Cht phn b c gi l cht phn tn, cht kia l mi trng phn tn. Cht phn tn v mi trng phn tn c th 1 trong 3 trng thi: rn, lng hay hi. V d: ng tan trong nc => ng l cht phn tn, H2O l mi trng phn tn - Da vo kch thc ca ht phn tn, chia lm 3 h phn tn: H phn tn th Kch thc ht t 10-7-10-4 m - c im: Khng bn,cht phn tn d tch ra khi mi trng phn tn. - C 2 dng: + Huyn ph: cht phn tn l rn, pha phn tn l lng. V d: nc ph sa. + Nh tng: cht phn tn l lng, mi trng phn tn cng l lng. V d: sa c ln nhng ht m l lng. Dung dch keo
Kch thc ht t 10-7 10-9 m c im: tng i bn.
Dung dch thc (dung dch) Kch thc ht 10-10 m (bng kch thc phn t hoc ion), trong cht phn tn v mi trng phn tn c phn b vo nhau di dng phn t hoc ion, gia chng khng cn b mt phn chia, to thnh 1 khi ng th gi l dung dch thc. Cht phn tn c gi l cht tan, mi trng phn tn c gi l dung mi. 46
c im: H ny rt bn.
Cc loi nng
5.2
NG LNG
Trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc cht tc dng va vi nhau theo nhng s phn khi lng tng ng gi l ng lng. Chn ng lng ca H lm n v H=1
nh ngha ng lng
- ng lng ca mt cht hoc ca 1 nguyn t l phn khi lng ca cht hoc nguyn t tc dng va vi 1 ng lng ca H. V khng phi mi cht u phn ng vi H => nh ngha c m rng nh sau: ng lng ca 1 nguyn t hay 1 hp cht l s phn khi lng ca n tc dng va vi 1 ng lng ca 1 cht bt k.
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Vi nguyn t c nhiu ho tr khc nhau s c nhiu ng lng v ng lng ca chng gn vi 1 phn ng c th m chng tham gia. ng lng ca hp cht
nh lut ng lng
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5.3
HA TAN
Qu trnh ha tan. Nhit ha tan ca mt cht
Qu trnh ho tan (khng phi l qu trnh trn ln) gm qu trnh: + Qu trnh phn tn cht tan (di dng nguyn t, phn t, ion) vo trong khp th tch dung mi. +Qu trnh tng tc gia cc phn t ca dung mi vi cc phn t ca cht tan => to thnh dung dch (hp cht ho hc) Hp cht ho hc to thnh gi l hp cht sonvat, nu dung mi l nc th gi l hp cht hydrat. => Qu trnh ho tan c s ph v lin kt cng loi to lin kt khc loi v c th biu din bng s :
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5.4
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nh lut Rault I
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6.1
Cht in ly mnh
Cht in ly yu
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6.1.4 Tnh cht bt thng ca dung dch cht in ly so vi dung dch cht khng in ly
6.2
IN LY
6.2.1 nh ngha
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6.3
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6.4
60
Hng s in ly ca baz Kb
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6.4.5 Ch s hydro pH
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6.5
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Chng 7 NG HA HC
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7.1
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Cc yu t nh hng ln vn tc
7.2
Phn b Boltzman
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7.3 NH HNG CA NNG CC CHT THAM GIA PHN NG N VN TC V NH LUT TC DNG KHI LNG
nh lut tc dng khi lng
Bc phn ng
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c im xc tc
Gii thch c ch ca xc tc
i vi xc tc ng th
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i vi xc tc d th
Phn ng bc mt
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Cc phn ng bc hai
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Chng 8 CC QU TRNH IN HA
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8.1
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Hot ng
8.2
CC LOI IN CC
in cc kim loi
81
in cc kh
82
8.3
SUT IN NG CA PIN
nh ngha
83
8.4
TH IN CC (TH KH)
Cp oxy ha kh
Th kh
84
85
Cc yu t nh hng n th in cc
86
8.5 CHIU V TRNG THI CN BNG CA PHN NG OXY HA KH XY RA TRONG DUNG DCH NC
Chiu ca phn ng oxy ha kh
87
88
89
S phn cc
S phn cc v nng
S phn cc ha hc
S phn cc in ha
90
Th phn hy
Qu trnh catod
91
Qu trnh anod
92
(1) Ho i cng Nguyn nh Soa Trng i hc Bch Khoa Thnh ph H Ch Minh. (2) Ho V c (Tp 1) Hong Nhm Nh xut bn Gio dc. (3) Ho i cng N. L. Glinca (bn dch) Nh xut bn Gio dc.
93