Biodiversity and Evolution

Evolution - large scale transformations in the genetic characteristics of populations of species such as
transformations that are passed from one generation to another.

-change of traits which were inherited from an organism's ancestor.

-gradual change in a population's genetic and physical traits.

-change in species over time.

Evolution of Life - genetic change in a population from generation to another.

Biodiversity - or the genetic variation in species, is the result of processes of evolution.

Scientist's and their Theories

1. Anaximander - "all emerged from a shapeless, indeterminate matter called apeiron."

Apeiron - covered with ocean water that contained slimes from which plants and animals originate.

2. Xenophanes - studied the fossils of fish and shells.

-concluded that the world formed out of the condensation of water and a "primordial mud" from which
life came.

3. Empedocles - postulated that the life on earth came from the interplay of the four major forces: fire,
earth, water, and air.

4. Aristotle - wrote the History of Animals wherein he explained that animals on earth originated from
various elements and an animating forces known as vital heat.

5. Carolus Linnaeus - developed taxonomy.

Taxonomy - classification system for all the identified species.

6. George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon - theorized that the species descended from a common
ancestor, explaining that evolution was not an independent occurrence in organisms.

7. Charles Bonnet - believed that all female species carried miniature forms of life that are able to
withstand any catastrophic events.

-suggested that calamities rendered evolutionary changes in every being.

8. Erasmus, Darwin - theorized that all life originated from a common ancestor which eventually
branched off into various species.

9. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - proposed that all organisms evolved towards perfection and complexity
through adaptation.

-French naturalist, puts forward important theories on evolution in his publication.

-in his research, he proposed that changes in an organism's characteristics happened gradually through a
two part process.

Lamarckism - states that use and disuse of organs leads to acquiring of chance in the features of that
organ and these changes or variations are inherited. Those organs which are constantly used, develop
whereas, unused organs becomes functionless and get degenerated.

Theory of Transformation or Lamarckism - states that physical structure, appearance, and behaviors of
animals evolved in relation to their environmental and external needs.

Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Traits - explains that the traits acquired by species throughout its
lifetime becomes hereditary and are passed down to succeeding generations.

Charles Darwin

-"Father of Evolutionary Biology"

-most prominent English naturalist in the study of biological evolution.

John Steven Henslow - professor of Botany in Cambridge that passed on an offer to Charles Darwin to
travel as a naturalist researcher.

James Hutton - 1795, published his work about the geological forces that shape the earth .

Charles Lyell - wrote a book Entitled Principles of Geology that influenced Darwin.

-explained how geological features were built or destroyed because of geological phenomena such as
volcanic eruption.

Alfred Russel Wallace - wrote an essay and gave it to Darwin in 1858.

Darwinism - states that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small,
inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive and reproduce.

Theory of Natural Selection - process in nature by which organisms better adapted to their environment
tend to survive and reproduce more than those less adapted to their environment.

-process by which organisms with favorable traits suited to an environment have a better chance of
surviving and reproducing.

-changes in evolution is caused by the variations in each generations.

-increased survival of individuals with different combinations of variable characteristics; characteristics will
spread throughout the populations.
-individuals have more opportunities to reproduce and their children will benefit from the inherited
character.

-Charles Darwin's explanation on how evolution happens.

Natural Selection - explains that originating from a common ancestor comes with biological
modifications that preserved characteristics necessary for the survival and adaptation of species.

-explains further that some biological traits in a population of species are more favorable than other traits.

-referred to as "the survival of the fittest".

-mechanism by which populations adapt and evolve.

Five Ideas that Helps us to Understand how Natural Selection Works

1. Overproduction - population increases exponentially, results to a struggle for life.

2. Struggle for Existence - claimed that there was a continual "struggle for existence" in nature; in which
only the fittest would survive.

-happens when resources are in limited supply.

3. Variation

4. Survival of the Fittest - individuals that have characteristics best fitted for struggle will likely survive.

-the fittest pertains to the ability of a species to adapt well to its surroundings, to compete with other
members of a population to reproduce and to sustain themselves and their progeny.

5. Heredity

Vestigial Wings - wings of flies that became small and lost their use.

Artificial Selection - intentional breeding of plants or animals.

-controlled selection of desirable traits for domesticated plants and animals.

Theory of Common Ancestry - explains that all living organisms descended and evolve from common
ancestors.

The Origin of Species - explains that all life forms on earth have common ancestry which later develop
into different kinds of organisms.

