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There are several types of phylogenetic trees, including cladograms, phylograms,
rooted trees, unrooted trees, and chronograms.
Cladograms - A type of phylogenetic tree that shows the branching pattern of
evolutionary relationships between organisms
-Cladograms are unscaled, meaning the branch lengths do not represent the amount
of evolutionary divergence
Phylograms -A type of phylogenetic tree that has scaled branches, which represent the
amount of time between generations
Rooted trees -A phylogenetic tree that has a common ancestor at the node
The classification ends at the node, which is the common ancestor of all the branches
Unrooted trees-A phylogenetic tree that illustrates the relatedness of the leaf nodes
without making assumptions about ancestry
-Unrooted trees can be created from rooted trees by removing the root
Chronograms -A dated phylogenetic tree whose branch lengths have been scaled to
represent time
Dendrograms -A branching diagram that shows the evolutionary history between
biological species or other entities
Modern cladistics- is a method of classifying organisms based on their shared
characteristics and evolutionary relationships. It's also known as phylogenetic
systematics.
-Collect data on the organisms' traits, such as their physical characteristics,
behaviors, or genetic sequences
- Group organisms with similar traits together
-Create a branching tree diagram, called a cladogram, to show the relationships
between the organisms
-Use statistics to determine how well the cladogram fits the data
-Evolutionary trees: Reconstruct evolutionary trees to show how organisms are related
-Language history: Create diagrams that show the history of languages
*Limitations
-The accuracy of a cladogram depends on the quality of the data used to create it
Cladistics can be complicated by factors like hybridization and interbreeding
The correct sequence from the most to the least comprehensive, of the taxonomic level
- Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species
The theory of evolution by natural selection is a scientific theory that explains how
organisms change over time. It states that organisms with traits that help them
survive and reproduce are more likely to pass on those traits to the next generation.
The components of the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection are variation,
inheritance, selection, and time. These are also known as the VISTA principles.
-Variation: Organisms within a population have different appearances and behaviors.
-Inheritance: Some traits are passed down from parents to their offspring.
-Selection: Organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely
to pass on those traits to their offspring.
-Time: Over time, the traits that help organisms survive and reproduce become more
common in a population.
Natural selection is the process by which organisms adapt and change over time to
survive and reproduce in their environment. It's also known as "survival of the fittest
-Reproduction:Organisms with beneficial traits are more likely to reproduce and pass
on their traits to the next generation.
-Adaptation:Over time, the population becomes better adapted to its environment,
with more individuals having the traits that help them survive.For example, giraffes
with longer necks are able to reach leaves that other giraffes can't, giving them a
competitive advantage.
The theory of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin and
Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century. Darwin first published his theory in his
book On the Origin of Species in 1859.
Walter G. Rosen- coined the term 'Biodiversity'
Carl Linnaeus- coined the term 'Biodiversity'
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, including all the different species, genes,
and ecosystems. It's also known as biological diversity.
Biodiversity is our strongest natural defense against climate change.
Biodiversity provides many potential uses, including medicines and foods.
Biodiversity is a natural work of art that cannot be recreated once lost.
Biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate.
Around 1 million animal and plant species are threatened with extinction, many
within decades.
Loss of biodiversity threatens every life on earth.
Types of natural selection, including:
Directional selection-Favors one extreme of a trait range, reducing variation in one
extreme and favoring the other. This type of selection is most common when the
environment changes.
Example: A population of birds live on an island where seeds are their primary food
source. Birds with smaller beaks can eat small seeds more easily and birds with larger
beaks can eat large seeds more easily.A fungus destroys the plants that make large
seeds, leaving only the small seeds as food
Disruptive selection-Favors both extreme traits in a population, creating the most
variation. This type of selection can lead to speciation.
Stabilizing selection-Favors the average phenotype, selecting against extreme
variation. This type of selection occurs when environmental conditions remain
constant over long periods.
Sexual selection-Involves the different genders in a species exerting forces on each
other, changing their appearance or traits.
Natural selection is a process that drives evolution and helps explain the diversity of
life on Earth. It occurs when some traits allow an organism to reproduce more than
others.
Artificial selection is the process of humans choosing organisms with certain traits to
reproduce. This process has been used for thousands of years to create domesticated
plants and animals.
-Humans identify desirable traits in plants and animals.
-Humans select which organisms to breed based on those traits.
-Humans establish breeding programs to increase the heritability of the trait in future
generations.
Examples
Crop plants: Corn, broccoli, and other vegetables are the result of artificial selection
[1, 5, wild mustard plant broccoli]
Livestock: Cattle, chickens, horses, sheep, goats, and swine are the result of artificial
selection for docility, ease of training, and manageability
Pets: Dogs are the result of artificial selection for a variety of traits
-Artificial selection allows humans to speed up evolution to meet their needs. For
example, modern corn was created by selecting preferred traits from the wild grass,
teosinte.
-Artificial selection works similarly to natural selection, but with artificial selection,
humans make the decisions, not nature.
46 chromosomes are found in each cell of your body.
Genetic engineering -is the process of altering an organism's DNA to change its traits.
-It's also known as genetic modification.
-Genetic engineering can involve changing a single DNA base, deleting a DNA region,
or adding a new DNA segment.
-It can also involve moving DNA from one organism to another.
-Genetic engineering is faster than traditional breeding, and it can be used to combine
genes from different organisms.
Agriculture- Genetic engineering can be used to create more nutritious, productive,
and environmentally tolerant crops.
Medicine-Genetic engineering has been used to create human insulin, human growth
hormone, and the hepatitis B vaccine.
Research-Genetic engineering can be used to study the function of specific genes.
Genetic engineering has been used to create cancer therapies, brewing yeasts, and
genetically modified livestock.
Ethical considerations-Genetic engineering raises ethical issues in agriculture,
medicine, and reproduction. It also has the potential to impact public health
-GMO stands for genetically modified organism. GMOs are living things that have had
their DNA changed to alter their characteristics.
-"Knock out" GMOs are genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that have had a
specific gene inactivated or removed. This technique is called gene knockout, and it's
used to study the function of genes.
-Gene knockout is a genetic engineering technique that uses a variety of methods to
remove or inactivate a gene.
-The technique damages the gene, making it non-functional.
-The gene is replaced with an artificial piece of DNA or disrupted in some other way.
-Gene knockout is used to study the role of genes that have been sequenced but
whose functions are unknown.
-It's also used to improve crop traits and address food security challenges
Example
Knockout mice: These mice are used to study the role of genes that are related to
human physiology.
Brown-resistant mushrooms: These mushrooms were created by knocking out the
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) gene.
Waxy corn: This corn was created by knocking out the Wx1 gene.
Nicotine-free tobacco: This tobacco was created using CRISPR-Cas9 technology.
*study the ppt in transcribing rna/codon chart/dna nucleic acid
*ppt GMO
*taxonomy
*taxonomy principle
* Mnemonic on the Linnaean System
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