Evolutionary Evidences

1. Fossil Records - collected in the layer of sedimentary rocks shows that as you go further down the
layers, the older the kind of fossils you can find.
Fossils - preserved remains or traces of animals and plants that lived in the past.

2. Biochemical Evidences - nitrogen-based sequences of DNA of all organisms that are the same.

3. Comparative Anatomy - study of the structures of organisms from many different species.

-study of the body structure of organisms and their ancestors in order to understand the adaptive
changes that they undergo.

-evidences that some animals have similarities in structure but have differences in function.

4. Comparative Embryology - scientific study of embryos and their development.

5. Homologous Structure - structures with the same origin appearing in organisms of different species
and different functions.

6. Analogous Structure - have similar functions but different underlying structures.

7. Vestigial Structure - structures of animals that has no purpose and function.

Biological Species - all populations of organisms that are potentially capable of interbreeding and are
reproductively isolated from members of other species.

Interbreeding - mating and the production of offspring.

Population - all organisms belonging to the same species occupying a particular area.

Variation - within a population, there might be several different species with different traits.

-defined as "the deviation of structural, functional, or developmental characteristics of an organism from

those standard to the group to which it belongs"

-result from changes that develop new traits.

-exists among individuals of the same species.

-products of basic evolutionary mechanisms.

-provides the raw materials for evolution.

Inherited Characters - expression is controlled by genes.

Genes - factors of heredity

Genetic Recombination - result when offspring expresses a combination of traits of both parents.

Overpopulation of Individual - every living things produces offspring, but only a few can actually
survive.

Breed - product of artificial selections

Genetic Variation - difference in the genetic structure between cells of individual organisms.

Speciation - evolutionary process in which a new species arises from an existing species.

Gene Pool - collections of genes

Mechanisms of Evolution

1. Mutation - changes or damage in an organism's gene that could result in alteration of its body
structure.

Leucism - causes a lack of pigmentation producing a white peacock.

2. Migration - movement of one population of a species into a habitat previously occupied by another
population.

3. Genetic Drift - change in allele frequencies that affects an organism to be eliminated.

4. Gene Flow - transfer of genes from the former population to another population.

-exchange of genes between two populations.

Peacocks - attractive birds with iridescent blue, green, and brown tail feathers.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter

Gases - seems to be weightless, but they are classified as matter, which means they have mass.

-can be compressed to smaller volume resulting in an increase in density.

-can expand to fill its container, unlike solids or liquids; easily compressed or squeezed into a smaller
volume.

-exerts pressure

-diffuses and mix with another to form a homogeneous mixture.

-pressure depends on its temperature.

-assumes the volume and shape of their containers.

-its mass per unit of volume is much less than the density of a liquid or solid.

-most compressible state of matter.

-mixes evenly and completely when confined to the same container.

-have much lower densities than liquids and solids.

Compressibility - measure of how much the volume of matter decreases under pressure.

Kinetic Molecular Theory - describes the behavior of gas at a microscopic level.

-shows a model of moving particles to clarify some properties of matter.

-states that the gas molecules are always in constant motion and tend to collide without loss of overall
kinetic energy.

Five Postulate that Describes the Particles of Gases

1. Particles are in constant straight random motion and will collide against other particles or the
container wall.

2. Collision among particles is elastic.

3. Particle motion is greater at higher temperature.

4. The volume of gas particles is negligible, compared with the total volume of the container.

5. Attractive or repulsive forces occurring between gas particles are negligible and the particles act
independently on one another.
Properties of Gases and their Units of Measurement
1. Volume (V) - space occupied by the gas - Liter (L), Milliliter (ml)

Avogadro's Hypothesis - states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain equal number of molecules.

The Ideal Gas Law - assumes several factors about the molecules of gas.

Effusion - process by which a gas under pressure escapes from one compartment of container to another
by passing through a small opening.

2. Pressure (P) - force exerted by a gas against the wall of the container - Atmosphere (atm), Millimeter of
mercury (mmHg), Pascal (Pa)

Standard Atmospheric Pressure - pressure exerted by a mercury column of exactly 760 mm in height
when the density of mercury is = 13.5951 g/cm cube and the acceleration due to gravity.

3. Temperature (T) - kinetic energy or the motion of the gas particles - Celsius (C), Kelvin (K)

-hotness or coldness of an object.

Temperature of a Gas - measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules.

Standard Temperature - defined as zero degrees Celsius or 273.15 Kelvin.

4. Quantity (n) - amount of gas - Gram (g)